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RIDPATH'S 

History  of  the  World 

BEING  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  ETHNIC  ORIGIN,  PRIMITIVE  ESTATE, 

EARLY  MIGRATIONS,  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  AND  PRESENT 

PROMISE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  FAMILIES  OF  MEN 

TOGETHER  WITH  A  PRELIMINARY  INQUIRY  ON  THE  TIME,  PLACE  AND  MANNER  OF  THE  BEGINNING 


COMPRISING 


THE  evolution  OF  MANKIND 


AND 


THE  STORY  OF  ALL  RACES 


COMPLETE  IN  FOUR  VOLUMES 


By    JOHN    CLARK     RIDPATH,    LL.   D. 

Author  of  a  "Cyclopedia  of  Universal  History."  Etc. 


VOLUME  I 


PROFUSELY  ILLUSTRATED  WITH  COLORED  PLATES,  RACE  MAPS  AND  CHARTS, 
TYPE  PICTURES,  SKETCHES  AND  DIAGRAMS 


CINCINNATI 

The  Jones  Brothers  Publishing  Company 

NEW   YORK 

Merrill  &  Baker 


Copjrigbt  189i 
Copsrigfjt  1895 
CopjiisM  1897 
Copjrialit  1899 
E!)t  3ones  BrotbtrH  putlisfjing  Companj. 
^11  i<s<)t'  rtscrbct. 


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258670 


General  Preface. 


HE  motives,  as  well  as 
the  materials,  of  a 
literary  work  are  de- 
rived from  many 
sources.  The  reasons 
which  the  mind  of  the 
writer  may  give  to 
itself  for  its  activity  and  persistence  in 
a  certain  labor  are  complex  in  the 
extreme,  and  often  difficult  to  discover. 
The  real  origin  of  a  book  is  lost  in  the 
obscurity  of  the  unconscious'  or  half- 
conscious  provinces  of  the  intellect  and 
the  will.  Now  that  the  present  work 
has  been  completed  and  is  ready  for 
delivery  to  the  public,  I  search  for  its 
genesis  with  the  hope  of  making  the 
reasons  of  its  existence  clear,  and  with 
the  desire  to  furnish  a  measure  of  jus- 
tification for  the  enterprise. 

Through  a  period  of  more  than  a 
quadrennium  I  have  been  steadily 
engaged  with  the  composition  of  these 
volumes,  the  plan  of  which  suggested 
itself  to  my  mind,  though  dimly,  fully  a 
score  of  years  before  it  began  to  be 
executed.  In  youth,  and  while  engaged 
in  giving  historical  instruction  in  an 
institution  of  the  higher  learning,  I  dis- 
covered in  myself  a  deep  and  lasting 
interest  in  all  matters  relating  to  the 
origin  and  development  of  the  different 
races  of  mankind.  The  disposition  to 
learn  as  much  as  possible  about  ethnic 
facts  asserted  and  reasserted  itself  in 
the  greater  part  of  my  studies.  Like 
other  inherent  traits,  this  continued  to 
clamor  for  recognition  and  exercise 
until  it  finally  obtained  the  command  of 
the  faculties  in  a  campaign  of  special 


study,  the  results  of  which  are  declared 
in  the  following  pages. 

It  is  possible  that  the  enterprise  which 
has  culminated  in  the  composition  of 
these  volumes  would  never  have  been 
undertaken  had  it  not  been  for  the  prep- 
aration by  the  author  of  another  work 
intimately  connected  in  its  subject- 
matter  with  the  present  treatise.  That 
other  work  was  a  Cyclopedia  of  Universal 
//«/(7;-j',  published  in  1885.  The  theme 
was  such  as  to  suggest,  and  at  length 
demand,  another,  which  is  here  devel- 
oped as  the  complement  of  the  first.  All 
historical  composition  is  calculated  to 
bring  to  the  attention  of  the  writer  sub- 
jects and  trains  of  thought  which  he 
would  doubtless  have  overlooked  in 
other  fields  of  inquiry.  My  own  experi- 
ence in  this  particular  may  possess  a 
general,  as  well  as  a  personal,  interest. 

While  engaged  in  the  preparation  of 
the  work  referred  to,  I  was  led  to  reflect 
much  and  attentively  upon  the  true 
nature  of  history  and  historical  com- 
position. That  which  had  existed 
obscurely  in  the  understanding  hitherto 
became  at  length  more  distinct,  and  I 
began  to  discern  certain  features  of  the 
subject  which,  if  I  mistake  not,  have 
escaped  general  observation.  The  prin- 
cipal of  these  was  a  clear  recognition  of 
what  I  will  call  the  objective  nature  of  the 
great  fact  which  goes  by  the  name  of 
History.  More  and  more  I  came  to  see 
that  history,  as  it  has  been  understood 
and  written  by  men,  is  in  the  nature  ci 
a  product  or  result  of  human  activities. 
If  we  open  the  pages  of  any  standard 
historical  work  and  begin  to  follow  tlir 


VI 


GENERAL  PREFACE. 


narrative,  we  shall  find  it  to  be  an 
account  of  the  objectivities  resulting 
from  the  action  of  the  wills  and  purposes 
of  men.  It  will  be  found  to  be  a  de- 
lineation of  the  things  done  by  niankmd, 
of  the  achievements  of  the  human  race, 
of  the  institutions  founded,  the  resources 
gathered,  the  campaigns  made,  the  cities 
builded,  the  governments  created,  the 
methods  employed,  and  indeed  all  the 
visible  results  and  products  of  the  agency 
and  purposes  of  men  in  their  associated 
life.  The  more  the  inquirer  studies  for- 
mal history  the  more  he  will  discover  its 
resultant  and  objective  character. 

The  fact  that  general  history  is  of  the 
character  here  described  entered  strong- 
ly into  my  convictions.  I  came  to  per- 
ceive that  the  work  in  which  I  was 
engaged  was  of  the  kind  outlined  above. 
It  dealt,  as  it  were,  with  the  residue  of 
man's  activities  on  the  earth.  It  con- 
sidered results.  It  delineated  events.  It 
followed  the  evolution  of  institutions 
and  described  the  tangibilities  of  human 
action  and  achievement.  Ever  and  anon, 
however,  the  inquiry  arose  as  to  the 
agency  by  which  all  this  was  effected. 
The  question  of  the  peoples  and  races  by 
whose  genius  and  spirit  all  the  visible 
facts  of  human  history  are  produced 
haunted  the  inquiry'  more  and  more,  to 
the  extent  even  of  disturbing  my  studies 
and   confusing  my  materials. 

At  first  the  suggestion  of  the  impor- 
tance of  the  actors  in  the  human  drama, 
as  distinguished  from  the  acts,  came 
dimly  and  obscurely  to  view.  After- 
wards it  became  distinct,  persistent,  and 
imperative.  I  found  myself  stationed  be- 
tween the  objective  phenomena  and  the 
subjective  agencies  of  human  story. 
Glancing  in  one  direction,  I  might  see  the 
vast  panorama  of  events,  the  architec- 
tural remains,  the  monuments  of  passing 
ages,  the  relics  of  human  activity,  the 


institutional  forms  of  society,  the  gov- 
ernments and  nationalities  that  have 
paraded  with  so  much  pomp  on  our 
vast  stage  of  action,  and  in  the  other  di- 
rection I  saw  the  races  of  mankind  them- 
selves. The  difference  between  the  one 
class  of  facts  and  the  other  grew  as  dis- 
tinct as  that  which  discriminates  a  statue 
from  the  sculptor,  a  written  scroll  from 
its  writer,  a  city  from  its  builders. 

Already  before  reaching  a  clear  no- 
tion of  this  double  view  of  humaa 
history  I  had  unconsciously,  or  half- 
consciously,  adopted  the  method  of  in- 
corporating with  such  historical  narrative 
as  I  had  produced  certain  ethnic  fea- 
tures. It  had  seemed  to  me  of  impor- 
tance that  references  be  made  to  the  race 
character  and  affinities  of  the  various 
peoples,  to  their  resources,  environing 
conditions,  and  manner  of  life,  as  well  as 
to  the  results  and  products  of  their  ac- 
tivity. I  was  still  following  this  plan  of 
composition  when  the  Cyclopadia  of  Unu 
versa  I  History  was  prepared. 

Whoever  has  given  attention  to  the 
method  of  that  work  may  discover  in  the 
same  the  evidences  of  that  double  view 
of  the  subject  to  which  I  have  just  re- 
ferred. Especially  in  those  parts  relat- 
ing to  the  great  nations  of  antiquity  did 
the  author  depart,  by  a  considerable 
stage,  from  the  prevailing  manner  of 
histor}-,  and  incorporate  a  measure  of 
ethnic  materials  with  the  general  theme. 
With  the  progress  of  the  work  and  the 
expansion  of  the  subject  such  materials 
were  crowded  out;  but  the  conviction 
settled  on  the  writer's  mind  that  the 
whole  story  of  man-life  should  be  writ- 
ten anew  from  the  standpoint  of  eth- 
nography, and  that  if  this  were  faith- 
ftiUy  done  the  result  might  surpass  in 
interest  and  value  any  possible  account 
of  those  objective  facts  and  phenomena 
which  have  gone  by  the  name  of  history. 


GENERAL  PREFACE. 


vu 


Out  of  this  the  suggestion  arose  with 
me  and  became  fixed  as  a  purpose  to  turn 
squarely  about  in  the  inquiry  and  take 
another  view  of  the  history  of  mankind ; 
that  is,  a  view  of  tlie  Jniman  race  itself. 
It  seemed  to  suffice  that  that  kind  of 
narrative  which  relates  to  the  deeds,  in- 
stitutions, governments,  and  tangible 
activities  of  mankind  had  fulfilled  itself 
by  repetition  and  multiplicity.  Some- 
thing else  seemed  to  be  demanded — 
something  which  should  deal,  not  with 
the  temple  of  humanity,  but  with  the 
architect;  not  with  the  dead  facts  and 
residue  of  the  activities  of  men  on  the 
earth,  but  with  the  agents  by  whose  gen- 
ius and  purpose  all  this  has  been  effected ; 
not  with  nationalities  and  powers,  insti- 
tutions, achievements,  wars  and  treaties, 
senates,  revolutions,  but  with  that  living 
power  whereby  all  this  has  been  accom- 
plished— with  humanity  itself. 

Out  of  these  conditions  and  anteced- 
ents the  present  history  of  the  Great 
Races  of  Mankind  has  arisen.  In  the 
preparation  of  the  work  the  author  has 
reversed  his  position  in  the  human  land- 
scape. He  has  ceased  to  look  at  the  ac- 
complishments of  the  human  race,  save 
as  those  accomplishments  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  character  of  the  producing 
force,  and  has  turned  to  the  race  itself. 
He  has  thus  aimed  to  produce  an  etiinic 
history  of  mankind,  dealing  not  w^ith  the 
facts  and  achievements,  but  with  the 
substance  of  man-life  itself. 

It  is  believed  that  the  more  the 
reader  attentively  considers  the  nature 
of  the  subject  the  more  clearly  will  he 
discern  the  essential  verity  of  this  dis- 
tinction between  ethnic  history  and  the 
history  of  facts  and  events.  An  appre- 
hension on  his  part  of  this  difference  is 
necessary  to  his  interest  in  these  volumes 
and  to  his  understanding  of  what  they 
contain.     The  work,  as  tlie  title  implies. 


is  an  account  of  the  ethnic  origin,  the 
primitive  condition,  the  early  migrations, 
the  historical  development,  and  the  pres- 
ent state  and  prospects  of  the  principle 
families  of  men,  together  with  a  prelimi- 
nary inquiry  on  the  time,  the  place, 
and  the  manner  of  the  beginning  of 
man-life  on  the  earth.  It  is  in  no  re- 
spect a  narrative  of  the  deeds  and  ac- 
complishments  of  mankind;  for  that 
would  be  a  repetition  of  the  author's 
previous  essays  in  historical  literature  ; 
the  present  work  is  an  account,  not  of 
events  and  institutions,  but  of  the  hu- 
man race  itself. 

A  second  motive  for  the  production 
of  such  a  work  may  be  mentioned. 
This  is  the  existence  in  our  times  of  a 
widespread  interest  in  everything  relat- 
ing to  ethnological  subjects.  There  has 
never  been  a  time  in  the  past  when  men 
have  been  so  much  concerned  to  know 
themselves  and  the  sources  from  which 
they  have  proceeded.  This  curiosity  is 
a  part  of  the  scientific  spirit  of  the  age. 
The  mind  of  man  is  no  longer  satisfied 
with  vag^e,  traditional,  and  imaginary 
views  respecting  the  race  to  which  he 
belongs  and  the  manner  of  its  evolution. 
The  profound  intellectual  unrest  which 
so  strongly  characterizes  the  closing 
years  of  our  century,  includes  as  one 
of  its  leading  features  a  curiosity  to 
know  as  much  as  possible  about  the 
origin,  development,  and  vicissitudes 
of  the  various  races  of  mankind.  The 
mind  has  wearied  somewhat  ^\'ith  the  con- 
templation of  those  palpable  facts  and 
events  which  have  hitherto  constituted 
the  subject-matter  of  history.  It  turns 
in  quest  of  a  truer  knowledge  of  the  pro- 
found and  vital  phenomena  discussed  in 
ethnic  history;  the  human  race  is  sub- 
stituted as  a  theme  in  place  of  what  the 
race  has  accomplished. 

The   existence  of  this  deep   interest   in 


VIII 


GENERAL  PREFACE, 


the  races  of  men  as  a  subject  of  inquiry 
has  not  been  answered  as  yet  with  any 
adequate  literature.  Hitherto  the  top- 
ics of  ethnology  have  been  handled  in  a 
narrow  and  scholastic  way  quite  remote 
from  public  concern.  Our  books  on  the 
races  of  mankind  have  been  for  the  most 
part  small  and  fragmentary  treatises  em- 
bracing the  results  of  particular  studies 
in  this  field  of  investigation  or  in  that. 
More  recently  the  attempt  has  been 
made  to  present  the  subject  from  a 
broader  and  more  comprehensive  point 
of  view.  In  this  departure  German  eth- 
nograpners  and  historians  have  led  the 
way.  A  like  treatment  of  the  subject 
has  appeared  in  the  literatures  of  other 
peoples.  We  are  now  at  the  beginning 
of  a  vast  and  varied  scholarship  devoted 
to  an  exposition  of  the  human  family, 
and  of  the  various  parts  into  which  our 
race  has  differentiated. 

A  few  words  may  properly  be  added 
respecting  the  illustrative  parts  of  this 
treatise.  It  has  been  the  author's  aim 
and  purpose  to  make  the  illustrations  in 
all  particulars  conform  to  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  work.  Special  pains  have 
been  taken  to  secure  a  perfect  harmony 
between  the  text  and  the  pictorial  em- 
bellishments. The  colored  plates  and 
charts  have  been  drawn  for  the  better 
elucidation  of  those  parts  which  seem 
most  to  require  the  use  of  the  eye  as  an 
auxiliary  to  the  understanding.  Ethnic 
history  is  especially  rich  in  the  sugges- 
tions which  it  offers  for  illustration.  It 
seems  to  call  loudly  for  drawings  and 
type-pictures  and  charts,  to  the  end  of  a 
clearer  and  more  vivid  apprehension  of 
the  subject  under  consideration.  In  the 
work  of  gathering  and  preparing  much 
more    than    two   thousand   illustrations 


with  which  the  following  pages  are 
adorned  the  author  has  had  the  cordial 
cooperation  and  support  of  the  Publish- 
ers, to  whose  liberality  and  good  judg- 
ment he  is  profoundly  indebted. 

We  here  heartily  join  in  the  intellec- 
tual movement  peculiar  to  our  age,  and 
contribute  our  humble  part  to  the  expli- 
cation of  one  of  the  greatest  themes  of 
modern  inquiry.  The  author,  in  this 
day  of  the  deliverance  of  his  work  to 
the  public,  does  not  flatter  himself  that 
he  has  greatly  enlarged  the  boundaries 
of  human  knowledge,. but  claims  rather 
to  have  cleared  somewhat  the  horizon  in 
this  part  and  in  that,  to  have  visited  in 
thought  and  reflection  some  unfrequent- 
ed parts  of  the  temple  of  humanity,  and 
to  have  aided  in  his  limited  sphere  to 
put  the  house  in  order  for  his  suc- 
cessors. 

It  has  been  my  hope  and  ambition  in 
the  present  work  to  cover,  however  im- 
perfectly, the  whole  field  of  the  inquiry, 
and  to  mark  the  limits  of  current  knowl- 
edge respecting  the  races  of  mankind  as 
the  same  are  known  to  i:s  at  the  close  of 
our  splendid  century.  How  far  short  of 
a  perfect  accomplishment  the  writer  has 
come,  how  many  and  serious  are  the  im- 
perfections of  his  work,  he  is  painfully 
aware ;  but  he  presumes,  as  hitherto, 
upon  the  good  will  and  favor  of  the 
public,  to  whom  he  now  delivers  the 
results  of  his  latest  study  in  the  spirit 
and  with  the  trust  of  one  who,  proud  of 
his  age  and  country,  would  fain  contrib- 
ute something  to  the  intellectual  re- 
sources, progress,  and  happiness  of  that 
great  and  glorious  people  with  whom  he 
is  allied  in  race  descent  and  destiny. 

J.  C.  R. 
Greencastle,  1893. 


GREAT  RACES 


OF 


MANKIND 


VOLUME  I 


PRELIMINARY  INQUIRIES 

BOOK  I  — Time  and  Place  of  the  Beginning  BOOK  11  — Manner  of  the  Beginning 

PRIMITIVE   ESTATE  OF  THE   RACES 

BOOK  HI— Primeval  Man  BOOK  IV  —  Distribution  of  the  Species 

THE  EAST  ARYANS 

BOOK  V--The  Iranians  BOOK  Vl- The  Indicans 


Contents  of  Volume  I. 


PAGE 

PREFACE i     .     .  v-viil 

CONTENTS c    .    .     ,    xi-xxvi 

LIST  OF    ILLUSTRATIONS xxvil-xxxvi 

INTRODUCTION xxxvii-xlvi 


fart  gixsi. 
PRELIMINARY   INQUIRIES. 


Book  I.— Time  and  Place  of  the  Beginning. 


Chapter  L — Sources  of  Information. 
The  three  fundamental  questions  of  historical  in- 
quiry.— Eagerness  of  man  to  ascertain  the  facts  of  his 
origin. — True  spirit  in  which  such  an  inquiry  should 
be  approached. — Individual  life  furnishes  a  clue  for 
investigating  the  race-life. — What  may  be  discovered 
in  the  backward  look. — Methods  of  knowing  the 
history  of  the  unconscious  epoch. — Useful  analogies  ; 
the  individual  an  epitome  of  race. — Sources  of  light 
and  information  for  the  present  inquiry. — Cycle  of 
sciences  that  may  be  made  to  testify. — Astronomy 
contributes  important  data  for  history  of  life. — Order 
of  vital  creation  determmable  from  world  history. — 
The  Epoch  of  Life  is  adjusted  to  certain  stages  of 
worldhood. — Geology  indicates  the  order  and  place 
of  vital  phenomena. — The  earth  preserves  the  ves- 
tigia of  vital  phenomena. — Place  of  archaeology,  and 
its  subject-matter. —  Reliquae  humanas ;  nature  of 
the  relics  of  man-life. — Historic  and  prehistoric  ap- 
plications of  archseology. —  The  science  considers 
the  ordo  of  facts  in  the  history  of  life. — Scope  and 
limitations  of  palasontology.— Anthropology  makes 
man  himself  its  subject-matter. — And  divides  with 
archaeology  the  relics  of  mankind. — Two  classes  of 
remains  of  man's  presence  and  acliviiy. — Ethnology 
springs  from  anthropology ;  Us  materials. — Deals 
with  evolution  and  phenomena  of  race-life  on  earth. 
— Narrower  and  more  special  field  covered  by  eth- 
nography.— Ease  of  classification  and  difficult"  of  in- 
terpreting.— In  what  manner  tradition  begins  to  be 
evolved. — Blendings  of  tradition  and  history  in  the 
dawn. — Distinctions  to  be  drawn  between  tradition 
and  history. — Varialionsin  the  authenticity  and  value 
of  traditions. — How  historj'  arises  from  traditional 
lore;  the  definition. — Impersonnlitv  of  the  historian; 
sources  of  his  materials. — Traililion  deals  directly  with 
the  genesis  of  mankind. — Work  of  the  talk  passion 


among  the  primitive  races. — Nature,  also,  demanded 
an  interpretation. — Primitive  concepts  were  general, 
ized  into  a  philosophy. — Beliefs  of  mankind  derived 
in  large  measure  from  tradition. — Office  of  history  to 
solve  all  problems  of  man-life. — Supreme  place  of 
history  in  the  realm  of  human  inquiry. — Chronology 
a  branch  of  history ;  its  proper  function. — Founda- 
tion of  chronology  in  the  rotation  of  the  planets. — 
Historical  perspective  depends  on  chronological 
order.  —  If  knowledge  were  complete  chronology 
would  end  the  inquirj- 37-5S 

Chapter  II.— Astronomical  Argument  Re- 
specting THE  Antiquity  of  Man. 
Science  testifies  indirectly  to  the  time  and  order 
of  life. — Authenticity  of  evidence  for  individual  and 
race  compared. — Probability  of  the  diffusion  of  life 
throughout  our  system. —  Life  and  intelligence  the 
explanation  of  material  nature. — Reason  must  aid  in 
determining  the  purpose  of  the  universe. — General 
view  of  planetary  system ;  its  common  features. — 
Relations  of  world  age  to  the  epoch  of  life. — Science 
determines  the  relative  ages  of  the  planets. — Epoch 
of  Life  is  adjusted  to  certain  stages  of  planet  life. — 
Preparation  of  the  earth  for  habitabilily ;  the  heat 
equation.— Vibrations  of  the  earth's  orbit  as  affecting 
distribution  of  heat. — Nature  of  the  fluctuation  in  our 
orbital  axes. — Assumption  of  knowledge  of  astro- 
nomical phenomena. — Present  phase  of  the  planetary 
oscillation. —  Limits  of  eccentricity  in  the  earth's 
orbit. — Perihelion  and  aphelion  determinative  of  heat. 
— Conditions  on  which  amount  of  the  sun  heat  re- 
ceived depends. — Favorable  results  of  present  posi- 
tion of  perihelion  and  aphelion. — Former  unfavorable 
astronomical  position  of  our  planet. — Antecedent 
conditions  of  glacial  epoch  in  northern  hemisphere. 
— The  two  hemispheres  with  respect  to  development 

(XI) 


CONTENTS  OF  V0LU3IE  I. 


of  man-life.— Winter  aphelion  with  axial  elongation 
produces  polar  ice  caps. — Fixing  the  place  of  our 
planetary  January. — Epoch  of  moderation  begins  ; 
formation  of  glacial  rivers.  —  Man-life  begins  on  this 
side  of  the  glacial  floods. — Allowance  to  be  made 
for  inexactitude  in  vast  calculations. — Attempts  to  tix 
time  data  for  the  appearance  of  man. — Maxima  and 
minima  of  the  fluctuations  in  our  orbit. — Periods  of 
greatest  elongation  determined  from  Croll's  tables. 
— Fixing  of  date  of  our  last  planetary  winter. — Crisis 
of  rigor  on  hither  side  of  period  of  elongation. — Epoch 
of  the  diluvial  rivers  in  northern  hemisphere. — Era 
of  man-life  on  this  side  of  the  diluvial  age. — Place 
of  the  last  thermal  epoch  for  the  earth. — Relics  of 
thermal  age  mingled  with  post-glacial  remains. — 
Depth  of  time  perspective  and  remote  date  of  man. — 
Summary  of  deductions  from  astronomical  laws  and 
data. — Slow  progress  of  world  changes  a  fundamen- 
tal concept. — Question  of  our  present  place  in  the 
epoch  of  life — Reasons  for  assuming  an  extended  race 
career. — Conditions  on  which  the  perpetuity  of  man- 
life  depends. — Most  favorable  condition  for  conserva- 
tion of  vital  energy. — Nature  of  the  struggle  for  life 
before  and  after  the  crisis. — Condition  of  heat  equa- 
tion with  respect  to  man-life. — The  human  race  still 
on  the  ascending  scale  of  vitality. — Our  rate  of  prog- 
ress toward  the  crisis  considered. —  Slow  movement 
of  mankind  toward  higher  development. — Historical 
hints  of  our  present  stage  in  race  career. — Gains 
of  mankind  in  mastery  of  the  environment. — Facts  in- 
dicating improving  habitability  of  the  earth. — Con- 
cept of  design  points  to  an  extended  race  career. — 
Long  duration  to  be  expected  in  the  plan  of  worldhood. 
— Right  reason  demands  an  early  date  for  appear- 
ance of  man 55"^^ 

Chapter  III.— Argument  fro.m  Geology. 

Geological  science  a  product  of  the  present  cen- 
tury.— Outline  of  the  order  of  the  geological  ages. — 
Exact  time  measurement  not  required  in  world  his- 
tory.— Principle  of  determining  the  rate  of  geological 
changes. — Acceptance  of  the  law  of  the  uniformity 
of  nature. — Suggestion  furnished  by  the  recession  of 
Niagara  Fall?. —  Argument  not  destroyed  by  ele- 
ments of  uncertainty. — Approximate  date  at  which 
our  earth  took  its  present  form. — Life  began  before 
fixation  of  globe;  Croll's  estimates. — Rate  of  depo- 
sition in  the  Nile  valley  furnishes  a  scale. — Spheroidal 
form  of  the  earth  a  datum  for  time  measurement. — 
Only  a  small  part  of  the  life  epoch  occupied  by  man. 
— Possibility  of  long  preservation  of  organic  remains. 
— Situations  most  favorable  for  preserving  human 
relics. — Formation  and  peculiarities  of  man-caverns 
and  grottoes. — Date  of  remains  Indicated  from  geo- 
logical data. — Slow  process  of  formation  of  alluvial 
river  beds. — Vast  reach  of  time  required  to  complete 
such  formations.  —  Less  certain  results  from  exami- 


nation of  lake  bottoms. — Peat  bogs  furnish  a  better 
basis  for  time  estimates. — Uncertainty  of  evidence 
gathered  from  sand  dunes. — Time  required  for  depo- 
sition of  the  Mississippi  delta. — Allowance  made  for 
elements  of  uncertainty  in  problem. — Influence  of  the 
heavy  volume  of  the  diluvial  rivers. — Other  estimates 
confirm  the  calculations  of  Lyell. — Inquiries  into  the 
rate  of  formation  of  the  Nile  valley. — Deductions  of 
French  savants;  Horner's  investigations. — Principal 
data  from  which  calculations  of  Horner  were  made. 
— Resulting  estimate  of  the  antiquity  of  man  in 
Egypt. — Lyell's  investigations  in  the  valley  of  the 
Somme. — Approximate  age  of  caverns  containing 
human  remains. — Estimates  of  the  age  of  the 
Swiss  lake  villages.  —  Data  from  which  Gillie- 
ron's  calculation  was  made. — Evidence  gathered 
from  the  gravel  cone  of  the  Tinniere. — Deduction 
from  wide-apart  situations  of  primitive  races. — 
Great  period  required  for  the  diffusion  of  man- 
kind   83-100 

CH-^PTER    IV. — ARCH^O LOGICAL   AND    PALiEON- 

TOLOGiCAL  Argument. 
Nature  of  the  testimony  to  be  derived  from  archas- 
ology. — Proofs  from  this  source  establish  the  prog- 
ress of  the  race. — Subject-matter  of  archaeological 
inquiry. — Materials  employed  by  primeval  man  in 
making  implements. — Time  order  establishes  relative 
but  not  absolute  dates. — Existing  savagery  illustrates 
the  prehistoric  state  of  man.— Differences  between 
surviving  and  extinct  barbarians. — Mistaken  deduc- 
tions respecting  association  of  remains. — Ferocious 
beasts  not  wholly  of  tropical  habitat. — Direct  evi- 
dence deducible  from  archaeological  data. — Stone  im- 
plements witness  to  the  age  of  their  production. — 
Place  and  character  of  the  most  ancient  human  re- 
mains.— Immense  time-gap  between  successive  ar- 
chsological  ages. — Intelligence  of  the  first  men  com- 
pared with  that  of  animals. — Stride  from  lowest  to 
secondary  stages  of  artisanship. — Wide  distribution 
of  palseolithic  implements. — Common  situation  of 
the  most  primitive  tribes  ;  deductions. —  Negative 
proofs  of  low  condition  of  man  in  the  Old  Stone  Age. 
— Evidences  of  development  furnished  by  archaeo- 
logical relics. — Archsological  testimony  corroborates 
the  other  sciences. — Palaeontology  a  branch  of  ar- 
chaeological inquiry. —  Transformation  the  law  of 
vegetable  and  animal  forms. — Existing  orders  the 
residue  of  extinct  types  of  being. — Older  forms  give 
place  to  new  in  a  fixed  order  of  life. — Motions  of  the 
evolutionary  process  among  living  forms. — Order  of 
animal  existence  as  fixed  as  geological  order.— Man- 
life  closely  linked  with  the  history  of  animal  species. 
— Wild  animals  diminish  in  size  in  successive  eras. 
— The  law  reversed  in  the  case  of  domesticated  ani- 
mals.— Antiquity  of  man  determinable  by  sequence 
of  species 100-113 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


Chapter  V. — The  Ethnological  Argu- 
ment. 
Anthropology  bears  witness  to  the  antiquity  of  man. 
— Existence  of  atrophied  organs  in  tiie  body. — Such 
organs  signify  a  preexisting  mode  of  life. — Atrophied 
ear-muscles  and  extinct  mammae  in  man. —  Vast 
reach  of  time  requisite  to  produce  anatomical  changes. 
— Relations  of  ethnology  and  ethnography  to  other 
sciences.  —  Ethnology  here  considered  as  indi- 
cating the  antiquity  of  man. — Ethnic  differences  al- 
ready well  developed  in  the  dawn. — Evidences  of  the 
early  evolution  of  race  distinctions. — Several  theories 
to  account  for  the  differentiation  of  the  races. — Ac- 
ceptance of  monogenesis  and  influence  of  environ- 
ment.— Deduction  of  great  antiquity  from  early  race 
departures. — Probable  estimate  of  the  duration  of 
prehistoric  ages. —  Time  required  for  distribution 
corroborates  the  estimate. — Subjective  and  objective 
hindrances  to  diffusion  of  races. — Slow  movement  of 
the  frontier  line  in  race  distribution.  —  Particular 
obstacles  to  be  surmounted  in  migration  of  races. — 
Absence  of  means  of  communicat  ion  in  primeval  ages. 
— Check  offered  to  ethnic  progress  by  seas  and 
oceans. — Rate  of  race  diffusion  to  be  estimated  from 
obstacles  thereto. — Division  and  development  of  lan- 
guages require  great  time. — Time  a  condition  of  the 
creation  of  dialects  and  languages. — Linguistic  differ- 
ences deep  and  ineradicable. — Utter  dissimilarity  of 
Semitic  and  Aryan  forms  of  speech. — Such  structural 
differences  require  great  periods  of  time. — If  lan- 
guages be  of  common  origin  time  must  be  greater. — 
Ages  demanded  for  production  of  Hebrew  and  Greek 
from  a  common  stem 114-127 

Chapter  VI. — History  and  Tradition. 

Why  history  can  not  testify  directly  of  the  begin- 
ning.— Two  distinct  types  of  historical  composition. 
— Spirit  and  aim  of  the  old  history  and  the  new. — 
The  present  inquiry  makes  free  use  of  all  materials. 
— Rise  and  dissemination  of  history  in  Europe  and 
America. — Possible  opening  of  neW  historical  vistas 
in  the  East. —  Old  historical  documents  of  the  Aryan 
races. — Hamites  precede  all  others  in  contemporary 
documents. — Time  and  place  of  the  Hebrew  histori- 
cal books. — Tradition  precedes,  but  mingles  with, 
beginnings  of  history. — Difference  between  traditional 
lore  and  history.  —  What  constitutes  highest  and 
secondary  authenticity. — No  contemporaneous  his- 
tory of  the  time  of  the  beginning. —  History  from 
contemporaneous  data  also  impossible. — Important 
deductions  from  earliest  historical  records. — ^What 
the  wide-apart  writings  of  many  races  signify. — Tra- 
dition becomes  a  penumbra  around  the  conscious 
life. — Essential  articles  in  primeval  traditions  of  our 
race.  —  Universality  of  belief  in  an  autochthonous 
origin.- — Autochthony  derived  from  analogies  of 
vegetable  world. — The  ancient  myths  mingled  evo- 


lution and  creation. — Myths  of  the  origin  of  man 
belong  to  race  childhood.  —  The  question  Why.* 
belongs  not  to  adolescence. — Child-mind  of  individ- 
ual and  of  race  alike. — Traditions  of  man-birth  con- 
firm belief  in  remote  race  origin. — Child-mind  evolves 
tradition,  the  man-mind  history     ....  128-138 

Chapter  VII. — Chronological  Inquiry. 

All  races  seek  to  invent  a  system  of  time  measure- 
ment.— In  what  manner  the  so-called  eras  in  chro- 
nology arose. — Great  eras  established ;  Hebrews  had 
no  date. — Fixing  of  Babylonian,  Greek,  and  Roman 
eras. — Era  of  the  Christ  prevails  in  the  West ;  the 
Julian  period. — Hebrews  choose  and  Christians  ac- 
cept the  era  of  the  world. — Attempts  to  fix  date  of 
creation  out  of  Hebrew  Scriptures. —  Contradictory 
results ;  rise  of  the  Usherian  system. — Literature  and 
philosophy  of  Europe  infected  thereby. — Astonishing 
details  of  the  Usherian  scheme. — Large  place  of 
Usherian  system  in  modern  writings. — The  system 
an  impediment  to  inquiry  and  knowledge. — The 
other  principal  eras  of  time  reckoning. — Synoptical 
view  and  comparison  of  the  leading  eras. — Scientific 
spirit  works  havoc  with  old  dates. — Results  of  his- 
torical research  among  several  races. — General  de- 
duction respecting  the  antiquity  of  man. — Summary 
of  the  arguments;  astronomical  indication. — Geology 
corroborates  the  results  arrived  at  from  astronomy. 
— Geological  research  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the 
inquir)'.  —  Deduction  from  pateontology  harmo- 
nizes with  other  results. — Anthropological  deduc- 
tions are  essentially  the  same.  —  Ethnology  and 
ethnography  point  to  identical  conclusions. — Large 
allowance  must  be  made  for  the  period  of  race  dis- 
persion.— History  substantially  accordant  with  the 
other  sciences.  —  Oral  story  may  not  contradict 
science  and  right  reason. — Historical  horizon  about 
the  line  of  the  fortieth  century  B.  C. — Final  estimate 
of  the  date  of  the  beginning 138-150 

Chapter  VIII. — The  Quest  of  Eden. 
Origin  of  man-life  necessarily  in  some  locality. — One 
place  or  many  places  a  condition  of  the  problem. — 
Theor)'  of  the  multiple  origin  of  mankind  propounded. 
— Polygenesis,  if  admitted,  destroys  interest  in  the 
mquiry. — Opposite  view  more  accordant  with  facts 
and  reason. — The  "  garden  eastward  in  Eden,"  with 
its  four  rivers. — Difficulty  of  fixing  the  place  of  the 
biblical  Eden. — Hebrew  narrative  consistent  with  all 
the  Semitic  traditions, — The  Euphrates  of  Genesis 
not  the  Euphrates  of  geography. — Visionary  and 
absurd  views  of  the  place  of  Eden. — Modern  scholar- 
ship fails  to  identify  the  paradise. — The  places  sug- 
gested may  be  excluded  by  negation. — Mythology 
must  yield  to  reason  with  respect  to  Eden. — Scien- 
tific inquiry  must  decide  the  place  of  the  beginning. 
— Large  area  in  which  mankind  might  have  origi- 


XIV 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


nated. —  Recent    sciences   aid    in    determining   the 
place  of  origin 1 50-1 58 

Chapter  IX.  —  True  Place  of  the  Begin- 
ning. 
Migration  points  to  place  from  which  mankind 
proceeded. — The  movements  of  races  are  governed 
by  law. — Not  whim  and  caprice  but  motive  decides 
race  conduct.  —  Indications  of  starling-point  of  human 
distribution. — Hypothesis  of  European  origin  of  man- 
kind rejected. —  Indo-Europeans  move  westward 
under  cosmic  laws. — Linguistic  science  proves  East- 
ern origin  of  Europeans.  —  Ethnic  distribution  in 
Africa  from  east  to  west. — Xo  Blacks  in  Western 
Asia;  Egyptians  from  the  East. — Mongolians  move 
eastward  from  Central  Asia. — Nigritian  dispersion 
contradicts  theory  of  European  origin. — No  conti- 
nental point  for  distribution  of  Black  races. — Brown 
Asiatics  can  not  have  an  African  origin. —  American 
continents  not  the  first  home  of  man. — Direction  of 
migrations  a  clue  to  point  of  origin. — General  move- 
ment of  the  races  from  east  to  west. — Exceptional 
movements  of  man  and  nature  agamst  the  sun. — 
Watershed  between  westbound  and  eastbound 
races. — Primitive  races  depart  right  and  left  from  a 
common  belt. — All  non-Aryans  have  the  same  line 
of  departure. — Recent  arrival  of  the  supra-Caspian 


races.— Primeval  man  illy  adapted  to  northern  rigors. 
— Impossibility  of  deriving  Black  races  from  the 
north. — Region  between  Caspian  and  Arabian  seas 
indicated. — Mongolians  and  Blacks  not  derivable 
from  this  region.— No  land  surface  answers  the  de- 
mands of  the  problem. — Tenability  of  another  hy- 
pothesis.—  Grounds  for  believing  in  a  submerged 
continent. — Shoal  character  of  Arabian  sea  and  In- 
dian ocean. — Evidences  of  former  existence  of  such 
a  continent. — Geological  indications  of  the  same 
fact. — Place  of  man's  origin  must  answer  to  some 
hypothesis. — Ethnic  outlook  from  the  suppositious 
continent. — The  nature  of  man  points  to  a  tropical 
beginning. — Development  coTncident  with  progress 
from  point  of  origin. — Conditions  favorable  to  begin- 
ning unfavorable  to  development.— Conclusion  of 
a  Lemurian  origin  not  final. — Gradation  of  animal 
life  upward  toward  Lemuria. — Illustrations  of  the 
rise  of  animal  life  toward  this  center. — Primate  ani- 
mals in  particular  culminate  around  Lemuria. — Place 
of  supposed  continent  between  Ethiopian  and  Orien- 
tal regions. — Lemurs  and  carnivora  increase  toward 
Indian  ocean. — Mankind  falls  off  inversely  in  the 
same  direction. — Lowest  dip  of  humanity  and  high- 
est reach  of  animality. — Place  of  origin  conjectural 
rather  than  exact. — Philosophical  advantages  of  un- 
certain knowledge 158-182 


Book  II.— IVIanner  ok  xhe  Beginning. 


Chapter  X. — Fiat  and  Evolution. 
Inability  of  mankind  to  testify  of  tlie  unconscious 
life. — Preconceptions  impede  the  freedom  of  investi- 
gation.— Statement  of  the  two  diverging  views ;  phe- 
nomenal creation.  —  Evolution  would  account  for 
living  forms  by  growth. — Paramount  interest  and 
general  tendency  of  the  question. ^Common  ground 
and  point  of  divergence  of  the  two  opinions. — Grave 
mistake  in  the  nomenclature  of  the  two  hypotheses. 
— Neither  theory  is  exclusive  of  the  other. — Belief  in 
evolution  as  a  method  gains  ground  among  thinkers. 
— Old  opinions  contest  the  field  with  zoology  and 
botany. —  Investigation  confirms  new  belief  as  to  the 
lower  orders. — Is  man  exceptional  in  the  scheme  of 
nature  ?  — Lamarck  foreruns  the  new  theory  of  the 
mode  of  life. — The  work  taken  up  and  rectified  by 
recent  naturalists. — General  explication  of  the  hy- 
pothesis of  creation. — Literal  acceptance  and  applica- 
tion of  the  Book  of  Genesis. — Order  of  creation  in 
the  "  six  days  "  of  the  first  chapter. — Meaning  of  the 
"  yom  "  enlarged  for  scientific  reasons. — Rational- 
izing process  checked  at  the  border-line  of  life. — 
Variations  in  the  Chaldee  story  of  the  l)eginmng  — 
General  agreement  in  the  two  visions  of  creation. — 
Creation   hypothesis   demands  an   ancestor.— Sum- 


mary of  the  two  narratives  in  the  Book  of  Genesis. 
— Outlines  of  a  biblical  ethnography.  —  Account  of 
creation  in  Genesis  common  to  all  the  Semites. — 
Monotheistic  divergence  of  the  Hebrew  narrative. — 
Hebrew  Demiurge  works  upon  matter  and  creates 
it. — Egyptian  tradition  of  the  beginning  of  things. — 
Creative  hypothesis  of  the  ancient  Iranians. — Poly- 
theistic character  of  the  Aryan  myths  of  creation. — 
Old  Vedic  hymn  assigns  the  creation  to  Indra. — 
Aryan  seers  more  evolutionary  than  the  Semitic.^ 
Long-continued  prevalence  of  belief  m  creation  by 
fiat.— Science  discovers  the  uniformity  of  natural 
processes, — The  Lamarckian  philosophy;  the  four 
theorems  of  life  order. — What  the  system  does  and 
does  not  contain.  —  Lamarck  missed  the  recent 
theory  of  life  in  many  essentials. — Historical  develop- 
ment of  the  evolution  hypothesis.^ — Darwin  and  Wal- 
lace lead  the  revolution  in  biology. —  Controversial 
literature  and  tendency  of  contest.     .     .     .    183-198 

Chapter  XI.— Genesis  of  the  New  Doctrine. 
The  mind  takes  arms  when  old  opinions  are  as- 
sailed.— Evolution  deals  not  with  final  causes  or  the 
origin  of  life. — Results  of  the  misconception  of  the 
theory. — Originators  of  the  hypothesis  declare  its  true 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


XV 


intent. — Antagonism  has  followed  misconception  of 
the  doctrine.  —  Reconciliation  of  theories  follows 
understanding  them. — Mistaken  belief  that  evolution 
teaches  cross-descent  of  species. — Distinction  here 
drawn  fundamental  to  the  question. —  Analogy  of 
linguistic  phenomena  to  living  species. — Languages 
not  the  result  of  cross-derivation. — Mistake  of  phi- 
lologists as  to  laws  of  language  descent. — True  con- 
cept of  relation  of  languages  to  their  originals. — 
Erroneous  opinions  of  scholars  corrected  in  our  day. 
— Evolution  seeks  to  explain  the  processes  of  organic 
life. — Circumstances  preceding  announcement  of  the 
new  theory. — Teachers  of  evolution  themselves  an 
evolution. — Descartes  is  followed  by  an  age  of  ob- 
servation and  experiment. — Discovery  of  analogies 
between  individuals  and  species. —  Geology  deter- 
mines the  order  of  extinct  species.— A  knowledge  of 
evolution  begins  with  the  individual. — Ignorance  of 
antiquity  respecting  physiological  laws. — Indifference 
of  the  ancients  to  the  processes  of  organic  life. — 
Knowledge  proceeds  from  the  individual  to  the  spe- 
cies.— All  organic  life  proceeds  from  germ  cells  hav- 
ing life. —  Scientific  aphorisms  of  the  beginning  of 
organism. — Nature  and  movements  of  the  germ  life. 
— History  of  the  individual  a  history  of  transforma- 
tions.— In  what  manner  the  cell  organizes  by  process 
of  fission. —  How  the  materials  oi  cell  growth  are 
gathered. — Formation  of  the  gastrula  and  archen- 
teroin. — Further  evolution  of  organs  and  parts. — 
Manner  of  delivering  the  new  creature  to  its  environ- 
ment.— Fundamental  identity  of  method  for  all  living 
forms. — The  natural  senses  exaggerate  differences  of 
structure. — Fundamental  structural  identity  of  all 
living  forms. — The  mind  discovers  the  law  of  uni- 
formity.— Integration  of  all  nature  established  by 
science. — Scientific  progress  discovers  the  unity  of 
the  universe. — Chemistry  shows  the  oneness  of  ma- 
terial nature. — Evolution  the  product  of  observation 
and  experiment 198-21 1 

Chapter  XII. — The  True  Evolution. 
Darwui's  discovery  of  the  law  of  natural  selection. 
— Survival  of  organic  forms  by  natural  selection. — 
Darwin's  explication  of  the  law  and  its  expression. 
— The  law  proceeds  by  variation  of  form  and  func- 
tion.— Variation  intensified  by  growth  and  adapta- 
tion.— Specific  examples  of  the  law  of  survival. — 
Blossoming  plants  flourish  by  secreting  nectar. — 
Explication  of  Mahhusian  theory  of  population. —  In 
what  manner  animals  encroach  on  means  of  subsist- 
ence.— The  three  forms  of  the  struggle  for  existence. 
— Exuberance  of  life  restricted  by  opposing  agencies. 
— Curtailment  of  life  begins  from  the  germ  and  seed. 
—  Struggle  of  the  individual  with  others  of  its  spe- 
cies.—  Plants  of  one  species  contend  for  place  with 
those  of  another. — Battle  for  life  between  animals  of 
different  species. — Illustration  of  the  vicissitudes  of 


the  contest. — Correlations  of  red  clover  with  cats, 
mice,  and  bumblebees. — Law  of  conflict  extends  to 
the  whole  domain  of  life. — Environment  offers  resist- 
ance to  all  living  forms. — All  living  forms  subject  to 
disease  and  death. — Secular  changes  produce  catas- 
trophe to  living  forms. — Natural  selection  adjusts 
each  living  form  to  its  environment. — Cosmical  crises 
are  attended  with  destruction  of  species. — Struggle 
for  life  on  lines  of  sexual  selection. — Domestic  ani- 
mals brought  to  present  forms  by  sexual  malings. — 
Wide  range  of  differences  produced  by  domestication. 

—  Results  of  selection  may  be  undone  by  reversal  of 
process. — Nature  also  selects  ;  late  discovery  of  the 
law. — E.xamples  of  sexual  selection  and  results  there- 
from.— Both  sexes  and  all  species  choose  in  a  state 
of  nature. — Occasional  sudden  departures  from  an- 
cestral types. — Question  of  the  results  of  this  phe- 
nomenon.— Nomenclature  of  a  science  ;  division  from 
kingdom  to  the  individual. — Law  of  the  individual  is 
the  law  of  the  species. — Varieties  produced  from 
individuals  by  law  of  variation. — All  animate  nature 
a  variation  from  a  common  type. — Obliteration  of 
species  and  all  fictitious  divisions. — Philosophy  would 
supplement  and  extend  the  inquiry.  —  Darwin's 
method  of  illustrating  results  of  natural  selection. — 
Life  of  the  species  epitomized  in  life  of  the  individual. 
—The  human  race  included  as  a  subject  in  natural 
history. — What  evolution  teaches  respecting  the  de- 
scent of  man. — Every  species  is  evolved  from  its 
own  proper  original. — Widening  of  the  inquir)-  to 
embrace  all  vital  phenomena. —  Living  species  in 
analogy  with  the  scheme  of  languages. — Best  scien- 
tific belief  points  to  a  unity  of  origin  for  all. — Prob- 
able derivation  of  all  living  forms  from  a  few  germs. 
— Theory  indicates  a  lowly  ancestry  for  mankind. — 
Present  inquiry  looks  to  man  and  his  evolution. — Re- 
statement of  the  two  views  of  human  descent. — The 
question  reaches  only  to  the  modus  operandi  of 
life 212-236 

Chapter  XIII. — Application  of  the  Doctrine 
TO  Man  and  Nature. 
Our  world  the  ])roduct  of  evolutionary  processes. 

—  Primeval  condition  and  growth  of  the  earth. — • 
Prevalenceof  secondary  laws  in  planetary  formation. 
— Animals  and  plants  appear  to  have  arisen  by  the 
same  laws. — Linguistic  growth  the  exact  analogue 
of  race  evolution.  —  Languages  struggle  for  life,  and 
the  best  survive. — Human  institutions  arise  in  like 
order  of  growth. — True  nature  of  the  evolution  of 
government. — Governmental  facts  adjust  themselves 
to  environment. — Stages  and  aspects  in  the  develop- 
ment of  government. — Government  in  its  progress 
obeys  the  law  of  variation. — Law  also  an  evolution; 
growth  of  the  Roman  statutes.  —  Society,  like  the 
plants  and  animals,  grows  and  adapts  itself. — Mar- 
ri^.gethe  evolutionary  result  of  social  instincts. — Sue- 


COJSTTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


cessive  stages  in  the  development  of  sexual  union. — 
Artistic  products  of  tlie  mind  arise  by  evolution.— 
Childhood  of  art  succeeded  by  youth  and  maturity. 
— Literature,  also,  appears  by  growth  and  survival  of 
the  best. — Literary  product  of  each  race  has  its  own 
evolution. — Law  of  divergence  and  survival  holds  in 
letters  as  in  life. — Two  meanings  of  the  term  history. 
• — Events  in  all  their  forms  obey  the  evolutionary'  law. 
— Likeness  of  historical  diagram  to  the  biological 
tree. — Particular  aspects  of  the  growth  of  history. — 
Races  and  nations  are  the  product  of  the  human  vine. 
— Peninsula  succeeds  river  valley  as  the  habitat  of 
man. — Thought  itself  conforms  to  the  evolutionary 
process. — Reflection  and  reason  spring  by  growth 
from  sense  and  instinct. — The  present  human  mind 
a  survival  of  the  ages. — Intellect  varies  according  to 
environment  and  habit. — Mind  struggles  with  con- 
flicting forces  and  is  developed. — The  moral  nature 
obeys  the  law  of  fitness  and  survival.— Religions  are 
evolved  coincidently  with  the  races. — Conscience  and 
virtue  the  residue  of  struggle  and  adaptation. — Man 
himself  a  resultant  ;  anthropomorphism  passes  away. 
— Relations  of  man  the  individual  to  progress  and 
civilization. — Spontaneity  of  man  not  denied  in  new 
concept  of  his  nature. — The  individual  bound  from 
birth  with  fixed  limitations. — Genius  is  born,  but 
fashioned  by  environment. — As  comes  the  man,  so 
also  comes  the  species  by  growth.  —  Environment 
not  all  in  the  production  of  human  kind.  —  Man  a 
resultant  of  ethnic  heredity  and  environment. — Races 
differentiated  by  natural  preference  and  appetency. — 
Extent  to  which  the  various  races  are  specialized. 
—  Differentiation  of  the  English-speaking  peoples 
considered 236-254 


Ch.\pter  XIV.  — Objections  Consid- 
ered. 
Summary  of  deductions  to  the  present  stage  of  the 
inquiry. — Objected  that  evolution  assigns  a  lowly 
origin  to  man. — Instinctive  sentiment  of  men  respect- 
ing their  origin. — Such  belief  itself  a  result  of  evolu- 
tionary processes.  —  Is  the  repugnance  to  lowly 
origin  rational  or  habitual  ? — Obscurity  of  the  first 
stages  in  all  animal  life. — Difference  of  human  from 
other  animals  appears  but  slowly. — Weakness  and 
absolute  helplessness  of  the  child. — Irrationality  of 
first  stages  in  the  Ufe  of  infants. — Evolution  of  the 
intellectual  powers  in  childhood. — Estimate  that  man 
must  form  of  his  own  individual  history. — With  what 
sentiment  mankind  must  consider  itself.  —  Great 
capacity  of  the  human  mind  to  think  and  know. — 
No  rational  shame  from  contemplation  of  a  lowly 
origin. — More  reasonable  to  disregard  the  low  origin 
of  our  species.  —  Greater  importance  attaching  to 
individual  life. — Repugnance  to  derivation  from  low 
orders  not  rational. — Belief  in  a  Golden  Age  as  affect- 
ing our  opinions. — Genesis  of  the  belief  in  a  past  age 
of  gold. — Effects  of  the  belief  in  the  decadence  of 
man. —  Mediaevals  affected  by  apprehension  of  a 
catastrophe.  —  Dogmatic  interpretations  impede 
scientific  progress. — All  branches  of  natural  science 
have  been  antagonized.  —  Current  opinions  de- 
rived from  dogmatic  antecedents.  —  Real  issue  a 
question  of  method  and  not  of  fact. —  Some  ex- 
planation of  origin  of  species  must  be  accepted. — 
Adequacy  of  the  theor)-  of  evolution  considered. — 
The  conflict  of  scientific  and  dogmatic  opinion 
subsides.  —  Approximation  of  the  opposing  opin- 
ions      254-264 


^lart  ..Stfonb. 


PRIMITIVE  ESTATE  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE. 


Book  III.— F»rixieval  IVIan. 


Chapter  XV.  —  Divers  Aspects  of  Barbaric 
Life. 

Essential  interest  of  inquiry  into  barbaric  con- 
ditions.— Diverse  aspects  of  the  begmning  of  the 
conscious  life  of  man. — Varying  activities  of  man  in 
the  struggle  for  existence. —  Savages  of  the  woods 
and  seashores. — Primeval  man  builds  (or  himself  a 
home  over  the  water. — Barbarian  abodes  of  clay  or 
sun-baked  bricks. — Why  do  savages  thus  differentiate 
in  manner  of  life  ? — First  cause  of  the  reactions  of 
nature  on  human  faculties. — Man  especially  suscep- 
tible to  influences  of  the  natural  world. — All  parts  of 
civilization    tinged    with    environing    conditions.  — • 


Theory  of  environment  has  been  stretched  too  far. — 
Ethnic  instincts  also  prevalent  in  forming  mankind. 
— The  law  of  variation  independent  of  environment. 
—  Animal  life  under  like  conditions  shows  diver- 
gences.— In  man  and  among  races  the  law  of  diversity 
prevails. — Migrator)-  habit  of  tribes  based  on  innate 
differences. — The  moving  passion  varies  in  the  same 
community 265-274 

Chapter  XVI.  — The  Cave  Dwellers  of  Eu- 
rope. 
Contemporaneity  of  man  and  certain  extinct  ani- 
mals.— Modern  leaders  of  archaeological  inquiry. — 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


XVII 


Place  of  the  cave  dwellers  determined  by  geological 
data. — Man  belongs  to  the  recent,  or  quaternary, 
epoch. — Extinct  mammals  colnhabitants  with  man 
in  Europe.  —  Savages  pass  through  definite  stages 
toward  civilization. — Materials  employed  by  barba- 
rians in  making  implements. — Man  the  tool-making 
and  club-throwing  animal. — Arlisanship  begins  with 
the  making  of  tools  and  weapons. — Old  stone  age 
marks  first  stage  in  human  development. — Chronol- 
ogy of  paljeolithic  epoch  not  determinable. — Habits 
of  primeval  man  discoverable  in  his  materials  and 
arts. — Neolithic  workmanship  marks  second  stage 
of  the  evolution. — Relation  of  the  stone  epochs  to 
eras  in  geology. — Complex  development  coincident 
with  new  stone  age. — Great  span  between  ages  of 
stone  and  age  of  metals. — Art  of  compounding  met- 
als ;  coming  of  the  bronze  age. — No  intervening  ages 
of  copper  or  tin. — Reasons  why  the  age  of  bronze 
succeeds  the  age  of  stone. — Historical  consciousness 
begins  with  the  age  of  bronze. — The  age  of  iron  suc- 
ceeds the  epoch  of  bronze. — Evolution  of  ironwork 
in  primeval  Europe. — Cave  dwellers  the  most  primi- 
tive of  the  European  races. — Interest  of  the  investi- 
gation of  the  man  caverns. — Character  of  the  caves 
inhabited  by  primeval  man.  —  Exploration  of  the 
Engis  cavern  by  Dr.  Schmerling. — Carefulness  of 
the  investigation  ;  the  deductions. — Signir'icance  of 
the  transformations  of  European  climate. —  Species 
of  extmct  animals  associated  with  man. — Evidence 
cumulative  respecting  the  character  of  primeval  man. 
— Sketch  of  the  most  important  cave  dwellings  of 
Europe. — Exploration  of  the  man  caverns  of  England. 
— Peculiar  finds  in  the  grotto  of  Maccagnone. —  Illus- 
trations of  cave  life  drawn  from  three  sources. — 
Characteristics  and  suggestions  of  the  Engis  skull. 
— Peculiar  animality  indicated  by  the  Neanderthal 
skull. — Other  features  of  the  skeletons  of  the  cave 
dwellers. — Extinct  animals  associated  with  man  ;  the 
cave  bear. — Cave  hyena  and  cave  lion  ;  their  distri- 
bution.— Great  pachyderms ;  restoration  of  Elephas 
primigenius.  —  Other  animal  remains  found  with 
those  of  man. — The  reindeer  a  former  inhabitant  of 
Central  Europe.  —  Size  and  characteristics  of  the 
Irish  elk.  —  The  prehistoric  bison  of  Europe  and 
America. — Late  extinction  of  the  European  buffalo. — 
Primitive  ox  of  Europe  ;  Cssar's  description. — Some 
prehistoric  animals  survive  in  living  species. — Dis- 
position of  man  to  domesticate  wild  animals. — Early 
date  of  the  practice  of  domestication. — The  dog  the 
first  of  the  domesticated  animals.^Disposition  of 
certain  animals  to  domesticate. — Many  beasts  partly 
tamed  by  prehistoric  races. — Eating  habits  of  the 
aborigines  of  Western  Europe. — Place  of  the  cave 
men  zoologically  and  geologically. — Extent  and  va- 
riety of  prehistoric  implements  in  museums. — Stone 
axes,  and  the  work  accomplished  with  them. — Flint 
knivs,  and  the  R-,anner  of  their  production. — Great 


variety  of  prehistoric  tools  and  weapons. — Manner 
of  life  without  and  within  the  man  caverns. — Care 
taken  of  utensils ;  places  of  manufacture. — Stature 
and  personal  characteristics  of  the  cave  man.  275-307 

Chapter  XVH. — Lake  Dwellers  of  Switzer- 
land. 
General  contraction  of  the  fresh-water  areas  of  Eu- 
rope.— Character  of  the  debatable  margin  around 
lakes.  —  Certain  primitive  tribes  choose  the  lake 
shores  for  residence. — Great  subsidence  of  the  Swiss 
lakes  in  1853-54. — Situation  of  the  lake  dw-eilings  ; 
account  of  Herodotus. — Lake  dwellings  of  various 
countries  in  the  present  age. — Switzerland  favorably 
situated  for  such  settlements. — Discoveries  on  lake 
Zurich;  thecrannogesof  Ireland. — Likeness  to  High- 
land refugees  ;  the  crannoge  findings. — Methods  of 
supporting  the  Swiss  village  platforms. — Fear  of 
wild  beasts  determines  the  choice  of  such  sites. — 
Number  and  extent  of  the  Swiss  lake  villages. — Ma- 
terials employed  in  such  structures  by  the  builders. 
— Distinction  in  the  work  done  by  stone  and  metallic 
axes. — Question  of  setting  the  piles  ;  form  of  the 
houses.— General  character  of  the  finds  in  connection 
with  lake  villages. — Variety  of  the  implements ;  the 
materials  employed. — Signs  in  the  findings  of  inter- 
change and  commerce. — Use  of  bone  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  tools  and  weapons.  —  Pottery  of  the  lake 
dwellers  ;  rudeness  of  the  relics. — Scarcity  of  human 
remains  in  the  lake  margins. — Bodily  forms  of  lake 
dwellers  determined  from  skeletons. — Animals  with 
which  lake  villagers  were  associated.  —  Manner  of 
lake  life  may  be  drawn  from  manifest  data. — Deduc- 
tions from  the  animal  life  of  the  lake-dwelling  age. 
— Species  of  birds  belonging  to  the  same  epoch. — 
Significant  traces  of  the  prehistoric  agricultural  life. 
— Lake  dwellings  extend  into  the  age  of  bronze. — 
Evidences  of  the  emergence  of  the  race  from  barba- 
rism     307-320 

Chapter  XVIII. —  Coast  People  of  the 
North. 
Relative  savagery  of  several  prehistoric  conditions. 
— Discovery  of  the  shell  dunes  on  the  coast  of  Den- 
mark.— Mound  contents  ;  investigations  of  Streen- 
strup. — The  kitchen  middens  indicate  village  com- 
munities.— The  heaps  made  up  of  the  debris  of  human 
life. — Character  of  the  kitchen  midden  tools  and 
utensils. — Deduction  of  a  low  grade  of  barbaric  life. 
— Nature  of  the  animal  remains  found  in  the  heaps. 
— Wild  beasts  known  to  the  kitchen  niiddeners. — 
Inferences  as  to  the  eating  habits  and  customs  of  the 
race. — Methods  of  determining  the  habits  of  the 
shell  mounders. — Analogue  of  the  Fuegians;  de- 
scription by  Darwin. — Not  possible  to  fix  chronology 
of  the  shell-mound  tribes. — Botanical  indications  of 
their  remote  antiquity.— Bird-life  bears  witness  to 


XVTII 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


the  same  conclusion. — Over-water  habitations  estab- 
lished on  river  banks  also. — Physical  conditions  ante- 
cedent to  formation  of  gravel  beds. — Dogmatism 
confronts  geology  respecting  river-drift  findings. — 
Careful  examination  of  the  fluvial  deposits. — Such 
findings  extend  to  the  British  Isles. — River  valleys 
of  France  especially  rich  in  human  relics. —  Character 
of  the  valley  and  deposits  of  the  Somme.  —  Time 
relations  of  the  peat  beds  to  the  chalk  formations. — 
Character  of  the  findings  in  the  Amiens  deposits. — 
Reasons  for  scarcity  of  human  remains  in  the  river- 
drift. —  Shell-mounds  also  have  but  few  of  the  re- 
mains of  men. —  E.\tent  of  the  findings  in  the  gravel 
beds  of  England. — Deductions  respecting  the  races 
of  the  river-drift  epoch 3-0-33I 

Chapter  XIX. — Men  of  the  TuiMULi. 
Tumuli  and  other  memorials  of  primeval  man  in 
Europe.— Abundance  of  such  remains  throughout 
the  world. — Meaning  of  the  tumuli  and  stone  monu- 
ments.— The  mounds  generally  belong  to  the  age  of 
bronze. — Ruin  of  Stonehenge  ;  its  aspect  and  tradi- 
tions. —  Stories  of  Nennius  and  Cambrensis. — 
Authenticity  of  mediaeval  history  illustrated  hereby. 
— Extent  of  burial  mounds  in  connection  with  Stone- 
henge.— Positions  of  the  primeval  dead  in  sepulture. 
— The  mounds  belong  certainly  to  the  age  of  bronze. 
— Diverse  methods  of  races  respecting  death  and 
burial. — Burial  grounds  of  different  ages  maybe  dis- 
tinguished.— Funeral  processions  and  rites  of  sepul- 
ture.— The  three  types  of  skulls  discovered  in  the 
tombs. — Character  of  dolichocephalic  and  brachyce- 
phalic  crania. — Coincidence  in  shape  of  skulls  and 
burial  mounds. — Sarcophagi  and  contents ;  provi- 
sions for  the  dead. — General  distribution  of  burial 
mounds  in  Western  Europe. — Evidence  that  several 
races  were  concerned  in  the  tumuli. —  Megalithic 
ruin  of  Carnac  in  Bretagne. — Practice  of  successive 
buryings  in  the  same  mound. — Coincident  usage  of 
earth  burial  and  cremation. — Imperfect  incineration  of 
prehistoric  remains. — Deposition  of  gifts  and  provi- 
sions for  dead  not  universal. — Classification  of  skele- 
tons and  implements  in  the  mounds.  —  Deposition  of 
models;  what  the  findings  signify. — Meaning  of  arti- 
cles must  be  inferred  from  human  nature    .  331-346 

Chapter  XX.— Prehistoric  Races  of  Amer- 
ica. 
Abundance  of  mounds  in  the  three  Americas. — 
Antiquity  of  the  mounds  indicated  by  their  situation. 
— Prehistoric  earthworks  not  found  on  lowerriv^r 
levels. — General  mystery  and  interest  excited  by  the 
mounds. — Ohio  valley  a  favorite  seat  of  prehistoric 
works. —  Military  design  of  the  principal  circles  and 
mounds. —  Ohio  fortifications;  the  mound  of  Cahokia. 
— Earthworks  in  the  form  of  beasts  and  serpents. — 
The  serpentine  mound  of  Brush  creek,  Ohio. — Re- 


ligious purpose  manifested  as  well  as  the  military. — 
Forgery  substituted  for  scientific  investigation. — Far- 
reaching  intercourse  ;  the  mound  potteries. — Mate- 
rials deposited  have  been  brought  from  great  dis- 
tances.— The  mounds  constructed  by  populous  races. 
— Mound  builders  had  passed  the  hunting  stage  in 
development. — Deductions  from  the  military  charac- 
ter of  the  works. — Great  peoples  demanded  to  ac- 
count for  American  antiquities. — Evidences  of  greater 
antiquity  m  American  mounds. — Indications  of  race 
variety  ;  character  of  prehistoric  crania. — The  Little 
Men  of  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee  valleys. — 
Character  of  the  graves;  the  sarcophagi,  and  the 
remains  therein. — Manner  of  the  extinction  of  pre- 
historic races  unknown. — Forces  that  tend  to  the  ex- 
termination of  races. — Extinct  peoples  of  Central 
America  nearer  to  the  present. — Mexican  monuments 
indicate  the  religious  purpose. — Plan  and  materials 
of  the  pyramidal  temples. — Plentiful  distribution  of 
such  structures  in  Cholula.  —  Particular  features 
of  the  Aztec  temples  of  Mexico. — Central  Amer- 
ican ruins ;  likeness  to  those  of  the  East. — 
Monumental  remains  of  Honduras  and  Colombia. — 
Temples  of  Cuzco ;  sun  worship  of  the  prehistoric 
races.  —  Sad  estate  of  the  people  in  prehistoric 
America. — Extinct  cities  of  the  Colorado  plateau. — 
Chronological  relations  of  the  ruins  of  the  South- 
west.— Remains  on  lake  Titicaca ;  character  of  the 
region. — Stone  and  earthwork  ;  the  monolithic  door- 
ways.— Astonishing  character  of  the  ruin  called  the 
Fortress. — Features  of  the  Temple,  the  Palace,  and 
the  Hall  of  Justice. — Purpose  of  this  treatise  and  of 
the  sketch  to  follow 346-365. 

Chapter  XXI. — General  Conditions  of  Sav- 
age Life. 
Relations  of  existing  races  to  their  barbarian  an- 
cestry.— Demarkation  between  prehistoric  and  his- 
toric races. — The  conscious  man  requires  an  expla- 
nation of  the  past. — Use  of  metals  coincident  with.' 
historical  consciousness. — Evanescent  character  of 
barbarian  traditions.  —  Instances  of  want  of  race 
memory  in  savages. — Transformation  and  early  ex- 
tinction of  barbaric  legends. — Persistency  and  integ- 
rity of  customs  and  habits. — Examples  of  the  preser- 
vation of  Semitic  manners. — Daily  life  of  the  Arabs 
a  transcript  of  that  of  the  Hebrews. — Common  re- 
ligious views  of  modern  and  ancient  Semites. — Prim- 
itive Teutonic  manners  have  survi\ed  to  present 
day. — Monumental  remains  the  certain  evidence  of 
prehistoric  conditions.  —  Deductions  drawn  from 
fidelity  of  manners  and  customs. — Inquiry  into  the 
primary  origin  of  barbarism.  —  Two  explanatory- 
theories  of  the  source  of  the  barbaric  state. — Hy- 
pothesis of  the  descent  of  mankind  from  an  age  of 
gold. — Belief  that  the  beginning  of  man-life  was  irr 
savagery. — Elaboration  of  this  view ;  arguments  in 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


its  support. — Race  traditions  generally  point  to  an 
age  of  gold. — Difficulty  of  accounting  for  the  prev- 
alence of  such  a  belief. — Actual  examples  of  the  de- 
cline and  extinction  of  races. — Monumental  remains 
indicate  the  greatness  of  ancient  peoples. — Language 
seems  to  have  begun  in  an  age  of  reason. — Argu- 
ments may  be  advanced  in  support  of  opposing 
theory. — Backward  look  of  history  reaches  barbaric 
beginnings. — Races  are  discoverable  in  the  actual 
process  of  evolution. — Slow  rate  of  race  emergence 
from  primitive  savagery. — History  replete  with  ex- 
amples of  human  development. — The  Greek  evolu- 
tion paralleled  with  that  of  the  Gauls. — Rise  of  the 
Saxon  race  from  barbarism  to  greatness.  —  The 
fallen  estate  of  races  differs  wholly  from  savagery. — 
Monuments  and  languages  have  behind  them  low 
conditions. — Not  reasonable  that  perfected  languages 
began  at  once 365-3S4 

Chapter  XXII. — B.arbarism  Illustrated. 

Large  areas  of  the  world  still  dominated  by  bar- 
barism.— Fillhiness  of  barbaric  life ;  example  of  Hot- 
tentots.— Savages  bathe  for  pleasure  rather  than 
purification. — Filth  in  food  supplements  filth  in  per- 
sonal habit. — Australians  an  example  of  degraded 
savagerv. — Feeding  as  the  beasts  ;  the  whale  carni- 
val.— The  Veddahs  also  exemplify  the  grossness  of 
barbaric  life. — Marriage  customs  and  domestic  code 
of  the  Veddahs. — Debased  condition  of  the  Andaman 
islanders.  —  Filthiness  of  personal  habits;  uses  of 
the  dead. — Low  estate  of  the  Tasmanians  ;  use  and 
preservation  of  fire. — Moral  ideas  and  religious  obli- 
gation among  barbarians. — Character  of  the  Pela- 


gian Blacks  or  Sea  Negroes. — Buildings  and  furnish- 
ings of  the  Fijians. — Making  and  management  of 
boats;  tools  and  potter)-. — Open  and  astounding 
cannibalism  of  the  Fijians. — Barbarism  illustrated 
from  native  races  of  America. — Race  features  of  our 
aborigines  denote  Asiatic  origin. — Summer  and  win- 
ter aspect  of  Esquimau  barbarism.  —  Omnivorous 
habit  and  gluttony  of  the  Esquimaux. — Skill  in  the 
manufacture  of  implements  and  utensils. — Manner  of 
harpooning  the  whale  and  the  seal.  —  Songs  and 
musical  instruments;  amusement  the  motive. — Taste 
of  the  race  in  sketching  and  map-making. — Drawing 
on  bone  and  ivory  ;  subjects  of  art  work. — Weak- 
ness of  the  Esquimaux  in  abstraction  ;  inability  to 
count. — Degradations  attendant  upon  polygamy  and 
polyandry. — Weakness  of  moral  nature  ;  a  rude  hu- 
manity.— Absence  of  cruelty  traceable  to  ethnic  in- 
difference.— Present  dissertation  on  barbarism  no 
more  than  a  sketch.  —  Place  of  semibarbarians  in 
the  ascending  scale  of  races. — Philosophy  of  the 
semibarbaric  estate  of  man.  —  The  Tunguses  an 
example  of  North  Asiatic  barbarity. — Semibarba- 
rism  of  the  Moors  and  Berbers.^AU  ages  fur- 
nish examples  of  lowest  human  condition. — Like 
extremes  of  development  present  in  ancient  and 
modern  times. — Existing  barbarism  both  progressive 
and  nonprogressive. — The  barbaric  life  does  not 
reveal  its  own  origin  or  spread. — Ancient  and  cur- 
rent barbarism  differently  distributed. — Civilization 
has  crowded  savagery  out  of  the  better  parts  of  the 
world. — Difference  between  progressive  and  nonpro- 
gressive parts  of  human  life.  —  Lowest  savagery  still 
present  in  several  parts  of  the  globe  .     .     .  384-410 


Book  IV.— Distrioutiox  of  the  Races. 


Chapter  XXllI.  —  Classification  of  the 
Hu.MAN  Species. 
Obscurity  of  the  early  movements  of  mankind. — 
Why  a  classitication  of  the  races  is  necessary.  —  No 
adequate  method  of  classifying  yet  discovered. — The 
ancients  believed  in  the  diversity  of  the  races. — 
Scriptural  opinions  conduced  to  a  belief  in  unity. — 
The  biblical  ethnology;  distribution  of  Shem  and 
Ham. — Japheth  disseminated  into  the  "isles  of  the 
gentiles."  —  Summar)'  of  the  biblical  schedule  of 
primitive  peoples. — Value  of  the  ethnic  scheme  out- 
lined in  Genesis.— Points  of  inapplicability  in  the 
Hebrew  classification.  —  The  scheme  satisfactory 
within  narrow  limits. — -Origin  and  development  of 
historical  ethnology. — Glimpses  of  a  wide  application 
of  this  method. — Meaning  and  scope  of  the  term 
"  Indo-European  race." — Races  included  under  the 
definition  of  Semitic.  —  Who  the  Hamiles  were  ; 
2 


doubts  as  to  certain  races. — The  Altaian  races  ;  dis- 
semination of  the  Tartars. — Aboriginal  races  of  the 
western  hemisphere. — Results  of  the  method;  imper- 
fections in  the  scheme. — In  what  manner  language 
has  become  a  basis  of  classification. — The  Aryan 
race  established  by  linguistic  processes.  —  Race 
movements  traceable  by  phenomena  of  language.— 
What  facts  in  language  warrant  ethnical  conclusions. 
— Inflection  the  prevailing  feature  of  Aryan  speech. 
— How  languages  are  modified  by  environment.  — 
Semitic  races  may  be  classified  by  means  of  their 
languages.  —  Contrast  between  Semitic  and  Ar\an 
methods  of  speech. — Peculiarities  of  the  so-called 
Turanian  languages.  —  Features  of  agglutinative 
tongues  ;  meaning  of  "  tura." — The  Ganowanian.  or 
bow-and-arrow,  races. — General  theory  of  geograph- 
ical ethnology. — Summary  of  results  by  the  geo- 
graphical method. — Unsatisfactory  character  of  geo- 


XX 


COJVTEJSTTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


graphical  classification. — Elements  of  uncertainty  in 
linguistic  method  of  race  division. — Possibility  of 
classifying  on  variations  in  form. — Crania  and  skulls 
as  a  means  of  tlctermining  race. — Color  of  the  skin 
a  true  test  of  ethnic  affinity. — Scientific  classification 
may  be  made  from  color. — Sources  of  former  error 
in  this  method  of  classifying. — Only  three  primary 
colors  of  the  human  skin. — The  term  ruddy  sub- 
stituted for  white  in  this  treatise. — No  races  may  be 
properly  defined  as  white. — What  races  may  be  cor- 
rectly classified  as  ruddy. — General  analysis  of  the 
Brown  races. — The  four  groups  of  the  Black  races. — 
Other  plans  of  classifying  may  be  harmonized  with 
this. — General  distribution  of  the  Brown  races. — • 
Outline  of  the  dispersion  of  the  Blacks. — Mankind  to 
be  divided  into  Ruddy  races.  Brown  races,  and  Black 
races 411-435 

Chapter  XXIV.— Noachite  Dispersion  Con- 
sidered. 
Primitive  seats  of  the  Adamites. — Apparent  point 
of  origin  for  all  the  races. — Berosus  recounts  the 
myth  of  the  sea  god  Oan. — Outline  in  Genesis  of  the 
Adamic  races. — Value  of  the  Berosian  account  of 
the  Chakteans. — Ten  Chaldee  mythical  kings ;  con- 
formity to  the  Hebrew  scheme. — The  headmen  of 
the  Adamite  clans. — Question  of  the  primitive  metal- 
lurgy of  the  Semites. —  Dissemination  of  traditions  of 
a  deluge. — Why  the  Egyptian  race  possessed  no 
such  tradition. — General  harmony  of  Chaktean  and 
Hebrew  accounts  of  the  flood. — The  Assyrian  tradi- 
tion departs  from  the  older  forms. — Early  division  of 
the  Adamites  into  three  branches. — Uncertain  ethnic 
relations  of  early  Mesopotamians. — Point  of  disper- 
sion eastward  from  Assyria  and  Chaldasa. — Issuance 
of  the  Noachites  to  the  west. — Probable  directions 
of  the  Hamitic  dispersion. — Traces  of  ethnic  admix- 
ture in  primitive  Elamites. — First  distribution  of  the 
Semites  and  Japhethites. — Indications  that  the  Old 
Chaldaeans  were  Hamitic. — Race  troubles  between 
Northern  and  Southern  Semites.  —  Dififerences  m 
remains  of  Chaldaeans  and  Assyrians. — Significance 
of  the  Noachite  patronymics. — Contention  for  prece- 
dence among  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japheth. — Strife  of 
the  ancients  for  the  rights  of  priority. — Chronology 
at  fault  respecting  the  Noachite  races. — Evidence  of 
great  antiquity  of  Egyptian  Hamites. —  Probable 
derivation  of  the  Egyptians  from  Chaldasa. — Effects 
of  environment  on  the  migrant  Noachites. — Chaldaea 
and  Assyria  a  necessity  of  the  early  peoples. — The 
Ruddy  races  plant  themselves  in  Mesopo- 
tamia   435-449 

Chapter  XXV.— The  Hamitic  Migrations. 
Hamitic  races  lie  nearest  the  Blacks  in  race  dis- 
tribution.—  Historical  reasons  for  the  migrations  of 
the  Hamites. — Primitive  Arabian  population  of  Ham- 


itic descent.  —  Himyaritic  writings  show  traces  of 
Hamitic  production. — Affinities  and  connection  of 
Hamitic  and  Semitic  languages. — Wide  distribution 
of  theHimyaritic  inscriptions. — Geographical  position 
of  the  ancient  Hiniyarites. — Race  kinship  of  South- 
ern Arabs  and  Eastern  Africans.  —  Distribution  of 
Hamitic  blood  in  Eastern  Africa. — Crossing  of  the 
ethnic  lines  in  Gallaland. — Syria  is  preoccupied  by 
Hamitic  immigrants.  —  Divisions  and  resultant 
plantings  of  the  migration. — Ham  founds  Canaan  . 
Hebrews  disparage  their  kinsmen. — Extent  of  Ham- 
itic migrations  into  Asia  Minor. — Winchell's  views 
regarding  the  European  dispersion  of  the  Hamites. 
— The  race  enters  and  occupies  the  Nile  valley. — 
E.xtreme  antiquity  of  ethnic  movements  here  de- 
scribed.— Old  travelers  marvel  at  the  age  of  Egypt. 
—  Modern  inquiry  fixes  approximate  date  for  Menes. 
— True  nature  of  primitive  tribal  migrations. — In 
what  manner  favored  localities  become  populated. — ■ 
The  radical  element  breaks  away  from  the  conserva- 
tive.— Egypt  a  striking  example  of  the  ethnic  sack. — 
Migration  at  length  resumed  through  Northern 
Africa. — Branchings  and  turnings  of  the  Western 
Hamitic  dispersion. — Rank  and  character  of  North 
African  stales  and  peoples. — The  Hamites  venture 
by  land,  but  avoid  the  sea. — Hamitic  preferences  for 
the  equatorial  trend. — Tlie  Berber  races  result  from 
deflected  movements. — Ethnic  place  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians considered.  —  Institutional  and  linguistic 
intimacy  of  Semites  and  Hamites. — Semitic  influence 
prevails  over  the  Hamitic  at  Carthage. — Extreme 
limits  of  Hamitic  distribution  in  the  west. — Nature 
of  the  dispersion  in  African  interior. — Ethnic  move- 
ments are  not  exact  and  logical. — General  summary 
of  the  Hamitic  migrations 449-463 

Chapter  XXVI. — Migrations  of  the  Semites. 
Mesopotamia  essentially  a  land  of  the  Semites. — 
Central  position  of  the  race;  the  westward  movement. 
— Tradition  of  the  outgoing  of  the  Abrahamites. — 
Place  and  character  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. — Special 
significance  of  the  Semitic  patronymics.  —  Contact 
of  the  Abrahamites  with  the  races  of  Canaan. — 
Outgoing  and  plantings  of  Joktan  in  Arabia. — 
Modern  traces  of  the  ancient  Joktanians.  —  The 
Joktanidas  make  themselves  names  and  races. — 
Relations  of  the  Joktanians  and  the  Eberites. — 
Spread  of  the  Ishmaelites  through  Arabia.  —  The 
western  branch  reaches  the  Imoshagin  Africa. — Com- 
posite race  character  of  the  modern  Arabians. — 
Vicissitudes  of  the  Abrahamites  in  possessing  Ca- 
naan.— Noncommercial  character  of  the  primitive 
Hebrews.  —  Extent  of  Hebrew  influence  on  the 
Mediterranean. — The  Azores  mark  the  Atlantic 
limit  of  Hebrew  departure. — Use  and  significance  of 
Hebrew  tribal  names. — The  Hebrew  branch  entwines 
with  the  Hamitic  in  Cyprus. — Summary  and  outline 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


of  the  Hebraic  distribution.— Question  of  the  race 
derivation  of  the  Ethiopians. — Western  Ishmael  com- 
bines therein  with  the  Hamites. — Aram  the  seat  of 
the  strongest  Semitic  development     .     .     .  463-473 

Chapter  XXVII.  — The  East  Aryan  De- 
parture. 
Determination  of  the  origin  of  the  Arj-an  migra- 
tions.— Region  of  the  Lower  Caspian  the  point  of 
departure. — Hamites  are  ethnically  modified  by  en- 
vironment.— Egyptian  sculptures  evidence  the  early 
differentiation  of  races. — Primitive  Japhethites  affect- 
ed by  climate  and  surroundings. — Indefiniteness  of 
biblical  references  to  the  Japhetic  dispersion. — Seven 
tribes  of  the  Japhethites  ;  the  race  of  Gomer. — Place 
of  the  Riphaces  in  the  ethnic  scheme. — Distribution 
of  the  Magog  and  the  Madai. — Traces  of  the  disper- 
sion of  the  Javanites. — Probable  identificalion  of  the 
Georgians  with  the  Tubalites. — Possible  derivation 
of  the  Thracians  from  Tiras. — Biblical  scheme  repre- 
sents the  Japhethites  as  developed  westward. — How 
far  the  Hebrew  outline  of  Japheth  extended. — Great 
contribution  of  linguistic  science  to  ethnography. — 
Discovery  of  Indo-lranic  affinities  by  means  of  San- 
skrit.— First  movement  of  races  from  the  Aryan 
nidus. — Hints  of  physical  laws  governing  the  move- 
ments of  races. — Possible  reason  for  the  direction  of 
Indo-Persian  migration. — Light  derived  from  Iranic 
and  'Vedic  literature. —  Expansion  of  the  race  of 
Brahm  in  India. — Primitive  tribes  hang  together  in 
the  migratory  movement. — The  Medes  precede  the 
Persians  in  historical  development.     .     .     .  473-482 

Chapter  XXVIII. — The  West  Aryax  Migra- 
tions. 
Sense  in  which  "migration  "  is  to  be  understood. 
— Northern  limits  of  Ar^'an  dispersion  in  Asia. — 
Sources  of  the  race  movement  into  Europe. — First 
races  planted  on  the  lines  of  the  outgoing. — Origin 
of  the  Minor  Asians;  Hamitic  influences.  —  Multi- 
plicity of  ethnic  plantings  in  the  Lesser  Asia. — Place 
and  race  composition  of  the  Cilicians. — Beginnings 
of  Cappadocian  and  Paphlagonian  races. —  Rise  of 
the  Phrygians  ;  their  kinship  with  the  Armenians. — 
Other  Minor  Asians  ;  Lydians  in  particular. — Minor 
Asians  contemporary  with  the  Iranians  and  Indicans. 
— Reasons  for  the  different  streams  of  Hellenic  mi- 
gration.— Race  progress  through  the  Cyclades  into 
Hellas. — Principal  migratory  route  by  way  of  Thrace 
and  Thessaly. — Ethnic  restlessness  of  the  Graikoi ; 
meanmg  of  the  name. — The  Greek  migration  con- 
tained the  potency  of  the  Italican. — Lmguistic  hints 
as  to  priority  of  Greeks  or  Romans. — Rise  of  the 
system  of  ancestral  mythology. — Place  and  charac- 
teristics of  the  .(Eolians. — Evolution  and  race  char- 
acter of  the  Dorians.  —  Situation  of  Ionia;  the 
Dodecapolis. — Rank  and  relations  of  the  Achseans 


among  the  Greeks. — Easy  ethnic  relations  of  Greece 
and  Italy. — Place  of  the  lapygians ;  races  of  the 
north. — Distribution  of  the  Umbro-Sabellian  tribes. 
— Myth  and  tradition  of  the  primitive  Latini. — Scanty 
knowledge  of  the  Volscians  ;  their  situation. —  Pre- 
dominance of  the  Oscans ;  the  Italian  Gauls. — Place 
and  derivation  of  the  Veneti. — Limits  of  the  Graeco- 
Italic  migrations. — Origin  and  course  of  the  North 
Aryan  distribution.  —  Ethnic  movements  by  which 
the  Celts  reached  Galatia. — Point  of  departure  for 
the  Celtic  dispersion  in  Europe.^Complete  develop- 
ment of  the  race  in  Gaul  and  Britain. — Wide  distri- 
bution of  the  Celts  throughout  the  West.  —  The 
Celtic  races  superimposed  on  aboriginal  barbarians. 
— Ramifications  of  the  Celtic  stock  in  the  British 
Isles. — Bending  back  of  Celtic  migrations  to  the 
place  of  beginning. — Question  of  the  race  connection 
of  Teutons  and  Slavs  considered.  —  Branches  and 
directions  of  the  Teuto-Slavonic  stem. — Point  of  di- 
vision of  the  two  races  ;  the  Russian  family. — Distri- 
bution of  the  Great,  Little,  and  White  Russians. — Dis- 
persion of  the  Germans  ;  three  branches  of  the  race. 
• — Analysis  and  distribution  of  the  Goths. — Franks 
people  the  Rhine  valley ;  the  Vandal  distribution. — 
Movements  of  the  Heruli  and  the  Gepidas. — Progress 
of  the  Suevi ;  the  Longobards  in  Italy. — Ethnic  place 
and  vicissitudes  of  the  Burgundians. — Outspread  of 
the  Low  Germans  and  the  Norse. — Extent  of  the 
dispersion  of  the  Aryan  family. — General  and  excep. 
tional  movements  of  the  Aryans. — Extent  and  bound- 
aries of  the  Aryan  belt.  —  Only  conscious  move- 
ments to  be  considered  in  migration. — General  view 
of  the  dispersion  of  the  Ruddy  races  .     .     .  482-504 

Chapter  XXIX. —  Dispersion  of  the  Brown 
Races. 
Common  source  of  Ruddy  and  Brown  races  may 
be  found. — Dravidians  appear  to  have  had  a  separate 
line  of  departure. — Hypothesis  of  common  origin  for 
all  in  Lemuria. — Criteria  for  determining  the  direc- 
tion of  migrations. — In  what  manner  the  language 
and  institutions  of  Rome  may  be  restored. — The 
whole  Ar)an  group  may  be  reconstructed  likewise. — 
Direction  and  character  of  the  Dravidian  dispersion. 
— Invading  Aryans  overcome  the  aborigines  of  India. 
— The  conquerors  are  modified  by  the  subject  races. 
—  Probability  that  all  races  have  mixed  complex- 
ions.— Color  of  the  human  skin  not  derivable  from 
climate. —  Variations  of  color  traceable  to  primary 
ethnic  conditions. — Evidence  of  the  insufficiency  of 
climate  to  make  complexion. — Course  of  the  Dra- 
vidian lines  in  India  and  Ceylon. — The  Malayo-Chi- 
nese  departure;  Lohitos  and  Burmese.  —  Doubts 
respecting  the  populations  of  peninsular  Asia. — 
Problem  of  the  peopling  of  Polynesia. — Outreaching 
ethnic  lines  from  Carohne  and  Gilbert  islands. — Dis- 
persion from  the  Samoan  group  and  the  Marquesas. 


XXII 


CON'TEN'TS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


—Easiness  and  difficulty  of  the  progress  through 
Polynesia. — Probable  derivation  of  the  races  of  the 
New  World. — Oiitbranching  of  the  Asiatic  Mongo- 
loids.— Distribution  of  the  Northeastern  Asiatics. — 
Dispersion  of  the  Brown  races  deflected  in  the  Amoor 
valley.  -Race  lines  of  Sanioyeds  and  Ural-Altaics. — 
Distribution  of  the  Twagi  and  the  Juraks. — Outline 
of  the  Tungusian  dispersion. — Outer  circuit  of  the 
dispersion  of  the  Brown  races. — Question  of  the 
ethnic  descent  of  Basques  and  Iberians. — Place  of 
the  Esths  in  the  scheme  of  races. — Ethnic  connec- 
tions of  the  Malagasy. — General  and  special  direc- 
tions of  the  Brown  dispersion. — Difficult  ethnography 
of  the  American  aborigines. — Ultimate  derivation  of 
the  Indian  races. — Place  and  affinities  oftheOrarians. 
— Easy  derivation  of  Alaskan  aborigines  from  the 
Asiatics. — Polynesian  Mongoloids  mix  with  Asiatic 
derivatives. — General  course  of  Polynesian  and  Es- 
quimau migrations. — Distribution  of  the  Selish  ;  the 
Mexican  races. — Origin  and  dispersion  of  the  Central 
Americans. — Place  of  the  Shoshones  ;  derivation  of 
the  Six  Nations. — The  Polynesian  Mongoloids  in 
South  America. —  Origin  of  the  West  Indians  and 
the  Seminoles. — Universality  of  the  Brown  dispersion 
in  the  Americas. — Astonishing  extent  of  the  migra- 
tions of  the  Brown  races. — Outer  periphery  and  limits 
of  the  Brown  dispersion S^SS-i 

Chapter  XXX. — Distribution  of  the  Bl.\ck. 
Races. 
General  character  of  the  Nigritian  distribution. — 
Lemuria  necessary  to  unify  the  Black  dispersion. — 
Origin  of  the  ethnic  dissemination  of  the  African 
races. — Place  and  distribution  of  theFundi-Sudanese. 
— Kinship  of  Fulah  and  Fundi  races;  subordinate 
families. — Distribution  of  the  West  Sudanese  and 
Guineans. — Central  Sudanese  and  tribes  of  the  Chad 
Basin.— Place  of  the  East  Sudanese  and  the  Nilotes. 
—  Ethnic  traces  of  the  Hamites  among  the  Nigri- 
tians. — Classification  and  subdivisions  of  the  Bantus. 
— Africa  the  Patria  Dolorosa  of  the  world. — Limits 
of  the  Zulu  and  Kaffir  dispersion. — Ethnic  relations 
of  the  Coast  Kaffirs  and  the  Bantus.  —  General 
boundaries  of  the  Nigritian  distribution. — Race  origin 
of  the  Hottentots  considered.  —  Where  the  Hot- 
tentots and  Bechuanas  are  distributed. — -Subordi- 
nate tribal  divisions  of  the  Hottentots — Indications 
that  Negroes  and  Hottentots  are  primitive  races. — 
Probability  that  the  Hottentots  are  least  devel- 
oped of  mankind.  —  Homogenity  of  the  Australian 
aborigines. — The  Australians  should  be  classified 
with  the  Nigricans.  —  Lemuria  seems  necessary 
to  the  supposed  distribution. — Lines  of  the  Black 
dispersion  in  Australia. — Valid  grounds  of  eth- 
nographic hypothesis. — Origin  and  course  of  the 
Papuan  distribution. — Geographical  limitations  of 
the  race. — Legitimate    use   of   hypothesis  in    ethnic 


inquiry.  —  Question  of  time,  plactf,  and  manner 
recurs. — Theory  of  monogenesis  is  best  sustained 
by  facts.— True  aspect  and  form  of  migratory 
movements  considered.  —  Familiar  illustrations 
of  the  movements  of  races.  —  Gradual  diffusion 
of  the  Anglo-Americans  westward.  —  Exactitude 
not  to  be  expected  in  ethnic  movements. — Separation 
of  tribes  and  races  not  complete. — Off-grading  of 
the  human  species ;  no  lines  in  nature. — Species  a 
misnomer  in  the  economy  of  nature. — Races  of  men 
must  be   regarded   as  varieties   of   a   common    life. 

—  Peoples  approximate  along  their  ethnic  mar- 
gins       525-539 

Chapter   XXXI.— Mixed  Races   of  Man- 
kind. 

Existence  of  mixed  or  intermediate  races. — Race 
offspring  takes  character  from  both  ancestors. — But 
intermediate  forms  do  not  perpetuate  themselves. — 
All  varieties  of  men  fall  withhi  a  distinct  •'  species." 

—  Short-lived  character  of  all  mixed  varieties. — 
Results  of  intermixture  in  the  case  of  the  Indo- 
Aryans. — Examples  of  like  ethnic  phenomena  else- 
where. —  Further  examples  of  composite  ethnic 
character. — The  Israelites  modified  by  the  environ- 
ment of  races. — Wide  diffusion  of  mixed  types  ;  the 
Mulaltoes.  —  Instability  of  the  Mulatto  stock. — 
Crosses  of  American  aborigines  with  Negroes. — 
Ethnic  instincts  traceable  to  procreation  and  birth. 
— All  race  dispositions  arise  from  the  family. — Place 
of  the  father  in  the  primary  organization. — In  what 
manner  the  gens  is  evolved  from  families.  —  The 
tribe  in  like  manner  springs  from  gentes. — The  gen- 
tile life  a  state  of  susceptibility. — In  the  tribal  life 
ethnic  features  are  established. — The  horde  arises 
from  arrestment  of  race  dev'elopment. — The  race  is 
the  result  of  tribal  evolution. — The  successive  stages 
of  development  summarized. — Slow  and  toilsome 
progress  of  the  human  tace.  —  Synoptical  view  of 
the  dispersion  of  mankind 540-548 

Chapter  XXXII.— General  View  of  Ethnic 
Characteristics. 
Personal  characteristics  of  races  to  be  considered. 

—  Races  of  men  distinguished  by  certain  leading 
features. — Ability  of  mankind  to  modify  the  physical 
environment. — The  Ruddy  races  have  effected  great- 
est modifications.  —  Brown  races  do  not  concern 
themselves  with  phj'sical  conditions. — Modifications 
effected  by  man  in  Mesopotamia. — Nature  changes 
somewhat  under  the  influence  of  man. — Injury  done 
to  the  world  by  destruction  of  forests. — Asia  Minor 
more  modified  than  Eastern  or  Northern  Europe. — 
Variable  power  of  races  as  modifying  agents. — 
Modification  of  the  earth  correlative  with  civilization. 
^Europe  more  than  Africa  changed  by  human 
agency. — Man   successfully  resisted  by  three  forms 


COXTEXTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


XXIII 


of  nature. — Great  modifications  effected  by  llie  Teu- 
tonic races. — The  Aryan  belt  presents  the  most 
remarkable  transformation.  —  Hamitic  and  Semitic 
genius  unfavorable  to  physical  change. — Countries 
of  Hamites  and  Semites  not  susceptible  to  modifica- 
tion.— Modifying  influences  of  races  graded  from 
Ruddy  to  Black. — The  countries  of  the  Aryan  races 
have  favored  development. — Subjective  reasons  for 
the  strong  evolution  of  the  Aryans. — Natural  science 
unknown  to  the  Browns  and  the  Blacks.  —  The 
Aryans  have  learned  and  mastered  the  laws  of  phe- 
nomena.— E.xtreme  sensitiveness  of  the  Aryan  races 
to  want. — Are  Aryan  instincts  and  characteristics 
effect  or  cause? — Ethnic  preference  determines 
much  in  race  development. — Races  choose  condi- 
tions and  conditions  react  on  races. — Great  part  of 
human  development  based  on  the  knowledge  of 
nature. — Conconiitancy  of  science  and  the  civilized 
life. —  Scientific  preeminence  of  the  Indo-European 
races. — Knowledge  of  natural  law  a  condition  of 
perpetuity. — The  Semitic  mind  seeks  personality  in 
nature. — And  makes  man  to  be  related  and  bound 
thereto.  —  Notion  of  spiritual  causation  peculiarly 
Semitic.  —  This  notion  differs  totally  from  Aryan 
polytheism. — Misconception  of  modern  philosophy 
respecting  such  difference. — The  Brown  races  have 
little  mythology  or  religion. — Philosophical  view  of 
Chinese  system  of  thought. — The  Black  races  still 
lower  in  the  scale  of  religion. —  Difference  of  races 
respecting  the  spirit  of  adventure. — The  Ruddy  races 


strongest  in  the  adventurous  disposition. — Courage 
of  the  Browtis  divorced  from  rational  purpose. — 
Undeniable  and  striking  ascendency  of  the  Aryans. 
— Ethnic  diversity  in  bodily  form  and  activity. — Such 
diversity  dates  back  to  the  earliest  ages. — Great 
diversity  in  the  stature  and  bulk  of  men. —  Correla- 
tions of  mind  and  body  in  evolution. — The  lowest 
limits  of  size  in  the  human  race. — Maxima  of  stature; 
giants  and  gigantic  races.  —  Largest  examples  of 
human  beings  among  the  Browns. — Aryan  peoples 
reach  the  highest  average  stature.  —  Geographical 
situation  and  the  size  of  the  body. — Form  and  stature 
of  men  have  been  preserved  from  antiquity. — Constant 
relation  between  the  size  of  the  brain  and  human 
energy. — Winchell's  table  of  cranial  capacity  of  races. 
■ — Deductions  from  the  tables  ;  lowest  forms  of  man- 
life. — Relation  of  brain  capacity  to  other  physical 
features. — Selvage  of  mankind  and  the  lower  animals. 
— Approximation  of  certain  Blacks  to  the  simians. — 
Hints  in  low  races  of  future  development. — The  three 
principal  things,  food,  clothing,  and  shelter. — Range 
of  ethnic  differences  in  procuring  essentials  of  life. — 
Method  of  man  in  adapting  himself  to  nature. — Ad- 
justment varies  from  natural  to  artificial  conditions. 
— Evolution  of  food  precedes  building  and  clothing. 
— The  Chmese  exemplify  the  retardation  of  archi- 
tecture.— The  Blacks  are  unprogressive  in  all  the 
conditions  of  life. — The  Aryans  preeminent  in  mas- 
tery of  natural  resources. — Place  of  the  Arjans  in  the 
architectural  evolution 549-576 


fart  Cbirtt. 

THE  RUDDY  RACES. 

I. -THE  EAST  ARYANS. 

Book  v.— The  Ir^xiaxs. 


Ch.apter  X.XXIII.  —  Elementary  Character 

AXD  RELIG!0.\. 
The  inquiry  may  begin  with  the  Iranians. — Plateau 
of  Iran  invited  to  horsemanship  and  outdoor  life. — 
The  desert  Iranians  become  hunters  ;  the  Indicans 
agriculturists. — Both  methods  of  life  combine  in  the 
race  character. — The  sedentary  life  takes  the  place  of 
the  nomadic. — Ethnic  and  personal  character  of  the 
Iranians. — The  race  constantly  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ences of  nature.  —  Tribal  divisions  of  Persians  as 
given  by  Herodotus.  —  Feebleness  of  architectural 
evolution  among  the  Iranians. — Early  motion  of  the 
literary  impulse  in  the  race. — Language  and  subject- 
matter  of  the  Zend-Avesta. — The  beneficent  Ahuras 
are  celebrated  in  the  Gathas. — Theme  and  method 


of  the  Vendidad.- — The  Va^na  throws  light  on 
disputed  ethnic  relations. — Hymns  of  the  Ya^na; 
Miiller's  comments. — Specimen  translation  of  the 
Gathas. — Example  of  Haug's  translation  of  the  Zend- 
Avesta. — Relation  of  Zoroaster  to  Iranian  theology. 
— Place  and  offices  of  Ahura-Mazdao. — The  retinue 
of  angels;  divine  attributes  become  personal. — Myth 
and  worship  of  Armati. — The  personal  deities  arise 
out  of  nature  worship. — Separation  of  the  powers 
and  beginning  of  dualism. — Materialism  yields  to 
adoration  of  spirit. — Symbolism  intervenes  between 
form-  and  spirit-worship. — The  Earth  and  the  meta- 
phor of  the  cow. — Elaboration  of  the  myth  of  Geus- 
Lfrva. — Ahriman  and  the  hierarchy  of  the  Devas. — 
Intoxication  and  the  worship  of  Soma. — High  moral- 


XXIV 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


ity  of  the  primitive  Zoroastrians. — Motive  made  the 
foundation  of  ethics  and  religion. — Evolution  of  the 
order  of  the  Kavi. — I  m  perfection  of  primitive  religious 
concepts.  —  Even  the  Semites  had  low  notions  of 
worship  and  duty. — Fundamental  ideas  of  the  office 
of  Kavi. — Sacrifice  intended  to  supply  the  deities 
with  food  and  raiment.  —  The  things  sacrificed  ; 
gift  of  the  horse. — Fire  employed  as  the  agent 
of  transformation.  —  The  primitive  philosophers 
of  the  Iranian  race. — East  Aryans  preferred  the 
open  air  for  worship. — Notion  of  immortality  of 
later  date. — At  first  worship  was  moved  by  hope 
of  advantage. — Iranian  religion  foreran  national  de- 
velopment   577-595 

Chapter  XXXIV.— Sex  and  Marriage  Among 
THE  Aryans. 

Importance  of  sex  and  sex  union  in  race  history. — 
Four  methods  of  sexual  union  among  races. — Com- 
munal system  of  marriage ;  its  impermanence.  — 
Nature  of  the  polygamous  scheme  of  union. — Ante- 
cedents and  results  of  polyandrous  marriage.  — 
Monogamy  determines  both  lines  of  parentage. — 
All  races  have  and  maintain  a  sexual  code. — His- 
torical priority  of  marriage  systems  considered. — 
Some  tribes  adopt  one  method  and  some  another. — 
Alleged  beginning  of  monogamy  among  the  Romans. 
— Other  Indo-Europeans  practiced  single  marriage. 
— Difficulty  of  maintaining  monogamy  against  license. 
— Smgle  marriage  peculiar  to  the  Aryan  races. — 
Facts  tending  to  determine  marriage  systems  con- 
sidered.— Conditions  antecedent  to  the  monogamic 
method. — Nature  of  the  forces  whereby  monogamy 
is  confirmed.  —  Certain  other  conditions  tend  to 
establish  polygamy.  —  Communal  marriage  the 
result  of  sexual  chaos. — Paucity  of  females  must 
have  preceded  polyandry.  —  Smallness  of  tribal 
division  favors  polyandrous  system.  —  Bearing  of 
marriage  systems  on  proportion  of  the  sexes. — 
Do  polygamy  and  polyandry  perpetuate  them- 
selves }  —  Monogamy  reinforced  by  the  Iranian 
prophets 595-605 

Chapter  XXXV.  —  Historical  Develop.ment 
OF  THE  Iranians. 
Question  of  dates  in  Old  Iranian  history. — Probable 
place  and  epoch  of  Zoroaster. — Historical  students  do 
not  sufficiently  consider  perspective. — Possibility  of 
developing  historical  outlines  by  parallax. — The  Old 
Medes  the  first  forms  of  the  Iranian  evolutions. — 
Rise  and  progress  of  Iranian  monarchy.— Order  of 
the  Medo-Persian  development. — Warlike  form  of 
Iranian  institutions. — War  passion  and  cruelty  the 
attributes  of  the  race. — Ferocity  of  the  Medo-Persian 


soldiery. — Deterioration  of  Zoroastrianism  into  fire 
worship. — Wide  prevalence  of  the  sun-  and  fire-idol- 
atry. —  Ancient  Iranian  character  survives  in  de- 
scendent  races     605-612 

Chapter    XX.XVI.  —  Ethnic    Divisions   and 

Characteristics. 
The  language  and  literature  known  as  Haikanic. — 
Ethnic  features  and  off-grading  of  the  Armenians. — 
Armenians  preserve  the  semblance  of  Old  Iranian 
life. — Intellectual  qualities  of  the  race  ;  spirit  of  in- 
dependence.— Change  in  the  method  of  disposing  of 
the  dead. — Mohammedan  and  Christian  usage  has 
supervened. — Character  and  sense  of  grave-stone 
effigies. — Certain  Persic  types  represent  the  ancient 
race. — Prevalence  of  the  wandering  life  in  Luristan. 
— Place  and  character  of  the  Tajiks,  or  Parsivan. — 
Stature  and  ethnic  characteristics  of  this  people. 
— They  present  strongly  the  Old  Iranian  traits. — 
Cruelly  and  fierceness  of  the  Persic  stock. — Race 
character  of  the  modern  Persians. — Classes  and  con- 
ditions of  the  Persian  population. — Ethnic  place  and 
manner  of  life  of  the  Iliyats. — Social  and  domestic 
life  derived  from  Mohammedanism. — Polygamy  sub- 
stituted for  the  ancient  monogamy. — Character  of 
the  Persian  family;  the  women. —  Architecture  of 
Persia  derived  from  Mohammedan  styles. — Tomb- 
building  of  the  race;  the  burial  tower. — Aspect  of 
Persian  houses  and  towns ;  interior  decorations. — 
Linguistic  evolution  ;  influence  of  Arabic. — Govern- 
mental system  reaches  back  to  classical  ages. — Place 
of  the  shah  ;  his  absolutism. — Departments  of  ad- 
ministration ;  organization  of  the  army. — Derivation 
of  manners  and  customs  ;  varying  characteristics. — 
Slavery  and  the  slave  market  among  the  Persians. — 
Materials  and  styles  of  costume ;  rank  indicated 
thereby. — Apparel  of  women  ;  arms  and  arm-bearmg 
of  the  Persians. — Painting  the  face  and  the  type  of 
beauty. — Ethnic  place  and  character  of  the  Afghans. 
— General  features  of  the  race;  foreign  admixture. — 
Tribal  divisions  of  the  race  and  their  manner  of  life. 
— Distribution  and  character  of  the  Huzareh. — Their 
immorality;  other  tribes  of  East  Iranians. — Language 
of  the  .Afghans  ;  beginnings  of  literary  development. 
— Place  of  the  Beluchs  ;  race  infection  on  the  side  of 
India. — Slavery  and  the  slave  trade;  marriage  and 
ceremonies. — Dress  of  the  Beluchs;  the  peasant 
garb. — Personal  features  and  race  traits  of  the 
Beluchs. — Social  customs  ;  industrial  pursuits  and 
dissipations. — Character  and  ethnic  place  of  the 
Ossetes. — Geographical  regions  occupied  by  Iranic 
Aryans. — Principal  countries  ;  modifying  influence 
of  Islam. — Black  and  Brown  admixture  with  the 
Iranians .  612-641 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


XXV 


Book  VI.— Xhe  Indicant. 


Chapter  XXXyil.  — House  People  of  Arya. 
Reason  for  the  caption  "  House  People  of  Arya." 
— Reactions  of  nature  on  man  and  his  institutions. — 
Derivation  and  sense  of  the  name  India. — The  Sapta 
Sindhu  of  the  Old  Indicans. — Origin  and  wanderings 
of  the  Indican  immigrants. — Aryan  mythology  modi- 
fied by  the  new  environment. — Variability  of  climatic 
conditions  in  India. — Extent  and  physical  features  of 
the  countr)-. — Circumstances  tending  to  isolate  the  In- 
dican race. — The  Indicans  becomemore  localizedthan 
others. — The  immigrant  .Aryans  find  aborigines  in  the 
country. — House-building  instincts  of  the  East  Ar- 
yans.— Sympathy  of  Aryans  with  tlie  tree;  skill  in  wood 
structure. — Name  of  the  house,  and  ideas  associated 
therewith. — Nature  of  the  household  ;  the  paternal 
name. — The  fact  and  sentiment  of  single  marriage. 
— The  Aryan  household  preeminently  monogamic. 
— Institution  of  the  family;  office  of  the  mother. 
— The  son  and  the  daughter ;  significance  of  their 
names. — Predominance  of  the  agricultural  instinct. — 
Meaning  and  application  of  the  word  Arya. — Rela- 
tions of  the  Indicans  with  tame  and  wild  beasts. — The 
agricultural  life  indicated  by  the  domestic  animals. — 
Names  of  wild  beasts  different  in  various  Aryan  lan- 
guages.— Names  of  implements  also  show  the  man- 
ner of  life. — Indications  of  a  peaceable  and  domestic 
race  character. — Synopsis  of  the  aspects  of  life  in 
Old  India 641-654 

Chapter  .X'X.W'III.— Religiox. 
General  effect  of  the  migration  of  the  East  Aryans 
into  India. — Indican  religious  s\stem  developed  by 
the  Brahmans. — Nature  and  extent  of  the  Vedas. — 
Additional  writings  connected  with  the  sacred  text. 
— Essence  of  the  system  contained  in  the  Rig- Veda. 
— Vedaism  "based  on  the  adoration  of  nature. — 
Natural  reverence  for  the  air  and  the  heavenly  bodies. 
— The  mind  seeks  to  separate  matter  from  spirit. — 
The  prayerful  element  in  the  Vedic  worship. —  De- 
velopment of  worship  and  use  of  sacrifices. — Extracts 
from  the  Veda;  hymn  to  Indra. — Worship  of  Agni; 
hymn  in  his  praise.— Cult  of  the  storm  ;  hymn  to  the 
Maruts.  —  Myth  of  the  dawn  ;  hymn  to  Ushas. — 
Theory  of  Varuna.  and  his  hymns. — Muller's  views 
respecting  \'edaism  ;  later  Vedic  hymns. — Brahman- 
ism  becomes  an  incomprehensible  mythology. — 
Meaning  of  Kathenotheism  ;  nature  of  the  Trimurti. 
— What  brahma  was  and  what  it  became. — Specu- 
lations and  refinements  respecting  the  6m. — Later 
Brahmanism  puts  the  end  for  the  cause. — The  be- 
liever must  know  the  brahma  which  is  to  receive 
him. —  Contrast  of  the  old  and  the  newer  Brahman- 
ism.— Source  of  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration 
of  souls. — Theory  of  metempsychosis  and  gradations 
of  living  forms.— Doctrine  of  sin  and  of  expiation. — 


Notion  that  sin  and  uncleanness  are  one. — Punish- 
ments adjusted  to  the  false  theory  of  sin. — Doctrine  of 
the  incarnation,  or  the  avatars. — Place  of  Siva  in  the 
Indian  pantheon. — To  what  extent  religions  are  part 
of  ethnic  history. — Apparition  of  Sakya  Gautama  the 
Buddha. — Career  and  evangelism  of  the  "Enlightened 
One." — Parallel  of  Buddhism  with  Western  Protes- 
tantism.—  Debasing  character  of  the  Brahmanical 
ceremonies. — Practice  of  sutteeism  ;  the  rite  not  obli- 
gatory.— Usages  and  self-inflicted  torture  of  the  devo- 
tees.— Belief  that  bodilydistortion  isefficaciousagainst 
sin. — City  and  annual  ceremonial  of  Juggernaut. — 
Scenes  at  the  procession  of  the  tower  chariot. — Ques- 
tion of  immolation  under  the  car. — Worship  of  the 
Ganges  and  sacrifice  thereto 654-676 

Chapter  XXXIX.  —  C.\stes  and   Race  Divi- 

sio.xs. 
Origin  and  evolution  of  caste  among  the  Hindus. 
— Division  of  the  Indicans  under  Vashishtha  and 
Visvamitra. — Rise  and  ascendency  of  the  Brahman- 
ical caste. — Development  of  the  Kshatriyas,  or  Raj- 
puts.—  Vaisyas,  or  "people,"  constitute  the  third 
caste. — The  Sudras  ;  possibility  of  caste  promotion. 
— Summary-  character  of  the  present  view.  — Efforts 
of  Great  Britain  in  the  census  of  1871-72. — Aggre- 
gate results  ;  density  of  population. — Distribution  of 
the  people  ;  absence  of  great  cities. — Proportion  of 
population  among  the  castes. — Ethnic  and  religious 
elements  in  the  census.  —  Excess  of  males  in  the 
Indian  races. — Five  principal  divisions  of  the  Indican 
populations. — Distribution  and  tribes  of  the  Old  Dra- 
vidians. — Kolarians,  or  hill  populations  of  the  interior. 
— Difference  between  the  Kolarian  and  Dravidian 
races. — Place  of  the  Savars ;  Kolarian  languages. — 
Tribal  and  linguistic  divisions  of  the  Indo-Chinese. 
— Dravidians,  Kolarians,  and  Indo-Chinese  are  non- 
Aryan. — Dominant  Indicans  are  high-caste  Hindus. 
— Ethnic  and  caste  lines  do  not  coincide. —  Place  of 
the  Mohammedans  among  the  Indian  races. — The 
Brahmans  represent  the  intellectual  forces  of  the 
Hindus 676-689 

Chapter  XL. —  .Animal  and  Vegetable  Re- 
sources OF  India. 
Slight  changes  in  the  environment  of  the  Indicans. 
— \'ast  and  varied  resources  of  the  country. — Animal 
life  of  India;  tigers  and  leopards. — Country  infested 
with  wolves  and  jackals. — The  Canis  dhola.  the 
sloth,  and  the  sun  bear. — The  elephant  immemorial 
in  India. — The  principal  pachyderms  and  ruminants. 
—  Habits  and  size  of  the  Indian  buffalo.  — Prevalence 
of  reptiles ;  loss  of  life  thereby.— The  Indian  races 
have  not  subdued  the  wild  beasts. — Civilization  ex- 
terminates all   savage   forms  of  life. — Spectacular 


XXVI 


CfmrENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


character  of  the  tiger  hunt. — Use  of  the  elephant  in 
hunting;  the  tiger's  habits.  —  Native  land  of  the 
elephant;  elephant  hunting. — Capture  alive;  meth- 
ods of  taking  and  taming. — Race  timidity  traceable 
to  fear  of  beasts  and  reptiles. — Physical  setting  of 
India ;  the  native  land  of  rice. — Extent  of  the  rice 
crop  in  different  districts.^E.xtent  and  character  of 
the  wheat  product. ^Millet  the  resource  of  the  com- 
mon people.  —  "  Indian  "  corn,  barley,  and  other 
cereals.— Extent  and  variety  of  the  vegetable  prod- 
ucts of  India. — Abundance  and  distribution  of  the 
spices.  —  Varieties  of  dates  ;  sugar  and  the  sugar 
manufacture. — The  Indian  cotton  crop  and  Western 
mterests. — Cotton  production  stimulated  by  the 
American  Civil  War. — The  jute  industry ;  extent  of 
the  product. — Large  place  of  indigo  in  Indian  com- 
merce.— Extent,  importance,  and  places  of  opium 
production. — Indian  tobacco  ;  inferiority  of  the  prod- 
uct.— Coffee  and  tea  not  properly  native  to  India. — 
Indian  vegetation  favored  by  stimulating  conditions. 
— Precipitation  and  its  relations  to  the  death  rate. — 
Physical  degeneration  resultant  from  conditions 
present  in  India.  —  Importance  of  food-supply  in 
relation  to  race  character. — Classification  of  foods  ; 
the  hydrocarbonates.  —  The  carbohydrates  ;  what 
foods  constitute  this  class. — The  nitrogenous  class, 
and  foods  containing  phosphates. — Race  character 
dependent  largely  on  the  kind  of  food.— The  office  of 
hydrocarbonaceous  and  nitrogenous  foods. — In  what 
relation  the  carbohydrates  are  naturally  used. — 
Effects  of  such  foods  on  the  human  constitution. — 
The  Hindu  body  the  result  of  the  long  discipline  of 
nature. — Same  laws  hold  of  the  race  as  of  the  man. 
— Weakness  of  the  Hindus  resultant  from  sustenance 
and  climate. — Ethnic  life  the  joint  product  of  sub- 
jective and  objective  conditions. — Precious  stones 
in  relation  to  race  character. — Golconda  the  seat  of 
diamond  gathering  and  stone-cutting. — The  work- 
ing of  iron  originated  in  India. —  Method  of  smelting 
and  excellence  of  product. — Mining  of  copper  and 
method  of  manufacture.— The  Indian  lead  mines  ; 
antimony  and  petroleum. — Distribution  of  stone  ;  soil 
not  suitable  for  pottery. — Quarries  of  marble,  slate, 
and  mica 690-716 

Chapter  XLL— Ethnic  Ch.\racteristics. 

Diverse  development  follows  long  occupancv  in 
wide  countries. — Sanskrit  the  original  of  the  Hindu 
languages. —  Hindi  corresponds  to  the  Latin  stage  in 
Western  development. — Cashmerians  well  represent 
the  early  Indicans. — Climate  and  environment  have 
preserved  the  race  integrity.— Intellectual  and  social 
life  of  the  Cashmerians. —  Points  of  divergence  of 
Cashmerians  and  Punjabese.— Distribution  of  the 
Mahrattas.  —  Extent  of  Mahratta  population  ;  the 
language — Variation  in  character  from  foreign  im- 
pact.—Mahratta  Brahmans  the  highest  type  of  Hin- 


dus.— The  lowest  classes  of  Indican  society. — Con- 
trasts and  comparisons  of  Sudras  and  Mahrattas. — 
Ethnic  and  linguistic  relations  of  the  Hindu  peoples. 

—  Difficulty  of  generalizing  ethnic  traits  of  great 
populations. — Brahmans  and  Sudras  represent  ex- 
tremes of  Hindu  development. — Bodily  characteristics 
of  the  Hindus;  the  color. — Special  features  of  head 
and  countenance 716-726 

Chapter  XLII.  —  Architecture,  Manners, 
Government. 
Extreme  elaboration  of  the  Hindu  architecture. — 
Lightness  of  structure  related  to  climate  and  outdoor 
life. — The  isle  and  cavern  of  Elephanta. — Effigies  of 
the  Hindu  gods  in  the  cavern. — Agra  the  best  seat 
for  study  of  Indian  architecture. — The  old  palace  of 
the  native  princes. — Character  of  the  royal  tomb 
called  the  Taj  Mahal. — Dress  and  personal  orna- 
ments of  the  Hindus. — Ceremonies  of  marriage  and 
estimate  of  the  woman. — Extent  of  race  interfusion 
in  Hindustan. — Particular  features  of  certain  races. 
— Grading  off  of  the  Hindu  into  the  Indo-Chinese 
type. — Extent  and  variety  of  the  Hindu  superstitions, 
— Amulets  and  charms  ;  superstitious  beliefs  respect 
ing  the  dead. — Shrines  and  effigies  to  the  departed 
— Superstition  the  basis  of  social  classes;  the  Fakirs, 
— Hinduism  relieved  by  wholesome  beliefs  and  prac 
tices. — Old  Indian  chieftainship  becomes  Hindu 
petty  royalty. — Sympathy  of  the  Brahmans  and  the 
military  caste. — Primogeniture  naturally  follows  mili- 
tary chieftainship. — Absolutism  of  the  government 
of  the  Indian  princes. — Rude  methods  of  warfare  ; 
use  of  war  elephants. — Superstitious  reverence  for 
princes  and  rulers. — General  view  of  race  conditions 
in  Bengal.— Aggregate  of  subjects  under  the  pro- 
vincial government.  —  The  Hindus  present  every 
grade  of  the  human  evolution. — Linguistic  affinities; 
striking  features  of  the  British  rule     .     .     .  726-743 

Chapter  XLIIL— Isolated  Races— General 
Aspects. 
Distribution  and  character  of  the  Kaffirs. — Anoma- 
lous place  of  Gypsies  in  the  ethnic  scheme. — The 
race  originated  in  the  Pariah,  or  Sudra,  class  of 
Hindus. — Features  of  the  Gypsy  language  illustrated. 

—  Language  furnishes  the  clue  for  classification. — 
Apparition  of  Gypsy  tribes  in  Europe  and  America. — 
Development  of  Gypsy  tribes  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica.— Mendicant  and  thieving  character  of  the  race. — 
Fixedness  the  central  fact  in  Hindu  life. — Compari- 
sons with  thellamites  and  the  Chinese.  —  Preservation 
of  the  ancient  dress  and  regalia. — Usage  of  the  belt ; 
clothing  of  the  Sudras. — Race  life,  once  vigorous,  may 
pass  into  atrophy. — Lack  of  perspective  in  Hindu  so- 
ciety.— Western  influence  begins  to  prevail  in  India. — 
Tendency  toward  the  neglect  of  caste  distinction. — 
General  view  of  the  subject  to  present  stage  of  the 
inquiry 743-750 


Illustrations  in  Volume  1. 


I.  Colored  Flutes 


PAGE 

Plate  I. — Pri.nxipal  Types  of  the  Human 

Race 37 

Plate  II. — West  Aryan  Barbarism. — 
Swiss  Lake  Dwelling  of  the  Age 
OF  Bronze 265 

Race  Chart  I. — Showing  the    Distribu- 


AXD  Race  Chart. 

PAGE 

tion  of  Mankind  on  the  Hypothesis 

of  a  Common  Origin 411 

Race  Chart  II. — Geographical  Distri- 
bution of  the  East  Aryans.     ...       577 

Plate  III. — East  Ary-an  Art  Work. — In- 

DicAN  Design 641 


II.    EXGRAVIXGS    OX  WOOD. 


Headpiece  for  the  Ti.me  and  Place  of 
THE  Beginning 37 

Landscape  of  the  Pliocene  Period. — 
Showing  Environment  at  the  Time 
OF  Man's  Appearance.  —  Drawn  by 
Riou 38 

Origin  of  Mankind — When  and  Where? 

— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard 41 

Beginning  of  the  Conscious  Life  on  the 

Earth. — Drawn  by  Riou 42 

Arch.€Ological  Evidences  of  Man's  Ex- 
istence  45 

Remains  of  Prehistoric  Man 47 

Production  of  Fire  —  The  First  Art 
Practiced  by  Man.  —  Drawn  by  Emile 
Bayard 48 

A  Chaldee  Rhapsodist  Reciting  (Mod 

ern). — Drawn  by  Barbant 50 

Landscape  of  the  Beginning. — Drawn  by 
Riou 53 

Comparative  Size  of  the  Planetary 
Worlds 56 

Solar  System — Showing  Relations  of 
Orbits,  Co.mparisons  of  Planets,  and 
Place  of  the  Earth. — Drawn  by  Rich- 
ard A.  Proctor,  F.  R.  A.  S 58 

Position  of  the  Planets  Inferior  to 
Jupiter — Showing  the  Zone  of  the 
Asteroids 59 

fuPiTER — A  Planet  not  yet  Arrived  at 
THE  Epoch  of  Life 60 

Saturn — A  Ring  Pl.^net 61 

The  Moon — An  Expired  Planet  ....    62 

Varying  Velocity  of  Planetary  Motion.    63 

The  Solar  System  Displayed — Showing 
Eccentricity  of  Orbits  Inside  of 
Mars 64 

-Comparative  Size  of  Earth  and  Sun   .    .    65 


page 

Formation  of  Glacial  River. — Drawn  by 
Riou 68 

Existing  Alpine  Glacier. — Summit  of 
Mont  Blanc. — Drawn  by  Riou.     ...     72 

Condition  of  Extreme  Cold,  Illus- 
trated from  Arctic  Landscape. — 
Drawn  by  Riou 74 

Condition  of  Extreme  Heat,  Illus- 
trated from  African  Forest. — 
Drawn  by  Alexandre  de  Bar 78 

Landscape  of  the  Lower  Oolite  (Before 

the  Age  OF  Man). — Drawn  by  Riou  .     .     82 

Pal.cozo'i'c  Age  of  the  E.\rth. —  Land- 
scape OF  the  Eocene. — Drawn  by  Riou.     83 

Palaeozoic  Age  of  the  Earth. — Cambro- 

Silurian  Landscape. — Drawn  by  Riou.     84 

Paleozoic  Age  OF  the  Earth. — Devonian 

Landscape. — Drawn  by  Riou 85 

Landscape  of  the  Carboniferous  Pe- 
riod   86 

Diagram  Showing  Relative  Thickness 
OF  Earth's  Crust  and  Depth  of  In- 
ternal Caldron 88 

Forms  OF  Life  in  Cretaceous  Period  (Pre- 
ceding THE  .A.GE  of  Man).— Drawn  by 
Riou 8c 

Sketch  Map  Show^ing  (in  Dark  Lines) 
THE  Part  of  Europe  Under  Ice  Cover 
IN  Glacial  Period 90 

Section  of  Chalk  Cavern  with  Hu,m.\n 
Remains 91 

Example  of  Stalagmitic  Formation   .    .    91 

Example  of  Stalactite 92 

Landscape  of  the  Peat  Bogs 93 

Sand    Dunes  of  El-Fevane,    Arabia. — 

Drawn  by  D.  Grenet 94 

Delta  of  the  Mississippi 95 

Delta  of  the  Nile 97 

(XXVII) 


XXVIII 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  I. 


1  ACK 

Ruins  of  Lake  Village  of  Morigen, 
Switzerland— Laid  Bare  bv  Shoal- 
ing ok  Lake  BiENNE,  October,  1874. — 
From  a  photograph 99 

Arch^ological  Proofs  of  the  Existence 
OF  Prehistoric  Man loi 

Eight  Progressive  Stages  of  Human 
Development,  Illustrated  in  Fabri- 
cation AND  Materials  of  Lmple- 
ments 103 

Skull  of  Cave  Bear 104 

Skull  of  Cave  Hyena 104 

Landscape  of  the  Miocene— Borderland 

OF  Man. — Drawn  by  Riou 106 

Examples  of  Old  Stone  Workmanship — 
Adzes  OF  New  Zealand 107 

Examples  of  New  Stone  Workmanship — 
Hatchets  of  Yucatan. — Drawn  by  Eu- 
gene Meunier 108 

Examples  of  Prehistoric  Workmanship, 
from  Bronze  Age 109 

Huge  Animals  Preceding  the  Ace  of 
Man. —  I,  Megatherium,  restored  ;  2,  Dino- 
therium 1 10 

Animals  Associated  with  Primeval  ^L\N. 

— Drawn  by  Riou 1 1 2 

Example  of  Extreme  Longevity— An 
Eastern  Sorceress,— Drawn  byG.  Vuil- 
lier 115 

Dog's  Head,  Showing  Muscles  for  Mov- 
ing iHE  Ear  which  have  become 
Atrophied,  through  Disuse,  in  Man.  116 

Bodily  Forms  of  the  Pyramid  Builders, 
Forty-three  Centuries  from  the 
Present. —  Drawn  by  B.  Strassberger, 
from  door  of  tomb  at  Cizeli 116 

Bodily  Forms  of  the  Pyramid  Builders, 
Thirty-four  Centuries  from  the 
Present. —  Drawn  by  Wiedenbach,  from 
sculptures  of  prisoners  of  war,  time  of 
Thothmes  HI m6 

Ethnic  Differentiation.— >Laria  ok  Cos 
—European  Type.- Drawn  by  E.  Ron- 
jat,  from  a  photograph 117 

Ethnic  Differentiation.  — The  "Black 
Flags  "  of  Southern  China— Asiatic 
Types. — Drawn  by  Barbotin,  from  n  photo- 
graph      iiS 

Ethnic  Differentiation.  —  Chief  Ya- 
BANDA  and  Family,  of  the  Congo  — 
African  Types.  —  Drawn  by  Madame 
Paule  Crampel,  after  a  sketch  of  Nebout    .   119 

Valley  of  the  Euphrates — One  of  the 
Primitive  Seats  of  Mankind.  —Drawn 
by  Taylor,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame 
Dieubifoy 121 

Progress  of  Pkimj.val  M  \n  by  Water.    .  123 


rAi;i! 

The  Age  of  Boats.— Earliest  Naviga- 
tors, of  Neolithic  Epoch 124 

Differentiation  of  Languages  Illus- 
trated IN  Ancient  Styles  of  Writ- 
ings  125 

Thoth  and  Safekh  (Goddess  of  History) 
Writing  the  Deeds  of  Ramses  H. — 
Drawn  by  B.  Strassberger 129 

Egyptian  Priest  Teaching  a  Neophyte 
IN  the  Temple. — Drawn  by  Weiden- 
bach 133 

View  of  Mount  Othrys  from  Trikhali. 

— Drawn  by  Dosso,  after  Stackelberg     .     .  135 

Prometheus  Vinctus.  —  After  the  painting 

by  F.  Simm 137 

Phenomena  of  Day  and  Night  and 
Season  (Foundation  of  All  Calen- 
dars)     139 

Time  Instrument — Ancient  Sundial  .    .  142 

Time  Instrument— Hourglass 142 

Modern  Time  Instrument— Sundial    .    .  142 

Stone  Masonry  on  the  Summits  of  the 
Andes 145 

Extreme  of  Ethnic  Divergence— High- 
est Type.- (i)  Eros  of  Praxiteles. — 
Drawn  by  C.  Colb 148 

Extreme  of  Ethnic  Divergence— Lowest 
Type  —(2)  Australian  of  the  Towns- 
VILLE  Coast. — After  a  Danish  drawing     .   149 

To  People  THE  Earth,— Drawn  by  Riou.     .  151 

Highlands  ok  Armenia.— Drawn  by  Taylor, 

after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Carla  Serena.   152 

TheBiblical  Paradise. — Drawn  by  Gustave 

Dore 153 

The  Ceylonese  Eden 155 

An  Ethiopian  Eden — One  of  the  Sup- 
posed Places  of  the  Beginning. — 
Drawn  byG.  VuiUier 157 

Westward  Progress  OF  THE  Semites    .     ,  159 

Section  of  European  River  Cavern, 
Suitable  for  Deposition  of  Human 
Remains 160 

West  Asian  Landscape.— Source  of  the 
Aryan  Migrations  into  Europe. — 
Drawn  by  Paul  Langlois  after  a  photo- 
graph by  Madame  Carla  Serena     ....  161 

Off  the  Coast  of  Eastern  Asia— Origin 
of  Polynesian  Dispersion.— Drawn  by 
Taylor,  after  a  sketch  of  Berttolty.    .     .     .  164 

Evidence  of  Prehistoric  Races  in  Amer- 
ica—(i)  Building  of  the  Pueblos, 
Restored 165 

Evidence  of  Prehistoric  Races  in  Amer- 
ica—(2)  Pyramidal  Mound  in  Mexico.  166 

Evidence  of  Prehistoric  Races — (3) 
Ruins  ok  Temple,  in  Titicaca  in 
America '07 


ILLUSTRATION'S  IX  VOLUME  I. 


XXIX 


PAGE 

Landscape  of  Ethnic  Watershed. — 
Mountains  of  Jobla.—  Drawn    l)y  G. 

Viiillier i68 

Line  of  the  Aryan  Watershed.— Region 
North   of   the   Caspian. —Drawn  by 

Moynet 169 

Line  of  Division  between  Ruddy  and 
Brown    Races.  —  Coast  of  Arabian 

Sea. — Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier 171 

Ideal  Landscape  of  Lemuria. — Drawn  by 

Riou 173 

Landscape  in  Beluchistan.— Deparfure 

of  the  Brown  Races 174 

Hoffman's  Sloths. — After  a  drawing  from 

life 175 

Brush-tailed  Rock  Kangaroos    ....  176 
American  Monkey  with  PrehensileTail.  179 

Group  OF  Lemurs 180 

Family  OF  Gorillas 181 

Tailpiece  for  the  Time  and   Place  of 

the  Beginning 182 

Headpiece  for  the  Manner  of  the  Be- 
ginning             .183 

Manner    of  Man's    Appearance. — Drawn 

by  Riou 184 

The  Traditional  Eden 186 

Age  of  Fishes,  OR  the  "  Fourth  Day.".    .  189 
The  Eden  of  Poetry.^ Milton's  Vision 
OF  THE  First  Pair  and  Raphael. — 

Drawn  by  Gustave  Dore 192 

One  of  the  Primordial  Conditions  of 

THE  Globe 193 

Charles  Robert  Darwin. — From  the  medal 

by  Alphonse  Legros,  Royal  Academy,  1882.   198 
Orange-Colored     Monero^.  —  Showing 
the  seemingly  Auto.matic  Processes 

of  Germ  Life 200 

Manner  of  Germ  Development  dy  Fis- 
sion (Successive  Stages  Marked  a,  b, 

c,  d.) 207 

Lower  Limbs  of  Ungulate  Animals — 
Showing  the  Progressive  Develop- 
ment (Marked  a,  b,  c,  d,  e)  of  Organs.  209 

The  Spectroscope 210 

Solar  Spectrum 210 

Spectrum  of  Iodine  Vapor 210 

Variation  of  Animal  Forms.— (i)  Under 

Nature— Common  Wolf 213 

Variation  of  Animal  Forms.— (2)  Under 

Domestication— Italian  Greyhound  214 
Gorilla  Taking  Hold  with  Forefoot.    .  215 
Example   of    Rapid    Multiplication. — 
Burrow  of  Rap,bits.—  Drawn  by  Giaco- 

melli 218 

Struggle  of   Life— The  Strong   Takes 

his  Prey.— Drawn  by  Stanley  Berkeley     .  220 
Stunted  Vegetation  of  Kamchatka  .     .  222 


page 

Man-life  Limited  by  Battle  with  Ani- 
mals   223 

Northern  Li.mit  of  Man-life.  —  King 
William  Land 224 

British  Isles  and  Surrounding  Sea  — 
Showing  how  a  Rise  of  Six  Hundred 
Feet  would  make  Great  Britain 
Continental 225 

Deer  Head  with  Antlers  in  the  "  Vel- 
vet."     227 

Deer  Head  with  Mature  Antlers  .    .    .  228 

Diagram  Showing  the  Manner  of  the 
Production  of  Species. — From  Dar- 
win's Origin  of  Species 230 

Progressive  Development  of  Man.— (i) 
Evolution  Illustrated  with  Six 
Skulls  in  Ascending  Order  ....  232 

Progressive  Development  of  Man. — (2) 
Evolution  Illustrated  with  the 
Six  Corresponding  Living  Forms  .    .  233 

Jaw  Bone  of  Cave  Man,  Found  at  Mou- 
lin BY  Boucher  de  Perthes,  1863.— 
From  the  original  in  Paris  museum    .     .     .  235 

Germinal  Government  Illustrated.— 
Headmen  of  Tribe  in  Consultation. 
— Drawn  by  Riou,  from  a  photograph    .     .  239 

Germinal  Society. —  Home  of  African 
Chief  Be.mbe. — Drawn  by  Madame  Paule 
Crampel 241 

Evolution  of  Writing. — Hieroglyphics 
Found  in  Cavern  of  Rocky  Dell  .    .  244 

The  First  Historians. —  Drawn  by  Emile 

Bayard 245 

Progress  from  Instinct  to  Reason.^The 
First  Potters. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard.  247 

Beginning  of  Barbaric  Religion. — The 
T.4M-TAM. — Drawn  by  Riou,  from  a  photo- 
graph      250 

FcETi  OF  Different  Animals — Showing 
THE  Common  Plan  of  Nature    .    .    .  256 

Vision  of  the  Golden  Age 260 

Tailpiece  for  the  Manner  of  the  Be- 
ginning    264 

Headpiece  for  Primeval  Man 265 

Man  in  the  Age  of  the  Cave  Bear. — 

Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard 266 

Aspects  of  Barbaric  Life.— Hut  of  Osti- 

AKS. — Drawn  by  Durand  Brager  ....  267 

Aspects  of  Barbaric  Life. — Search  for 

the  Skulls.— Drawn  by  Riou     ....  268 

Aspects  of  Barbaric  Life. — Patagonians 

Fishing.— Draw-n  by  Riou 269 

Variability  Illustrated  in  Multiple 
Young  of  Same  Mother.  —  Guinea 
Pigs 271 

Migratory    Barbarism.  —  Camp    of    the 

Kirgheez. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard  .     .  272 


XXX 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IlSf  VOLUME  T. 


PAGE 

Sedentary  Barbarism.— House  of  Green- 
land Esquimau 273 

Ideal  Landscape  of  the  Age  of  Reptiles. 

— Drawn  by  Riou 275 

Diagram    of   the   Tertiary  and  Post- 
Tertiary  Periods,  Showing  the  Geo- 
logical Place  of  the  Cave  Dwellers.  276 
Ideal   Landscape    of   the    Cretaceous 

Period. — Drawn  by  Riou 277 

Ideal   Landscape  of   the   Pleistocene 

Period  (Age  of  Man).— Drawn  by  Riou.  278 
Implements    and    Ornaments    Used    by 
Primeval  Man,  in  the  Order  of  the 

Materials  Employed 279 

Manufacture  of  Flint   Implements   by 
Prehistoric    Man.  —  Drawn   by  Emile 

Bayard 280 

Pal.'eolithic    Flint    Implements,    from 

HoxNE 281 

Primeval  Man— Chase  in  the  Reindeer 

Period. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard  .  .  .  2S2 
Examples  of  Neolithic  Workmanship.  .  283 
Primeval  Man — Founders  of  the  Age  of 

Bronze. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard  .     .     .  284 
Manners  OF  Prehistoric  Peoples.— Feast 
IN    the   Age   of    Bronze.— Drawn    by 

Emile  Bayard 285 

Examples  OF  Bronze  Workmanship.    .    .287 
Examples  OF  Iron  Workmanship.    .    .    .288 
Man  Cavern  in  Galeinreuth,  Bavaria    .  289 
Grotto  and  Rock  Shelter  of  Bruniquel 
— An  Abodeof  Primeval  Man. — Drawn 

by  Riou 292 

The  Engis  Skull 293 

The  Neanderthal  Skull 294 

Head  of  Cave  Bear 295 

Sketch  of  Cave  Bear,  Drawn  on  a  Stone 
Found  IN  the  Cave  of  Masset   .    .    .296 

Mammoth,  Restored 297 

Feast  During  the  Epoch  of  the  Rein- 
deer.—  Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard  ....  298 
The  Irish  Elk  (Megaceros  Hibernicus).  299 
Part  of  the  Vertebra  of  a  Cow  .    .    .    .301 
Corresponding  Part  of  Vertebra  of  the 

Bison 301 

Hunt  of  the  Wild  Boar.— Drawn  by  Emile 

Bayard 302 

Paleolithic  Daggers 303 

pali€olithic     axes     from     the    shell 

Mounds 304 

Flint  Arrowpoints  from  the  Bone  Cav- 
erns  305 

Fine  PaL;€olithic  Arrowpoints  .    .    .    .305 
Prehistoric  Man  of  the  Neolithic  Age. 

— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard 306 

Modern  Lake  Village,  at  Sowek. — Drawn 

by  E.  Mesples 310 


pags 
Swiss   Lake  Village,   Restored.— Drawn 

by  Riou 311 

Axes  of  PrehistiTric  Man,  Showing 
Stages  of  I.mprovement  from  Stone 

TO  Bronze 313 

StoneHatchet  WITH  Socket  and  Handle  315 

Chipped  Flint  Arrowhead 315 

Flint  Hatchet  Fitted  with  Stag's  Horn 

Handle 315 

Pickax  of  Stag's  Horn 315 

Extinct  Manufactory  OF  Pottery,  in  the 

Glacier  Garden,  at  Lucerne    .    .    .  316 
Swiss    Lake    Village    of    the    Age    of 

Bronze. — Drawn  by  Riou 318 

Specimens    of    Fine    Workmanship    in 

Bronze 319 

Kitchen  MiddenersandtheirDwellings  321 
WoRKMANSHiPOF  THE  Kitchen  MiDDENERs  322 

Danish  Shell-Mound  Axes 324 

Finds  from  the  Kitchen  Middens   .    .    .  325 
Paleolithic  River-drift  Spearheads.    .  327 
Paleolithic    River-drift    Lanceheads 
and  Ax  of  Archa'i'c  Patterns    .    .    .  329 

Menhir,  at  Croisie,  France 332 

Danish  Dolmen 332 

Cromlech  of  Halskov,  Denmark.    .    .    .  333 

Danish  Tumulus 333 

Prehistoric  Graveyard  of  Quaternary 
Period,    near   Littai,   in   Carniola, 

Austria 334 

Burial  Urns  (Enlarged  from  Preceding 

Cut) 335 

View  of  Stonehenge 335 

Ground  Plan  of  Danish  Cromlech.  .  .  336 
Ground  Plan  of  Danish  Dolmen.    .    .    .  336 

Sepulchral  Stone  Circle        336 

Position  of  Skeletons  in  a  Tomb  of  the 

Stone  Age 336 

Funeral    in    the    Paleolithic    Age. — 

Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard 337 

Funeral  in  the  Neolithic  Age.— Drawn 

by  Emile  Bayard 338 

Funeral  Feast  in  the  Age  of  Bronze. — 

Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard 339 

Funeral  of  a  Chieftain  in  the  Age  of 

Iron. — From  the  Magazine  of  Art  .     .     .  341 
Tumulus  with  Stone  Entrance,    near 

Ubi,  Denmark 342 

Ruins  of  Carnac,  Bretagne 343 

Broken  Sepulchral  Urn,  Showing  Incin- 
erated Remains 344 

Incineration  of  the  Dead,  in  the  Age 
OF  THE  Tumuli.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bay- 
ard      345 

Great  Mound  near  Miamisburg,  Ohio.  .  347 
Earthworks  at  Cedar  Bank,  Ohio  .  .  .  348 
Plan  of  Square  Mound,  near  Marietta.  349 


ILLUSTRATION'S  IN   VOLUME  I. 


XXXI 


PAGE 

Earthworks  at  Hopeton,  Ohio    ....  349 

Great  Serpent  Mound,  IN  AdamsCountv, 
Ohio 350 

Fort  Hill,  Butler  County,  Ohio.    .     .    .351 

Vases  from  Mounds 352 

Military  Works  on  Paint  Creek,  Ohio  .  353 

Pottery  of  the  Mound  Builders. — From 

Magazine  0/ Art 354 

Aztec  Ruins  at  Palenque,  in  Chiapas, 
Mexico 356 

Aztec  Structure— Arch  of  Las  Monjas.  358 

Central  American  Antiquities  — 
Double-headed  Figure  of  the  Casa 
DEL  Gobernador 359 

Sculpture  of  the  Toltecs  —  From  the 
Ruins  of  COPAN 360 

Central  American  Structure — Cir- 
cular Edifice  at  Mayapan    .    .    .    .361 

Quichuan  Architecture  —  Remains  of 
Fortress  Walls,  at  Cuzco 362 

Pueblo  Structure.— Ruins  in  the  Val- 
ley of  the  Gila 363 

Old  Peruvian  Structure. —  Ruins  of 
Fortress.  ON  Titicaca  Island    .    .    .  364 

Man  and  Woman  of  the  Reindeer  Epoch. 

— Drawn  by  Eniile  Bayard 366 

Beginningsof  Metallurgy.— A  Primitive 
Smithy. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard  .    .     .  367 

Persistency  of  Ethnic  Features. — (i) 
Ancient  Hebrew  Shepherd  with 
Sling.— Drawn  by  H.  A.  Harper.     .     .     .  370 

Persistency  of  Ethnic  Features.— (2) 
Modern  Arab  Wearing  the  Aba. — 
Drawn  by  Paul  Hardy 371 

Persistency  of  Customs  —  Mourning 
Women  of  Old  Egypt. — From  the  en- 
tablature found  in  the  tomb  of  Ptah-Hotep, 
at  Thebes 373 

Barbarism  Illustrated— Ancient  Fish- 
ing Scene. — Drawn  by  Riou 375 

Example  of  Race  Deterioration — Rub- 
bish-Bearer OF  Egypt. — Drawn  by  Gus- 
tave  Richter 377 

Example  of  Race  Deterioration  —  Ro- 
man Beggars 378 

Barbarian  Life  Illustrated.— Chase  in 
the  Age  of  Bronze. — Drawn  by  Riou    .  380 

Three  Stages  of  Civilization  Illus- 
trated— Sketch  from  Fort  Laramie.  382 

Native  Australian  from  the  Darling 
River  (Headdress  OF  Feathers)    .    .  385 

Types  of  Savagery  —  Bushman  Woman 
and  Children.    .    .         385 

Barbarism  Illustrated  —  The  South 
African  Manner. — Bushmen  Making 
Poison  for  their  Arrows. — Drawn  by 
Y.  Pranishnil<off.  from  a  description  .     .     .  386 


PAGE 

Barbarism  Illustrated — The  Polyne- 
sian Manner. — Drill  of  Arfak  War- 
riors.— Drawn  by  E.  Mesples,  from  a  de- 
scription  391 

Manner  of  Producing  Fire 392 

Barbarism  Illustrated. — Fijian  in  a  Ba- 
nana Grove. — Drawn  by  Thiriat.  from  a 
photograph 394 

Barbarism  Illustrated.  —  Esquimau 
Huts  at  Etah.  —  Drawn  by  A.  de 
Neuville 395 

Barbarism  Illustrated  —  The  North 
American  Manner.  —  The  Ghost 
Dance. — Drawn  by  J.  Steeple  Davis.     .     .  396 

Barbarism  Illustrated  —  The  South 
American  Manner. — Extermination 
OF  THE  Crevaux  Mission. — Drawn  by 
Riou,  from  a  description 398 

Art  Work  of  Barbarians 399 

Art  Work  of  the  Esquimaux — Drawing 
on  Bone  and  Ivory 402 

Semibarbarism  Illustrated — North 
African  Manner. — Sword  Dance  of 
THE  Moors. — After  the  painting  by  P. 
Ivanovitch,  Paris,  1890 405 

Pictorial  Work  of  THE  Esquimaux.    .    .406 

Nonprogressive  State  of  Barbarism. — 
Chippewas  OF  Sault  Sainte  Marie.    .  407 

Progressive  Element  in- Barbarism — 
Illustrated  in  Weapons  of  New 
Zealanders 408 

Unprogressive  Condition  —  Mincopa 
Man,   from  the   Andaman    Islands.  409 

Tailpiece  for  Primeval  Man 410 

Headpiece  for  Distribution  of  the 
Races 411 

A  Method  of  Migration. — Eastern  Cara- 
van.— Drawn  by  W.  J.  Morgan    .     .     .     .412 

Cushite  Type  —  Sheik  of  Chamars.— 
Drawn  by  H.  Thiriat,  from  a  photograph 
by  Mougal -'413 

Indo-European  Type— The  Sultan  Ma- 
COUD  Mirza.— Drawn  by  H.  Thiriat,  from 
a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy  .     .     .415 

Semitic  Type— The  Arab  Beni  Laam. — 
Drawn  by  H.  Thiriat,  from  a  photograph 
by  Madame  Dieulafoy 416 

Hamitic    Type — The    Egyptian    Sais.— 

Drawn  by  A.  de  Bar 417 

Altaian  Type- Old  Tarantchi. — Drawn 

by  E.  Ronjat,  from  a  photograph  .     .     .     .418 

West  Aryan  Type— Alcibiades    ....  419 

Turanian  Type— Kirgheez  Falconer. — 
Drawn  by  Delort,  from  a  photograph  and 
description 422 

Ganowanian   Types  — Ucayli  Indians.— 

Drawn  by  P.  Fritel  .........  423 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  I. 


Sea  Negro  Types — Natives  of  Dorey. — 
Drawn  l)y  P.  Sellier,  after  a  sketch  of  Du- 
mont  d'  Urville 424 

Esquimau  Types 425 

Nubian  Boy  —  Type.  —  Drawn  by  Ishmacl 
Gentz 426 

Cranial  Configuration,  Showing  \'akia- 
TiONS  IN  Human  Form 427 

Papuan  Type,  Showing  Crisp  Hair  .    .    .  428 

American       Indian       Type,       Showing 

SlRAlCiHT    Hair. — Drawn  by  Riou     .     .  428 

Nigritian  Types,  Showing  Woolly  Haiu. 

—  Drawn  by  Madame  Paule  Cranipel  .  .  429 
English  Type  (Mrs.  Siddons),  SHf)wiNG 

Wavy  Hair 430 

The    Ruddy    Type — Paul    Crampel. — 

Drawn  by  H.  Thiriat,  from  a  photograph  .  431 
The    Urown    Type  —  Mistress    Senki.— 

Drawn  by  E.  Ronjat 432 

The  IJlack  Type— Negro    Makatui.u. — 

Drawn  by  Riou 434 

Landscape  OF  the  Noachite  Dispersion. 

—  Benuer-DileM.— Drawn     by   Taylor, 
after  a  sketch  of  Houssay 436 

The  Faihers  of  "  Such  as  Dwell  in 
Tents  "—Old  Semitic  Types.    .    .    .438 

Mesopotamian  Landscape.— Viewof Mos- 

SUL. — Drawn  by  E.  Flandin 440 

In  Kurdistan.— View  of  Little  Ararai, 
with  Group  of  Kurds  in  Foreground. 

—  Drawn  by  Alfred  Paris 442 

Hamitic  Ruins  at  Djama  Sidi   Okha. — 

Drawn  by  H.  Saladin,  from  a  photograph  .  446 

Pass  in   the  Zagros  Mountains.— Drawn 

by  D.  Lancelot,  from  a  photograph    .     .     .  448 

Land  of  ihe  Joktanians. —  Mountain 
View  in  Hasa  and  Camp  near  Hail. — 
Drawn  by  G.  Vuilhcr 451 

Desert  Country  of  the  Syrian  Borders. 
— The  Plain  of  Tortose.  —  Drawn  by 
A.  de  Bar,  from  a  photograph  by  Lockroy .  453 

Route  of  the  Hamite  Migration,  near 
Suez.— Lake  Timsah.— Drawn  by  Dom 
Grenet 455 

Vertical  Section  of  the  Great  Pyramid 
from  South  to  North 457 

Tunisian  Coast.— Gulf  of  Hammamet.— 
Drawn  by  Eugene  Girardet,  after  a  sketch 
of  Saladin 459 

Hamitic  Type  of  the  Upper  Niger— Bam- 
Barra. — Drawn  by  Riou,  after  a  sketch  of 
Valliere 461 

Ruins  and  Plain  of  Mugheir, — Drawn  by 
W.  H.  Boot 464 

Land  of  the  Arphaxad.— View  of  Ko- 
PANS  Kale.— Drawn  by  T.  Deyrolle,  from 
nature     . 465 


pac.f. 
Diagram  showing  Tribal  Relationships 

OF  JOKTAN  and  ISHMAEL 467 

Arafat  during  a  Pilgrimage  (Land  of 
Ophir). — Drawn  by  D.  Lancelot,  from  a 
photograph 468 

Life    of    the   Abrahamites  —  Shepherd 

with  Lambs. — Drawn  by  Paul  Hardy.     .  469 

"Land  of  the  Scorched  Faces." — Abu 
Senoum,  on  Frontier  of  Kordofan, 
toward  Darfur.— Drawn  by  Karl  Girar- 
det, after  a  sketch  of  Lejean 471 

Landscape  of  Old  Arya. — Ruins  of  Tous. 

— Drawn  by  A.  de  Bar,  from  a  photograph.  474 

Pass  OF  the  Araxes 475 

Old  Median  Types  —  The  Sassanian 
Princes  (of  the  Sculptures). — Drawn 
by  H.  Chapuis,  from  a  photograph  by  Ma- 
dame Dieulafoy 477 

Gaieway  of  the  East  Aryans  into  India 
— The  Bolan  Pass 478 

Typeofthe  Ancient  Brahm — Leper  King 
OF  Angcor  Wat. — Drawn  by  E.  Tour- 
nois,  after  a  sketch  of  Delaporte    ....  481 

Karakalpack     Types  —  Two     Usbeks. — 

Drawn  by  A.  Ferdinandus 483 

Caucasian  Types —Georgian  Women.— 
Drawn  by  Eugene  Burnand,  from  a  photo- 
graph       484 

Route  of  West  Aryans  through  Asia 
Minor. — Pass  of  Hadjin,  in  Cappa- 
DOCIA. — Drawn  I)y  Grandsire,  after  Lang- 
lois 487 

Route  of  the  Greek  Aryans  into  Hel- 
las.— Pass  of  Kalabaka,  Thessaly. — 
Drawn  by  Taylor,  from  a  photograph     .     .  489 

Modern  Achaean   Type — Odysse — Drawn 

by  E.  Ronjat,  from  a  photograph.     .     .     .  491 

Route  of  the  Gr^^co-Italicans.— Seben- 
ico,  on  the  Dalmatian  Coast. — 
Drawn  by  Charles  W.  Wyllie 492 

Land  of  the  Ancient  Ligurians— Massa, 

near  CaRRAR.\. — Drawn  by  J.  Fulleylove.  494 

The  Celtic   Vanguard,  of  the  Age  of 

Bronze. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard  .     .     .  497 

Oldest   Celtic  Types.- From   the  Gaulish 

bas-reliefs  found  at  Entremont.  near  Aix    .  498 

The    Frankish    Vanguard.  —  Drawn    by 

Emile  Bayard 501 

Northern  Limit  of  the  Aryan  Disper- 
sion.—  View  in  Upper  Norway. — 
Drawn  by  Myrbach.  from  a  photograph     .  503 

Route  of  the  Dravidian  Dispersion — 
Gorge  and  Fortress  of  Arderbend. 
— Drawn  by  A.  de  Bar,  after  a  sketch  by 
Blocqueville 506 

Land  of  theDr  AVI  DiANS.— Cape  CoMORiN, 
India 507 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  I. 


XZXIII 


PAGE 

Modern     Dravidians — Kota     Types. — 

Drawn  by  P.  Fritel,  from  a  photograph    .  510 

The  Malayo-Chinese  Dispersion. — Nom- 
ads OF  the  Oasis  of  Merv. — Drawn  by 
Y.  Pranishnikoff,  from  a  photograph.     .     .511 

View  in  Easter  Island — Images  at  Rono- 

BORAK. — Drawn  by  E.  Meusier    .     .     .     .512 

Route  OF  the  Mongolian  Distribution. 
— Thian-Shan  Mountains. — Dmwn  by 
Riou 514 

Chute   of    TchimboulaC.  —  Drawn    by    D. 

Lancelot,  after  Atkinson 515 

Off  the  Coast  of  Corea.— Drawn  by  Theo- 
dore Weber,  after  Zuber 516 

Coast  of  Madagascar  and  View  of  Ma- 
JONCA. — Limit  of  the  Brown  Disper 
SION. — Drawn  by  De  Berard 519 

Route  OF  theOrari AN  Dispersion. — Peril 

Straits. — Drawn  by  Theodore  Weber.     .  520 

Route  OF  THE  Chontal  Dispersion  South- 
ward.— Coast  of  Panama. — Drawn  by 
De  Berard 521 

Type    of    American    Mongoloids  —  The 

Indian  Barre. — Drawn  by  Riou     .     .     .   522 

Type  of  A.merican  Mongoloids— Mon- 
durnca  Indian  Woman 523 

Meurka.— Drawn  by  Y.  Pranishnikoff    .     .     .  526 

Bambarra  Types. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard.  527 

Bantu  Type— Chief  N'doumba. — Drawn  by 
Riou 529 

Bechuana  Type — A  Pahouin.— Drawn   by 

Riou 5JI 

Australian  Type — Jokhai. — Drawn  by  To- 

fani -33 

Papuan  Types— Male  and  Female  Heads. 

— Drawn  by  E.  M^sples 534 

Type  of  Ruddy  Race  Approximated  to 
Brown  —  A  Native  of  Madras. — 
Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard 538 

Approximation  of  Black  and  Brown 
Races— The  Moor  Faghe.— Drawn  by 
E.  Ronjat  ..." 541 

Approximation  of  the  Ruddy  and 
Brown  Races — Don  Mariano  Teran, 
Priest  of  Coporaque. — Drawn  by  Riou. 
from  a  photograph 541 

Mixed  Types— Mexican  Women.— Drawn 

by  Riou 544 

The  Horde. — Entrance  of  the  Moors 
into  Alcazar 547 

Modification  of  the  Natural  World  by 
Man. — View  of  the  Fortifications 
of  Belfort. — Drawn  hv  Taylor,  from  a 
photograph 550 

Unmodified  Environment  of  Man. — 
View  of  Sonmarc.— Drawn  by  G.  Vuil- 
lier,  from  a  photograph 552 


PAGE 

Inability  of  Blacks  to  Modify  Environ- 
ment.—African  Town  on  River. — 
Drawn  by  Riou 554 

Modification  of  Environment  by  Appli- 
cation OF  Natural  Forces.— Hy- 
draulic Mining 557 

Mastery  of  Man  by  Nature.— A  Boat 
Wreck 560 

Mastery  of  Nature  by  Man. — A  Screw 
Steamer  at  Sea 561 

Semite  Contemplating  Nature.— Drawn 

by  Paul  Hardy 563 

The  Blacks  Fear  Nature  — Storm  in 
African  Forest. — Drawn  by  Riou     .     .  565 

The  Tarpan  (First  Remove  from  the 
.   Primitive  Horse) 568 

An  Arab  Steed  (Greatest  Remove  from 
Pri.mitive  Type). — Drawn  by  T.  F.  Zim- 
mermann 569 

LowIndustrialEstateofthe  Brown  and 
Black  Races. — Post  of  the  Grand 
TalibouCHE. — Drawn  by  Y. Pranishnikoff.    575 

Tailpiece  for  Distribution  of  the 
Races 576 

Headpiece  FOR  THE  Iranians 577 

Iranian  Landscape.  —  Plateau  of  Mali- 
MIR. — Drawn  by  G.  VuiUier,  from  a  photo- 
graph  578 

Animal  Life  of  Persia. — Mountain  Sheep 
OF  Kerout.  —  Drawn  by  Tofani,  after  a 
photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy.     .     .     .  579 

Animal  Life  of  Persia. — An  Ox  of  the 
Bishopric.  —  Drawn  by  A.  L.  Clement, 
after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy.  580 

Remains  of  Iranian  Building.— Ruins  of 
the  Palace  of  Darius,  at  Persepolis. 
— Drawn  by  A.  Deroy,  after  a  photograph 
by  Madame  Dieulafoy 581 

Persian  King  Worshiping  Ahura-Maz- 
dAo 584 

Fire  Altars  of  the  Old  Zoroastrians. 

— From  Magazine  of  Art 586 

Parsee  Temple  of  Fire  at  Atech-Ga. — 

Drawn  by  M.  Moynet 587 

Fire  Tower  of  Atech-Ga,  at  Firouz- 
Abad. — Drawn  by  Taylor,  after  the  restora- 
tion by  Madame  Dieulafoy 588 

GuEBER  Ceremonies  at  Temple  of  Atech- 
Ga,  near  Bakan. — Drawn  by  M.  Moynet.  592 

Present  State  of  Fire  Towers  at  Atech- 
Ga. — Drawn  by  Taylor,  after  a  photograph 
by  Madame  Dieulafoy 594 

Iranian  Family  Type.  —  Drawn  by  Tofani, 

after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy.  596 

Oldest  Type  of  the  Married  Woman — A 
Chaldean. — Drawn  by  Mile,  de  Lancelot, 
after  a  sketch  by  Madame  Dieulafoy  .    .    .  598 


XXXIV 


ILLUKTRATroXS  r.V  VOLUME  T. 


Form  of  Royal  Tomb  in  Polygamous 
Country.  —  Drawn  by  Taylor,  from  a 
photograph 6oi 

Polygamous  Father  and  his  Sons. — 
Fattally  Chah.— Drawn  by  H.  Chapuis, 
after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy  .  603 

Plateau  of  Iran.— Threshing  Wheat.— 

Drawn  by  Laurent  Desrousseaux  ....  606 

Old  Median  Type— Cyrus  the  Great.— 
Drawn  by  Madame  Dieulafoy  after  the 
sculpture 607 

Type  of  Ancient  Iranian  King— Darius 
AND  the  Lion. —  Heliogravure,  altera 
photograph  from  the  sculptures,  by  Madame 
Dieulafoy 60S 

Court  of  Persian  Monarch  (Royal 
Palace  of  Ispahan) 609 

Median  Soldiers.— Gravure  by  Bazin,  after 

a  photograph  of  the  bas-relief  of  Chapour.  610 

Perso-Mohammedan  Types— Arab  Chief 
in  the  House  of  a  Sheik. — Drawn  by 
E.  Ronjat,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame 
Dieulafoy ...  611 

Specimen  Pace  from  Armenian  Book  .    .613 

Scene  m  Armenia. — Rock  of  Van. — Drawn 

by  Th.  Deyrolle,  from  nature 614 

Armenian  Archbishop — Type. — Drawn  by 

Y.  Pranishnik&ff 615 

Armenian  Family — Types.  —  Drawn  by  A. 
Sirouy,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame 
Dieulafoy 616 

Tomb  on  the  Border  of  Karoun. — Drawn 
by  Taylor,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame 
Dieulafoy 617 

Mourners  Wailing. — Drawn  by  Y.  Pranish- 
nikoff,  after  a  sketch  of  Madame  Carla 
Serena 618 

Bakhtiyari  Types.  —  Drawn  by  C.  Vuillier, 

from  a  photograph 619 

USBEK   and   Tajik    Types. — Drawn   by   A. 

Fetdinandus 620 

Kurd  Types. — Drawn  by  F.  Courboin,  from  a 

photograph 621 

Falconer  of  the  Sheik.— Hindu-Persian 
Types  and  Costumes.  —  Drawn  by  A. 
Sirouy,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame 
Dieulafoy 622 

Mussulman  Nurses  and  Child— Types 
and  Costumes.  —  Drawn  by  Adrien 
Marie,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame 
Dieulafoy 624 

Young  Lady  of  Ispahan— Type. — Drawn 
by  Adrien  Marie,  from  a  photograph  by 
Madame  Dieulafoy 625 

Archit£cture  of  the  Persians.— Tomb 
OF  Iman  Mousa,  at  Kazhe.meine. — 
Drawn  by  Barclay,  from  a  photograph  .     .  626 


page 

Persian  Structure.— Tomb  of  Zobeide.— 
Drawn  by  D.  Lancelot,  from  a  photograph 
by  Madame  Dieulafoy 627 

Specimen  Page  of  Persian  Bocjk  ....  628 

Nasr  ed  din  Shah— Royal  Type  and  Cos- 
tume.— Drawn  by  H.  Thiriat,  from  a  photo- 
graph      629 

Types  AND  Costumes  of  the  Zagros  High- 
lands.—Mutcheid  of  TaURIS  AND  his 
Officers. — Drawn  by  Tofani 630 

Fanatical  Type  and  Costume.— Dervish 
OF  the  Tiger-Skin. — Drawn  by  A.  Ferdi- 
nandus,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame 
Dieulafoy 631 

HuzAREH  Types.  —  Afkidis  Attacking 
English  Troops.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bay- 
ard      633 

Persian  Scholar  — Type.  — Haji  Mirza- 
Ughazzi 634 

Northern  Beluchs— Types. —  Mountain- 
eers OF  the  W'estern  Himalayas. — 
Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard,  from  a  photo- 
graph  636 

Wo.MEN  OF  Chiraz— Types  and  Costumes. 
— Drawn  by  Adrien  Marie,  from  a  photo- 
graph by  Madame  Dieulafoy 637 

Domestic  Manners  of  the  Beluchs. — In- 
terior OF  Tent. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bay- 
ard, after  Vambery 638 

Tailpiece  for  the  Iranians 640 

Headpiece  for  the  Indicans 641 

View  in  Sapta  Sindhu.— The  Mounchi- 
Bagh.  —  Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a 
photograph 642 

In  the  Valley  of  the  Ganges.— River 
and  Boat  Scene. —  Drawn  by  T.  Gail- 
drau,  from  nature 645 

Primitive  Building  of  the  Indus  Valley. 
—  House  in  the  Koulou. — Drawn  by  G. 
Vuillier,  from  a  photograph 647 

Modern  Houses  of  the  Sapta  Sindhu. — 
Village  in  the  Koulou.— Drawn  byG. 
Vuillier,  from  a  photograph 648 

House  People  OF  Arya— The  Duhitar.    .  650 

House  People  of  Arya— The  Tillers  of 
THE  Soil 651 

House  People  of  Arya— The  Agricul- 
tural Life 653 

Boating  by  Moonlight  on  the  Indus.— 
Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a  photograph 
by  Burke 655 

Sakya  Muni 659 

God  of  Fire 659 

Sculptures  from  a  Porch  at  Karll- 
Drawn  by  H.  Catenacci,  after  Grand- 
sire    660 

Kami-Rati 663 


ILLUSTEATIOXS  IX  VOLT  WE  I. 


PAGE 

Brahma  as  the  Four-faced  Buddha. — 
Drawn  by  E.  Tournois,  after  a  sketcli  of 
Delaporte 664 

Cycle  of  Transmigrations  According  to 
A  Thibetan  Image 665 

The  Sacred  Cow  of  India. — Drawn  by  A. 

de  Neuville 667 

Vishnu  in  the  Form  of  a  Boar 668 

Siva  as  Man  and  Woman 669 

Nepal  Buddha  in  Bronze.  —  Drawn  by 
P.  5e"ier,  from  the  collection  of  Le 
Bon 670 

Indican    Funeral    Pyre  and   Suttee. — 

After  a  Persian  miniature 671 

Indian  Devotees.  —  Jogees  Wounding 
The.mselves. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard, 
from  a  photograph 672 

Car  of  Juggernaut. — Drawn  by  A.  de  Neu- 
ville, from  a  photograph 673 

Sacrifice  to  the  Ganges. — Drawn  by  Emile 

Bayard 675 

A  SiVAiTE  Brahman — Type. — Drawn  by  F. 

Regamey 677 

A  Second  Caste  Pundit— Type 678 

Third  Caste  Type— Landowner  of  Kou- 
MAN. — Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a  photo- 
graph  679 

Low  Caste  Type  —  Dancing  Woman,  or 
Bayadere 679 

Sontals  of    Behar  —  Types.  —  Drawn    by 

Emile  Bayard,  from  a  photograph    .     .     .  680 

View  in  the  Punjab,  Showing  the  Gov- 
ernor's Residence  at  Simla. — Drawn 
by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a  photograph.     .     .     .681 

Old  Dravidian  Types — Khond  Chief- 
tains     683 

Specimen  Page  OF  Tamil  Book 6S4 

Group  of  Landakis.  or  Hill  Hindus — 
Types.  —  Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a 
photograph  by  De  Frith 6S5 

High-Caste  Hindu  (Anant  Ram,  Prime 
Minister)— Type. — Drawn  by  E.  Ronjat, 
from  a  photograph  by  Burke 686 

Mussulman  of  Cashmere— Type.— Drawn 

hv  E.  Zier,  from  a  photograph  by  Burke     .  687 

Hindu  Princes — Types. — The  Maharajah 
and  his  Court.  —  Drawn  by  E.  Ronj'at, 
from  a  photograph  by  Burke 688 

View  in  the  Himalayas.  —  A  Mountain 
Village. — Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a 
photograph  by  Baker 691 

Animal  Life  of  India. — Stag  Slain  by  a 
Tiger. — Drawn  by  A.  de  Neuville,  after 
Delaporte 692 

Rhinoceros  Fight  at  Baroda. — Drawn  by 

Emile  Bayard 693 

Indian  Buffaloes. — Drawn  by  Mesvel.    .     .694 
.S 


PAGE 

Deadly  Serpents  of  India.- -The  Bunja- 

Ris  Fasciatus. — Drawn  by  R.  Kretschner  695 

The  Tiger  Hunt. — Drawn  by  Tanley  Berke- 
ley, from  nature 696 

Elephant  Fight  at  Baroda.  —  Drawn  by 

Emile  Bayard 698 

Scene  in  the  Indian  V.a.lleys. — Village 
of  Pertcembokern.  —  Drawn  by  Riou, 
from  a  photograph 700 

Coolies  at  the  Cotton  Market  in  Bo.m- 
bay 702 

Indigo  Factory  at  Allahabad.— Drawn 

by  E.  Therond 703 

Opium  Manufactory. — Drawn  by  A.  Sirouy, 

from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy  .  704 

Tea  Plantation  in  the  Valley  of  Kan- 
GR.\.  —  Drawn  by  Paul  Langlois,  from  a 
photograph 705 

Aspects  of  Indian  Life.  —  Repose  at 
Noonday. — Drawn  by  F.  Regamey,  from 
nature 707 

Dyers  of  Lucknow. — Drawn  by  A.  Duvivier.  709 

Aspects  of  Indian  Life. — Dance  of  the 
Bayaderes.  —  Drawn  by  F.  Regamey, 
from  the  scene 711 

Hindu  Jeweler  at  Work.  —  Drawn  by  A. 
de  Neuville 712 

Diamond  Mine  of  Punnah. — Drawn  by 
^EmiJe  Bayard 714 

Copper  Vessels  of  Hindu  Workmanship. 

— Drawn  by  Schmidt,  from  the  originals     ,  715 

Specimen  of  Sanskrit 717 

Sacred  Inscription  from  the  Veda    .    .  717 

Variant  Forms  of  Sa.vskrit — i,  Hindi;  2, 

Punjabi 718 

View  in  Cashmere. — Valley  of  the  Tir- 
tan. — Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a  photo- 
graph by  Bourne 719 

Aspects  of  Cashmerian  Life. — Dancing 
Girl  of  Serinagur. — Drawn  by  Emile 
Bayard 72c 

Specimen  of  Mahratti 721 

Group  of  Mahrattas— Types 722 

Peasants  of  the  Doab — Types. — Drav^m  by 

Emile  Bayard,  from  a  photograph.     .     .     .  723 

Speci.men  Page  of  Hindi  Book 724 

Attendants  of  the  R.^jah  and  Guard  of 
Tanjore— Types.  —  Drawn  by  F.  Rega- 
mey, from  the  subjects 725 

Indian  Architecture — Flat-Roof  Struc- 
ture.—  Bazaar  of  Khoja  Svnd. — 
Drawn  by  H.  Clerget 727 

Indian  Architecture  —  Elaboration  of 
Ornament  —  Gopuram.  —  Drawn  by  F. 
Regamey,  from  the  original 728 

Marriage  of   Siva  and   Parvati. — From 

the  cave  of  Elephanta 720 


FL LUSTRATION'S  IHT  VOLUME  T. 


PAGE 

Indian  Architecture.— The  Taj  Mahal, 

Agra. — Drawn  by  E.  Therond     ....  730 

Dress  of  the  Hindus  —  Princess  of 
Agra 73^ 

Manners  of  the  Hindus.— Reception  at 
THE  Court  of  the  Begum. — Drawn  by 
A.  de  Neuville 733 

Superstitions  of  the  Hindus. — Amulets 
taken  from  the  Body  of  Tippu 
Saib 735 

Hindu  Fakir,  Carrying  Circlets  of  Iron 
ABOUT  his  Neck. — Drawn  by  Emile  Bay- 
ard, from  a  photograph 736 

Indian  Prince— Type.— The  Maharajah 
OF  GwALiOR. — Drawn  by  A.  de  Neuville.  738 


tkea 

Soldiers  of   the   Rajah   of   Baroda— 

Types. —  Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard   .     .    .  740 

Group  of  Hindu  Weapons  of  War  .    .    .741 

View  in  Bengal.  —  Esplanade  in  Cal- 
cutta.— Drawn  by  J.  Gaildrau    ....  742 

Agricultural  Life  in  India.— Ghaddis 
Cultivators. — Drawn  by  E.  Zier,  from  a 
photograph  by  5-  Bourne 744 

Benjari  Gypsies — Types. — Drawn  by  A  de 

Neuville,  from  a  photograph 746 

Gypsy  Tribe  on  the  March. — Drawn  by  A. 

de  Neuville 747 

The  Pariah  Djongal  of  Sarguja— Type. 

— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard 749 

Tailpiece  for  the  Indicans 750 


General  Introduction. 


ANKIND    is    not    an 

event,  but  a  producing 
force.  The  history  of 
the  human  race,  there- 
fore, differs  essentially 
from  the  history  of 
events.  The  one  is 
the  story  of  man-life  as  such,  and  the 
other  an  account  of  the  results  and  prod- 
ucts of  that  life  under  the  dominion  of 
instinct  and  reason.  The  first  relates 
to  our  race  as  a  living  entity,  and  the 
Subjective  and  sccond  to  the  works  which 
oSi:S?st"'  men  have  accomplished, 
tory.  The  one   looks  constantly 

to  the  agent  out  of  whose  activities  all 
events  have  arisen,  and  the  other  to  the 
events  themselves.  The  first  may  be 
called  the  subjective,  and  the  other  the 
objective  phase  of  human  story.  These 
distinctions  are  fundamental  to  an  un- 
derstanding of  the  inquiry  upon  which 
we  are  here  to  enter. 

In  considering  the  subjects  proper  to 
Ethnic  History,  the  reader  will  not  have 
The  objective  proceeded  far  before  he 
^^e^rvoiXn  of  Will  discover  that  they  dif- 
events.  f gr  toto  ccelo  from  the  themes 

of  general  history.  The  latter  begins 
with  the  movements  and  results  of  or- 
ganized society.  It  relates  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  national  life.  It  takes 
into  consideration  the  connections  of 
state  with  state,  kingdom  with  kingdom, 
power  with  power,  and  the  phenomena 
resulting  from  internal  development  and 
foreign  contact.  It  seizes  the  visible 
aspects  of  human  affairs,  and  deals  with 
them  as  the  products  of  the  wills  and 
purposes  of  peoples.  It  dwells  upon  the 
v/orks    of    man    associated,  the    conse- 


quences of  his  exertion,  the  tangibili- 
ties of  his  civil  and  political  life,  and  in 
particular  the  national  features  of  his 
communities  and  governments.  It  is 
an  account  of  the  evolution  of  institu- 
tions, the  fruits  of  those  institutions,  the 
manner  in  which  those  fruits  are  gather- 
ed and  consumed,  and  the  successions 
and  cycles  through  which  all  organic 
forms  produced  by  the  desires  and 
ambitions  of  mankind  pass  in  the  course 
of  their  fulfillment. 

It  is  not  meant  that  general  history  is 
limited  to  the  consideration  of  the  public 

life  of  mankind.      Thelim-   General  history 

itation  relates  to  the  objec-  obficurtuJ^ rf 
ti vity  of  the  facts  and  events  society, 
which  constitute  the  subject-matter  and 
determine  the  character  of  such  history. 
Certain  it  is  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
historical  writings  of  the  world  have 
been  devoted  to  public  affairs.  They 
have  dealt  with  peoples  as  a  whole,  with 
their  organized  activities,  with  their 
forms  of  government  and  methods  of 
administration,  with  aspects  and  displays 
of  power  well  calculated  to  fix  the  atten- 
tion and  interest  of  the  inquirer.  General 
history  has  been  made  to  deal  with 
organizations  as  a  fact,  with  civil  and 
military  affairs,  with  those  movements 
and  institutions  which,  on  the  one  hand, 
conduce  to  the  power  of  nations,  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  sap  and  destroy  them, 
and  with  all  the  ostensible  agencies  of 
peace  and  war. 

Recent  history,  however,  has  not  con- 
tented itself  with  this  cycle  of  discussion. 
On  the  contrary,  it  has  descended  from 
the  story  of  affairs  to  the  story  of  the 
people,    taking  into   consideration    the 


XXXVIII 


'GEXERAL   LXTRODUCTION. 


manners,  customs,  social  institutions, 
commerce,  and  intellectual  progress  of 
Thenewmeth-  the  vadous  nations.  Nev- 
"atru^'fbu^r  ertheless.  the  narrative  has 
etm objective,  still  Continued  to  deal  -with 
objectivities,  with  products,  and  results. 
This  has  been  as  true  of  our  so-called 
histories  of  the  people  as  it  is  true  of 
the  older  histories  which  deal  exclusivel)* 
with  public  affairs  to  the  neglect  of 
the  common  lot.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  old  and  the  new  narrative  has 
been  the  difference  between  a  public 
history — an  account  of  public  affairs — 
and  a  social  and  domestic  history — an 
account  of  the  private,  domestic,  and 
social  affairs  and  institutions  of  the  given 
people.  The  change  from  the  old  to  the 
new  has  not  been  really  a  change  of 
method,  but  only  of  subject-matter.  It 
has  not  reversed  the  point  of  view,  turn- 
ing the  attention  of  the  inquirer  from 
the  products  of  man's  agency  to  the  man 
himself,  but  has  been  content  with  the 
substitution  of  a  new  class  of  facts  for 
those  formerly  in  vogue  with  historians. 

From  all  this  ethnic  history  departs 
as  if  by  a  whole  horizon.  The  story  of 
Ethnic  history  the  human  race — the  true 
esSSsof  Story-has  not  to  do  with 
face-life.  the  results  of  human  activ- 

ity on  the  earth,  but  rather  with  the 
race  itself.  The  race,  and  not  the  event, 
is  the  subject-matter  of  the  inquiry. 
The  attention  is  fixed  not  on  the  prod- 
ucts of  human  will  and  activity,  but  on 
mankind  as  such. 

The  river  in  its  course  from  the  hieh- 
lands  to  the  sea  may  accomplish  Avon- 
The  river  an  an-  ders.  It  traverses  vallevs 
S^defhni-c  and  Shapes  them.  It  tries 
history.  one    course    through    the 

hills,  and  then  another.  It  builds  up  em- 
bankments. It  creates  a  world  of  sand 
and  pebbles.  It  distributes  its  shells  and 
other  relics  of  life  in  this  part  and  in 


that.  It  creates  a  landscape.  It  dic- 
tates the  distribution  of  forests.  It 
leaves  the  evidences  of  its  work  in  every 
part  of  its  course.  The  ledge  of  rocks 
is  worn  away,  and  the  alluvium  of  one 
region  is  deposited  in  another.  The 
river  even  divides  into  channels.  It 
eddies  into  bayous  and  lakes.  It  rushes 
through  narrow  gorges,  fills  canals,  and 
springs  over  water  wheels.  It  bears 
ships  and  divides  countries  in  its  course. 
It  becomes  an  artery  of  commerce. 
Cities  are  built  hero  and  there  in  situa- 
tions determined  by  its  windings;  na- 
tions gather  on  its  banks. 

The  evidences  of  this  river-life,  the 
works  which  it  effects,  the  traces  of  its 
passage,  may  be  said  in  one  sense  to 
constitute  a  history  of  the  river ;  but  the 
essential  river  has  not  yet  been  touched , 
What  of  the  river  itself?  We  speak  no^ 
of  the  work  which  it  accomplishes  in  ita 
passage  through  the  lands,  but  of  the 
river  as  an  independent  entity.  How 
great  is  it?  Fi'om  what  sources  has  it 
been  gathered?  By  what  alchemy  and 
transformation  of  sun  and  wind  has  it 
been  beaten  up  from  tropical  seas, 
blown  away  in  clouds,  and  poured  down 
in  mist  or  rain  or  snow  on  mountain 
crest,  highland,  and  hillside  of  the  far 
interior?  What  are  its  other  foun- 
tains? Deep  out  of  mother  earth  they 
come  in  many  and  widely  separated  re- 
gions. They  burst  from  under  ledges 
of  stone.  They  pour  from  dark  chasms 
in  the  mountains.  They  bubble  as 
springs  of  living  water  from  a  thousand 
obscure  spots  at  hill-foot,  in  limestone 
crevice,  by  great  tree  roots,  in  the  soli- 
tary forest,  through  humble  wells  digged 
deep  by  crawfishes  in  banks  of  clay. 

From  such  fountains  the  river  gathers 
its  volume.  Its  waters  are  blent  into  one. 
It  pours  along,  gathering  and  increas- 
ing.    It  is  an  entity.     It  may  well  seem 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 


XXXIX 


race  in  its  char 
acter  and  mo- 
tion. 


alive.  It  moves  and  roars  and  rushes. 
Its  volume  is  measurable,  but  becomes 
immeasurable  with  increase.  Its  color 
is  of  this  tint.  Its  water  has  this  quality 
or  that.  Its  manner  is  placid,  smiling, 
gentle,  or  angry,  turbulent,  stormy.  It 
sleeps  or  wakes.  It  rejoices  with  sun- 
shine or  calm,  moans  with  the  pressure 
of  shadow  and  tempest,  becomes  furious, 
and  springs  with  madness  through  nar- 
rowing gorges  and  over  horrid  preci- 
pices. It  yields  to  the  rigor  of  winter, 
and  bursts  with  the  renewal  of  spring. 
All  this  is  the  river  itself.  All  this  has 
respect  to  the  substance  and  life  of  the 
great  fact,  and  not  to  its  results  and 
reactions. 

The  analogue  of  the  river  is  the  hu- 
man race.  That,  too,  is  a  stream  flow- 
Aspect  of  our  ing  from  an  invisible  foun- 
tain. That  also  has  had 
its  sources  in  the  highlands 
of  the  past,  and  that  also  has  gathered 
and  rolled  down  with  increasing  volume 
into  the  plains  of  the  present.  Like  the 
river,  the  human  race  possesses  a  life  of 
its  own.  It  is  an  entity  dividing  into 
many  entities.  It  spreads  far  and  cov- 
ers the  earth  with  its  floods.  It  leaves 
on  all  shores  and  continents  the  signs  of 
its  presence  and  activities.  It  builds  up 
and  demolishes.  It  changes  its  course 
according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  phys- 
ical barriers  that  are  set  against  its  prog- 
ress. It  breaks  through  and  traverses 
vast  regions.  It  modifies  the  whole 
globe,  and  determines  both  its  material 
and  its  immaterial  aspects.  It  becomes 
the  one  really  important  fact  on  the 
earth.  It  is  to  be  considered  not  so 
much  in  the  effects  and  changes  which 
it  has  produced  among  its  environing 
conditions  as  in  its  own  essential  life. 

There  thus  arises  out  of  the  nature  of 
the  things  considered  a  marked  differ- 
ence between  ethnic  and  general  history. 


The  one  gives  an  account  of  the  races  of 
mankind  in  their  essential  nature,  pow- 
ers, capacities,  or,  in  a  word.  Essentials  of  du- 
an  account  of  themselves.  'ZT^^^ol 
The  other  presents  a  nar-  history, 
rative  of  the  facts  and  deeds  of  which 
men  have  been  the  authors ;  the  works 
which  they  have  accomplished ;  the  in- 
stitutions which  they  have  created ;  the 
visible  effects  of  their  stay  and  activity 
on  the  earth :  the  monuments  thev  have 
biiilded;  the  kingdoms  and  empires 
which  they  have  devised ;  the  govern- 
ments they  have  formed;  the  wars  they 
have  fought;  the  treaties  they  have 
made;  the  activities  they  have  exerted 
in  peace. 

With  these  and  the  like  facts  of  hu- 
man agency  ethnic  history  is  only  inci- 
dentally  concerned.       The   The  ethnic  his- 

ethnic  historian  does  in-  fve^t"  afiidioe, 
deed  regard  all  facts  and  ofrace-ufe. 
circumstances  of  the  life  of  man ;  but  he 
views  them  only  as  illustrations  of  the 
nature  and  purposes  of  the  race.  By 
him  the  very  globe  is  regarded  as  the 
scene  of  race  emergence,  division,  mi- 
gration, and  development;  as  the  en- 
vironing continent  of  our  species;  the 
ground  of  its  activities.  His  attention 
is  fixed  on  the  evolution  of  mankind,  on 
its  characteristics  and  its  methods  of  life. 
In  the  following  treatise  the  attempt 
is  made  to  display  the  history  of  man- 
kind considered  as  a  race  of  intelligent 
beings,  multiplying,  dividing,  migrat- 
ing, developing,   conquer-  inthiswork 

ino-       and      Dosqessino-    the   mankind  is  con- 
ing,      anu     pubbCbbing    Lue   sideredasan 

earth.    The  race  is  viewed  entity. 

in  itself.     It  is  ever\-where  considered 

as  a  living  entity,  acting  unconsciously 

under  its  own  laws,  and  fulfilling  a  mis 

sion  of  which  only  the  higher  members 

of  the  species  have  been  able  to  catch 

occasional  glimpses. — It  is  the  object  of 

this   Introduction   to  set  forth  with  as 


XL 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 


much  conciseness  and  brevity  as  possi- 
ble the  general  course  of  the  inquiry, 
and  to  lead  the  mind  of  the  reader  i:p 
to  a  comprehension  of  the  plan  of  the 
work  as  a  whole. 

A  History  of  the  Races  of  Mankind 
must  needs  include  a  number  of  subor- 
First  topics  the  dinate  topics  of  the  great- 
^^ll^f^^flil^   est  interest  to  all  who  are 

manner  of  tne 

beginning.  jq  any  measure  concerned 

with  the  destiny  of  their  species.  One  of 
the  first  of  such  questions  is  that  which 
considers  the  time,  the  place,  and  the 
manner  of  the  beginning  of  man-life  on 
the  earth.  Certain  it  is  that  men  at 
some  time  in  the  past  made  their  appear- 
ance on  this  habitable  globe.  Certain  it 
is  also  that  at  some  place,  or  places, 
such  beginning  was  made.  Equally  cer- 
tain is  it  that  the  coming  of  man  was  in 
some  manner.  It  was  by  method.  The 
beginning  was  not  chaotic,  but  orderly. 
The  inquiry,  therefore,  turns  first  of 
all  to  the  questions  here  presented.  At 
what  time  did  the  human  race  begin  to 
be?  In  what  place,  or  places,  did  it 
make  its  appearance  ?  In  what  manner, 
by  what  agencies,  immediate  or  mediate, 
was  the  introduction  of  such  a  fact  as 
man-life  on  the  globe  effected?  These 
inquiries  are  fundamental  to  any  rational 
history  of  the  human  family.  The 
attempt  is  made  in  the  inquiry  prelimi- 
nary to  the  present  work  to  consider  them 
in  their  proper  place  as  an  introductory 
study  to  the  whole. 

After  deciding,  with  such  approxima- 
tions to  certainty  as  we  may  be  able  to 
reach,  the  time,  place,  and  manner  of 
Primitive  estate  the    beginning,    our    next 

ma^d^onsfde'r.  ^^q^^^^y  ^^^^^  naturally  have 
•*io"-  respect     to    the    primitive 

condition  of  mankind.  The  estate  of  the 
human  race  on  the  outskirts  of  that  im- 
penetrable darkness  and  barbarism  out 
of  which  it  arose  must  be  considered  in 


the  best  lights  which  tradition  and 
science  are  able  to,  hold  aloft.  The 
primeval  condition  of  the  tribes  and 
peoples  which  we  are  able  to  discover  on 
their  emergence  from  unconsciousness 
and  savagery  is  of  itself  the  subject- 
matter  of  one  of  the  most  interesting 
themes  in  the  whole  natural  history  of 
life.  It  involves  the  gathering  up  of  the 
fragmentary  details  and  the  reconstruc- 
tion— as  if  in  outline — of  a  condition 
which  had  not  the  instinct  and  capability 
of  recording  itself.  The  study  involves 
the  gathering  of  materials  from  almost 
every  department  of  human  knowledge, 
and  a  sifting  and  comparison  of  the  data 
to  the  end  of  obtaining  an  adequate 
notion  of  the  estate  of  our  race  while  it 
still  journeyed  dimly  and  doubtfully 
through  obscure  ages,  far  below  the 
horizon  of  all  authentic  annals. 

In  the  course  of  such  an  inquiry,  we 
shall  be  brought  into  contact  with  a  con- 
dition of  the  world  and  with  aspects  of 
animate  existence  which  we  Means  of  deter- 
know  only  by  the  aid  of  rgr„li'st?te-of 
retrospective  science.  We  ™a"- 
shall  discover  the  first  men  in  a  deplor- 
able estate,  fighting  desperately  with  the 
huge  monsters  of  brake  and  river  bank 
and  wilderness,  struggling  to  maintain  a 
merely  animal  life  in  dark  and  houseless 
forests,  along  wild  seashores,  and  in 
dripping  caverns.  We  shall  note  the 
rude  implements  and  tackle  whereby  the 
barbarian  life  would  better  its  chances 
in  the  hard  struggle  for  existence.  Out 
of  these  traces  of  the  aboriginal  life  of 
man  we  shall  attempt  to  deduce  his  con- 
ditions and  prospects  in  the  first  dis- 
coverable ages  of  his  career  on  the  eartli. 
It  is  necessary  that  such  a  foundation  be 
laid  in  order  to  understand  the  develop- 
ment of  the  human  family,  its  progress 
into  the  higher  life,  and  its  final  emer- 
gence into  civilization  and  fame. 


GENERAL   IXTRODUCTION. 


XLI 


The  next  special  subject  in  the  logical 

development  of  our  theme  is  that  of  the 

migrations  and  distributions 

Distribution  of 

the  races  an  im-  whereby  the  human  spe- 
por  an      erne.     ^.^^    j^^^    been     dispersed 

throughout  the  habitable  globe.  It  is 
evident  that  in  some  manner  and  at 
some  time  the  different  divisions  of  our 
race  have  made  their  way  in  this  direc- 
tion and  that,  by  movements  more  or 
less  orderly,  into  the  parts  of  the  world 
which  they  occupy  as  the  seats  of  their 
localized  development.  To  these  inove- 
ments  we  give  the  general  name  of  dis- 
tribution. The  fact  so  called  constitutes 
one  of  the  principal  features  of  a  certain 
stage  in  the  human  evolution  As  prim- 
itive tribes  multiply  and  develop,  there 
comes  a  time  when  the  passion  for  mi- 
gration seizes  them.  The  spirit  of  re- 
moval prevails,  and  they  depart  from 
their  native  seats.  In  some  instances 
the  removal  is  phenomenal;  that  is,  it 
is  apparent  as  a  distinct  phase  of  tribal 
life.  In  other  cases  the  movement  is  so 
slow  and  gradual  as  to  be  undiscovera- 
ble  except  after  the  lapse  of  time. 

In  either  event,  however,  the  migra- 
tion has  the  same  practical  result.  It 
carries  tribes  and  peoples  into  regions 
hitherto  unoccupied  by  them.  It  throws 
them  upon  other  tribes  and  peoples  who 
are  in  the  way  of  their  ad- 

General  view  of 

the  nature  of       vancc,    or,     possibly,  into 

migration.  .1  .  ... 

tmoccupied  regions  of  the 
earth .  This  gives  to  the  early  inhabitants 
of  our  globe  what  may  be  called  a  rolling 
motion.  Generally  the  movement  seems 
to  be  instinctive.  In  some  instances  the 
motive  is  apparent,  as  the  desire  of  con- 
quest, war,  the  possession  of  better 
countries,  escape  from  enemies,  acqui- 
sition of  unearned  resources  and  advan- 
tages. 

This  migratory  motion  of  tribes  and 
peoples,  whereby  our  globe,  at  one  time 


an  uninhabited  sphere,  has  become  popu- 
lated with  intelligent  beings,  is  one  of 
the  great  facts  in  ethnic  historj'.  As 
such  it  will  occupy  a  considerable  sec- 
tion of  the  present  work.  With  the  fact 
of  migration  general  history  is  not  greatly 
concerned ;  for  that  takes  note,  not  of 
the  ultimate  forces  and  processes  by 
which  the  present  order  has  been  estab- 
lished, but  rather  of  the  phenomena 
which  humanity  displays  after  it  reaches 
the  stage  of  conscious  nationality.  To 
ethnic  history,  however,  the  migratory 
movements  of  the  human  race  are  of 
great  and  fundamental  importance. 

Another  essential  topic  in  ethnic  his- 
tory is  that  which  considers  the  classifi- 
cation oi  the  races  and  their  classification  of 
arrangement  into  a  whole  cruelfa  lof^' 
according  to  manifest  and  classifying, 
established  principles.  It  is  clear  that 
all  men,  all  varieties  of  men  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  and  in  all  ages,  have  had 
some  scientific  relation  as  the  dispersed 
parts  of  a  common  fact.  That  the  hu- 
man race  is  coherent  to  its  utmost  ex- 
treme is  evident.  A  belief  in  such 
wholeness  and  consistency  is  demanded 
by  the  established  uniformity  of  nature 
and  by  all  that  we  know  respecting  the 
other  orders  of  being  and  the  general 
scheme  of  the  world. 

We  shall  find  in  this  part  of  the  in- 
quiry that  at  the  present  stage  of  our 
knowledge  some  uncertainty  still  exists 
relative  to  the  best  principle  of  division 
for  classifying  the  different  races  of 
mankind.  Some  authors  have  proposed 
to  classify  and  arrange  the  parts  of  the 
human  family  by  one  criterion,  and  others 
by  another.  Nearly  all  of  the  physical 
and  mental  characteristics  of  men  have 
been  taken  as  the  foundation  of  a  classi- 
fication of  the  races ;  but  few  of  these 
characteristics  have  been  found  to  be 
sufficiently  constant   to   furnish  an   in* 


XLIl 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTION. 


variable  and  scientific  principle  of  divi- 
sion. 

In  the  present  work  the  color  of  the 
human  body  has  been  taken  as  the  most 
Color  of  the  invariable  criterion  of  race 
t\°er,rd:rnt.i  character,  and  on  that 
characteristic,  fundamental  fact,  assisted 
by  other  physical  traits  and  by  intellec- 
tual peculiarities  of  development,  par- 
ticularly by  the  <jreat  fact  of  language, 
the  classification  has  been  made.  This 
has  been  done  on  the  hypothesis  of  the 
general  unity  of  mankind  and  the  deri- 
vation of  all  the  races  from  some  com- 
mon source  localized  in  time  and  place. 
The  character  and  method  of  classifica- 
tion chosen  as  the  basis  of  the  present 
treatise  on  the  races  of  mankind  will 
sufficiently  appear  in  the  chapter  de- 
voted to  that  topic. 

Having  thus  by  preliminary  inquirj^ 
investigated  as  well  as  we  may  the  time, 
place,  and  manner  of  the  beginning  of 
man-life  on  the  earth ;  having  noted  the 
primitive  condition  of  mankind,  and 
constructed  a  scheme  of  distribution 
and  classification  by  which  the  various 
races  may  be  viewed  as  a  single  fact 
with  subordinate  parts  in  proper  rela- 
tion to  the  whole ;  having  described  the 
migratory  spread  of  the  different  tribes 
and  peoples  from  the  earliest  movement 
of  the  race  to  its  latest  dispersion  in  the 
world,  we  shall  next  advance  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  races  thejiiseloes.  This 
theme  will  constitute  the  body  of  our 
work.  In  this  we  must  discuss  the  char- 
acteristics, special  features,  and  peculiar 
activities  of  the  various  divisions  of 
mankind,  assigning  to  each  its  proper 
place  in  the  general  scheme. 

In  entering  upon  this  principal  part 
of  the  treatise  we  shall,  from  the  nature 
of  the  case,  follow  the  already  estab- 
lished classification,  taking  up  the  differ- 
ent races  one  by  one  until  all  have  been 


considered.  We  shall  begin  with  that 
which  is  clearly  the  most  important  di- 
vision of  mankind;  that  is.  Ethnic  history 
The  Ruddy,  or  White,  ^:r?,X'as^" 
Races.  We  shall  see,  first  most  important, 
of  all,  the  great  ^rjw«/^;////)' parting  from 
its  central  locality  in  Western  Asia  into 
its  Eastern,  or  Asiatic,  and  its  Western, 
or  European,  stem.  These  we  shall  en- 
deavor to  follow,  considering  in  turn  the 
ancient  and  modern  Iranic  races,  and 
afterwards  the  Indie  Aryans,  from  the 
time  of  their  establishment  in  the  Indus 
valley  to  their  modern  developments  in 
the  powerful  races  of  Hindustan.  Then  in 
order  Ave  shall  follow  the  Western  divi- 
sion of  the  Indo-European  family,  noting 
its  emergence  in  the  Hellenic,  the  Ital- 
ican,  the  Celtic,  and  the  Teutonic  races. 
This  department  of  the  Avork  will  bring 
us  into  contact  with  the  great  classical 
nations  of  the  ancient  world.  Since  it 
includes  essentially  all  the  peoples  of 
Europe,  we  shall  here  find  those  races 
in  whom  history  has  the  most  abiding 
interest.  We  must  needs  dwell  long 
with  the  great  Greeks,  the  Romans,  the 
Celts,  the  Germans,  and  their  descend- 
ent  races  in  Europe  and  the  West. 

The  important  Aryan  family,  how- 
ever,  is  by  no  means  coextensive  with 
the  White,  or  Ruddv,  races  Semites  and 
of  mankind.  Of  these  the  ^^^t^^.t"''" 
next  general  division  is  the  R»ddy  races. 
Semitic  family,  second  only  in  fame  to 
the  Indo-Europeans.  We  shall  in  prop- 
er order  take  up  the  ancient  Semites 
and  follow  them  from  their  earliest 
ethnic  life  in  the  valley  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, through  the  great  Aramaic  and  He- 
braic developments,  down  to  the  modern 
Arabic  evolution  in  Southwestern  Asia. 
Afterwards  the  Hamiics,  of  still  narrower 
activities  and  race  dispersion,  will  be 
considered,  thus  completing  the  cycle  of 
the  Ruddy  division  of  mankind. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 


XLIII 


li'ollowing  this,  we  shall  next  find  The 
Brown  Races,  and  pursue  them  from 
their  ancient  to  their  most  recent  phases  of 
Brown  races  to     development.    The  inquiry 

be  considered  as        -^    ■       ^^j^- 

next  in  impor-  J 

tance.  from  the  region   of  Belu- 

chistan  throughout  Eastern  Asia  to  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  to  the  three  Amer- 
icas, and  indeed  to  the  ends  of  the  earth. 
In  the  course  of  this  part  of  the  inquiry 
we  shall  find  our  principal  subject-mat- 
ter in  the  great  peoples  of  the  Orient. 
There,  in  the  Chinese  group,  we  shall 
see  massed  under  a  single  form  of  life 
about  one  fourth  of  the  present  inhabi- 
tants of  the  globe.  To  these  must  be 
added  the  Japanese,  the  nomadic  races 
of  Northern  Asia,  the  Polynesian  Mon- 
goloids, and  all  of  the  American  abo- 
rigines. The  extent  and  variety  of  these 
materials  will  of  necessity  demand  much 
space,  and  detain  the  reader  with  a  mul- 
titude of  important  particulars  relative 
to  the  present  character  of  so  large  a  di- 
vision of  mankind. 

Still  pursuing  the  general  classification 
of  races,  we  shall  come  at  last  to  The 
Black  Division  of  the  human  family. 
This,  though  the  least  important,  is  nev- 
ertheless of  much  interest  as  completing 
the  general  scheme,  and  as 

The  Blacks  are        ... 

last  in  the  eth-      furnishmg  a  large  numer- 

nic  scheme.  •      i   j-        t-  r  ^i  i 

ical  fraction  oi  the  popula- 
tion of  the  globe.  Our  course  of  study 
will  here  lead  us  through  the  vast  belt 
of  Equatorial  Africa;  thence  into  the 
southern  parts  of  that  continent ;  thence 
eastward  in  the  course  of  the  Pelagian 
Blacks  as  far  as  Australia,  New  Guinea, 
Fiji,  and  the  Philippines.  The  excur- 
sion is  thus  world-wide  in  its  sweep — - 
omitting  from  consideration  no  country 
or  important  island  of  the  earth. 

It  still  remains  to  be  inquired  what 
the  true  materials  are  which  must  consti- 
tute the  body  of  an  ethnic  history.     This 


question  has  respect  to  all  of  the  essen- 
tial elements  of   the  human  evolution. 

But    what     are     these     ele-    True  materials 

ments?  By  what  agencies  ^^an^o'^/r,?' 
and  through  what  phases  of  sistence. 
life  and  action  do  the  races  of  men  pass 
in  their  progress  from  the  unconscious 
estate  of  primitive  barbarism  to  the  con- 
scious estate  of  the  civilized  life?  These 
agencies  and  elements  of  the  develop- 
ment of  mankind  we  have  attempted  to 
discover  and  to  set  forth  in  the  following 
pages.  We  shall  find  that  the  first  great 
fact  to  be  considered  with  respect  to  the 
development  of  any  given  division  of 
mankind,  or  indeed  of  the  race  as  a 
whole,  is  the  means  of  subsistence.  This 
takes  into  consideration  the  environ- 
ment, and  in  particular  the  food-supply, 
of  the  given  people.  It  views  those  ele- 
ments of  the  natural  world  of  which  man 
avails  himself  in  order  to  live  and  flour- 
ish, and  which  react  so  powerfully  upon 
his  faculties  and  frame.  We  shall  not, 
therefore,  neglect  to  notice  the  material 
basis  of  the  race-life  of  the  various  peo- 
ples, and  to  make  comparison  of  the  re- 
sources of  one  race  with  those  of  another. 
The  next  fact  or  element  in  ethnic 
history  is,  in  general,  the  relation  of  the 

sexes    and     the    institutions    Relation  and 

founded  thereon.  There  ^Te^nlxt'Lim- 
must  in  the  nature  of  the  portance. 
case  be  a  method  of  union  ever3-where 
and  under  all  conditions  for  the  perpet- 
uation of  the  species.  The  importance 
of  this  fact  has  been  greatly  overlooked 
or  blinked  by  historians,  even  by  those 
who  have  essayed  somewhat  the  ethnic 
problems  ever  suggesting  themselves  to 
the  mind.  The  fact  and  the  manner  of 
marriage  are  of  great  and  primary  im- 
portance in  determining  the  character 
and  institutions  of  every  race  that  has 
flourished  or  that  still  flourishes  on  the 
earth.      On  the   se.xual   union   and  the 


XLIV 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTION. 


manner  of  it  is  founded  the  family,  and 
out  of  the  family  spring  a  great  number 
of  social  forms,  involving  most  intimate- 
ly and  radically  the  whole  character, 
tendency,  aspiration,  and  development 
of  the  given  race.  It  will  be  a  part  of 
our  purpose  in  the  present  work  not  to 
neglect  the  adequate  discussion  of  the 
methods  of  the  sexual  union  adopted  by 
the  different  races,  and  to  shov/  the 
place  of  marriage  and  the  institutions 
based  upon  it  in  human  progress. 

Following  close  after  this  division  of 
the  subject,  we  come  to  language  as  an 
Important  element  of  ethnic  history, 

place  of  Ian-         ^j        ^       ^   material   and 

guage  m  ethmc 

history.  ^u  immaterial  part.      The 

immaterial  part  has  for  its  function 
thought,  and  thought  has  for  its  organ 
speech.  Man  is  a  speaking  animal.  No 
other  characteristic  of  his  nature  is  more 
universal  or  prevailing.  Speech  is  the 
invariable  index  of  the  intellectual  and 
moral  condition  of  the  human  kind. 
Language  has  varied  according  to  race, 
showing  most  plainly  the  wide  range  of 
aptitudes  and  intellectual  powers  pos- 
sessed by  the  different  races.  Speech 
has  differentiated  just  as  mankind  has 
separated  into  divisions  and  local  devel- 
opments. The  fact  of  language  thus 
lies  close  to  the  general  scheme  of 
human  dispersion.  The  one  illustrates 
the  other,  and  the  other  exemplifies  the 
first.  We  shall,  therefore,  in  this  trea- 
tise on  the  races  of  mankind  have  much 
to  say  on  the  linguistic  developments 
and  phenomena  of  each. 

From  language  we  advance  to  arts  and 
technology.  Man  is  the  being  that  has 
Practical  and  the  powerof  conceiviugaud 
m^^fl^.'""      executing      workmanship. 

dex  of  race  t>  r 

character.  "\Ve  speak  not  of  the  fine 

arts  in  particular,  but  of  the  industrial 
and  commercial  arts.  To  these  even 
the  barbarian  begins  to  turn  his  atten- 


tion. All  accomplishment  in  this  direc- 
tion arises  out  of  that  semi-ideal  faculty 
which  enables  the  possessor  to  adopt 
means  to  ends.  It  is  from  this  source  that 
man  derives  his  disposition  to  work  in 
the  metals,  in  wood,  in  stone,  and  in  that 
large  class  of  materials  that  are  used  in 
the  production  of  fabrics.  Ethnic  his- 
tory  considers  mankind  in  such  activities 
as  are  requisite  to  the  industrial  pursuits. 
It  regards  the  human  being  as  a  maker 
— a  maker  of  houses  first,  and  of  all 
things  afterwards.  It  considers  him  as 
a  builder  of  structures,  a  miner,  a  metal- 
lurgist, a  planter,  a  weaver,  a  tanner  of 
skins,  a  fashioner  of  weapons  and  imple- 
ments, an  engraver  of  gems.  At  length 
ethnic  history  views  man  as  he  emerges 
into  the  domain  of  the  higher  arts. 
Here  he  becomes  tnily  ideal.  Here  he 
adorns  as  well  as  constructs.  H^re  by 
the  use  of  color  and  form  he  gives  out- 
line and  substance  to  the  things  per- 
ceived in  vision  and  dream. 

It  should  here  be  noted  that  the  art 
products  of  mankind,  whether  industrial 
or  ideal,  may  be  viewed  from  two  points 
of  observation.    The  first  considers  them 

in      themselves     as      things    Artsmaybecon- 

of  importance  without  re-  te^lf^^'^^T 
spect  to  the  instincts  and  dicative  of  man. 
genius  that  produced  them.  The  other 
view  considers  them  as  illustrative  of 
the  desires  and  ambitions  of  the  makers. 
In  this  sense  they  cast  a  strong  light  on 
the  character  and  dispositions  of  the 
peoples  and  races  by  whom  they  have 
been  produced.  It  is  this  consideration 
that  gives  them  value  in  ethnic  history. 
They  show  ichat  kind  of  being  it  is  whose 
ingenuity  and  industry  are  capable  of 
effecting  such  results.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  ethnic  history,  as  well  as  the 
general  history  of  nations,  takes  into 
account  the  arts  and  industries  whereby 
life  is  so  greatly  bettered  and  amplified. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 


XLV 


General  history  regards  architecture, 
metallurgy,  all  manner  of  construction 
and  fabrication,  as  facts  in  themselves 
useful  and  important,  contributing  to  the 
strength  of  nations ;  but  a  true  study  of 
the  human  race  regards  all  art  products 
as  but  an  evidence  and  illustration  of  the 
character,  the  skill  and  purpose  of  those 
by  whom  they  were  designed. 

In  like  manner  goz'criiiiunt  and  laws 
are  human  institutions  that  may  be  con- 
Governments  sidered  in  themselves.  As 
Sempu^tu.  such  they  are  objective 
man  genius.  products  of  the  genius  of 
man.  But  they  are  also  ilhistrations  of 
the  character,  sentiment,  hope,  and  ambi- 
tions of  the  race.  The  existence  of  gov- 
ernment and  laws  among  all  the  peoples 
of  the  world  is  of  itself  sufficient  proof 
that  such  facts  are  native  to  the  instincts, 
desires,  and  capabilities  of  mankind.  It 
is  because  they  are  so  that  the  ethnic  his- 
torian, as  well  as  his  competitor,  devotes 
his  thought  and  space  to  the  considera- 
tion of  the  governmental  and  constitu- 
tional aspects  of  human  society.  The 
story  of  the  races  of  mankind  could  by  no 
means  be  complete  without  introducing 
therein  careful  accounts  of  the  laws  and 
organized  governments  which  the  vari- 
ous peoples  have  adopted.  But  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  such  consideration 
of  civil  and  legal  institutions  is  given 
because  they  illustrate  the  genius  and 
political  skill  of  mankind. 

Still  another  topic  to  be  considered  as 
a  part  of  the  revelation  of  race  character 
Religion  in  like  IS  religion.  The  religious 
rhrc"ha7acteTof  i^^stiuct  is  found  to  have 
peoples.  been  deeply  implanted  in 

nearly  or  quite  all  the  peoples  of  the 
world.  This  was  true  in  the  dawn  and 
morning  of  histor)-,  and  it  is  still  true  at 
the  high  noon  of  natioaalit}',  power,  and 
greatness.  Here,  again,  we  do  not  con- 
sider religion  and  religious  institutions 


as  objective  entities  bearing  their  inter- 
est in  themselves,  but  as  facts  tending  to 
illustrate  the  totality  of  human  nature. 
In  ethnic  history  religion,  whether  it 
presents  itself  in  the  form  of  gross  su- 
perstition or  as  a  more  enlightened  con- 
cept of  the  supernal  powers,  or  in  the 
shape  of  institutions  having  for  their  ob- 
ject the  systematic  and  visible  adminis- 
tration of  rites  and  the  teaching  of  the 
doctrines  of  a  given  faith,  must  needs 
occupy  a  considerable  space,  inasmuch 
as  it  illustrates  some  of  the  most  univer- 
sal and  constant  features  of  man-life  on 
the  earth.  In  the  present  treatise  care 
is  taken,  in  the  consideration  of  every 
division  of  mankind,  to  note  its  reli- 
gious instincts  and  practices,  as  well  as 
to  delineate  those  institutions  which  are 
founded  on  the  universal  sentiment  of 
religion  among  the  various  peoples. 

Finally,  we  shall  consider  what  maybe 
called  the  proper  ethnic  characteristics  of 
the  human  race.  These  Kthnic  traits 
relateto  those  specialized  ^ratf^om 
and  distinguishing  traits  in  '^^'=®' 
the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  consti- 
tution of  mankind,  whereby  one  people 
is  discriminated  from  another.  We  have 
seen  how  it  is  that  bodily  features,  such 
as  color,  peculiarities  of  anatomical  struc- 
ture, the  hair  of  the  head,  the  facial  an- 
gle, the  cranial  capacity,  and  many  other 
visible  facts  in  man-life,  have  been  taken 
as  a  basis  in  classifying  the  human  spe- 
cies into  kindreds,  peoples,  and  races. 
The  identity  of  feature  is  thus  used  as 
the  principle  by  which  the  classification 
is  determined.  Like  distinguishing  fea- 
tures  or  traits  appear  in  the  mind  and 
in  personal  activities.  Another  class  of 
similar  facts  maybe  found  in  the  deeper 
spiritual  parts  of  human  nature.  Upon 
all  of  these  the  ethnic  historian  will 
dwell  with  interest,  as  they  are  of  the 
essence  of  the  inquiry. 


XLVI 


GENERAL   INTRODUCriON. 


It  is  in  this  order  that  a  history  of  the 
races  of  mankind  may  be  best  constructed. 
In  the  present  work  such  order  has  been 
followed  throughout,  with  only  slight  de- 
viations in  this  part  or  in  that,  as  the 
same  have  seemed  to  be  demanded  by 
the  nature  of  the  subject-matter.  While 
absolute  uniformity  in  all  parts  of  the 
treatise  has  not  been  desired  or  sought 
after,  the  general  plan  has  been  faith- 
fully pursued  as  the  same  is  outlined  in 
this  introduction. 

From  the  various  topics  herein  pre- 
sented— arising  out  of  the  nature  of  the 
subject     and     constituting 

Summary  of  sub-     ,       ,       ,  .  ^      .  ^. 

dii-isions  of  the    the  body  of  our  study — the 
present  work.      f,jiiowing   synopsis  of   the 

whole  may  be  deduced  : 

Book  I. — A  Preliminary  Inquiry  into 
the  Time  and  Place  of  the  Beginning  of 
Man-life  on  the  Earth. 

Book  II. — An  account  of  the  Manner 
and  Conditions  of  the  Appearance  of 
Mankind. 

Book  III. — An  account  of  the  Primi- 
tive Estate  of  the  Human  Race. 

Book  IV. — An  account  of  the  Early 
^ligrations  and  Dispersions  of  the  Dif- 
ferent Divisions  of  Mankind  over  the 
Earth. 

Book  V. — An  account  of  the  Iranian 
Division  of  the  Human  Family. 

Book  VI. — An  account  of  the  Aryan 
Races  of  India. 

Book  VII.— An  account  of  the  West- 
ern Aryans,  including  the  Races  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  Greeks. 

Book  VIII. — An  account  of  the  Primi- 
tive Italicans  and  the  Romans. 

Book  IX. — An  account  of  the  Latin 
Races. 

Book  X. — An  account  of  the  Celtic 
Races. 

Book  XI. — An  account  of  the  Teu- 
tonic Races. 


Book  XII. — An  account  of  the  Norse, 
or  Scandinavian,   Races. 

Book  XIII. — An  account  of  the  Slavic 
Races. 

Book  XIV. — An  account  of  the  Ara- 
maean Semites. 

Book  XV. — An  account  of  the  Hebrew 
Race. 

Book  XVI. — An  account  of  the  Ca- 
naanites  and  Syrians. 

Book  XVII. — An  account  of  the 
Arabs. 

Book  XVIII. — An  account  of  the 
Hamitic  Races. 

Book  XIX. — An  accountof  the  Malayo- 
Mongoloids,  beginning  with  the  Thibe- 
tans and  Burmese. 

Book  XX. — An  account  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  Races. 

Book  XXI. — An  account  of  the  Malays 
Proper. 

Book  XXII. — An  account  of  the 
Asiatic  Mongoloids,  beginning  with  the 
Chinese. 

Book  XXIII. — An  account  of  the 
Japanese. 

Book  XXIV. — An  accountof  the  Mon- 
gols Proper. 

Book  XXV. — An  account  of  the 
Northern  Asiatic  Races. 

Book  XXVI. — An  account  of  the 
Polynesian  Mongoloids,  in  their  two  divi- 
sions of  Sawaioris  and  Tarapons. 

Book  XXVII. — An  account  of  the 
American  Mongoloids,  beginning-  with 
the  Northern  Aborigines. 

Book  XXVIII. — An  account  of  the 
Central  and  vSouth  American  Races. 

Book  XXIX. — An  account  of  the 
Black  Races,  beginning-  with  the  African 
Nigritians. 

Book  XXX. — An  account  of  the  Aus- 
tralians and  Papuans. 

In  this  order  the  themes  of  the  follow- 
ing  volumes  will  be  presented 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES 


STUDIED  OR  CONSULTED  IN  THE  PREPARATION  OF  THIS  WORK. 


Agassiz,     Louis.  —  Studies    of    the     Glaciers. 
I  Vol. 
Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the 
United  States.     4  Vols. 

Andersox,  Rasmos  B. — The  Norsemen  in  Amer- 
ica.    I  Vol. 

Argyle,  Duke  of. — The  Reign  of  Law.     i  Vol. 
Primeval  Man.     i  Vol. 

Baker,  James. — Turkey,     i  Vol. 

Baldwin,  John  Denison. — Prehistoric  Nations. 
I  Vol. 
Ancient  America,     i  Vol. 

Baucroft,  Hubert  Howe. — Native  Races  of 
America.     15  Vols. 

Barante,  M.  De. — History  of  the  Dukes  of 
Burgundy,     i  Vol. 

Bastian,  Adolf. — Man  in  History,     i  Vol. 

Bickmore,  Albert  S. — Travels  in  the  East 
Indian  Archipelago,     i  Vol. 

Bleek,  Wilhelm  Heinrich  Immanuel. — 
Hand-book  of  African,  Australian,  and 
Polynesian  Philology.     3  Vols. 

Brace,  Charles  Loring. — Norse  Folk,     i  Vol. 
Races  of  the  Old  World,     i  Vol. 

Bray,  A.  E. — Jlanual  of  Anthropology,     i  Vol. 

Brown,  Robert. — The  Races  of  Mankind. 
3  Vols. 

Buckle,  Henry  Thomas. — History  of  Civili- 
zation in  England.     2  Vols. 

BuFFON,  George  Louis  Leclerc. — History  of 
Domestic  Animals,     i  Vol. 
History  of  Birds.     2  Vols. 
History  of  Minerals,     i  Vol. 
Epochs  of  Nature,     i  Vol. 
Theory  of  the  Earth,     i  Vol. 
Ancient  America,     i  Vol. 

Campbell,  Dudley. — Turks  and  Greeks,  i 
Vol. 

Carey,  Henry  C. — Manual  of  Social  wScience. 
I  Vol. 

C-iCSAR,  Julius. — De  Belle  Gallico.     i  Vol. 

Catlin,     George. — Manners,     Customs,     and 
Condition  of  the  North  American  In- 
dians.     I  Vol. 
O-kee-pa:     A     Religious     Ceremony     and 
Other  Customs  of  the  Mandans.     i  Vol. 

Charpentier,  Fr.^ncois. — Essay  on  the  Gla- 
ciers.    I  Vol. 

CoLLiGNON,  M.^xiME. — A  ISIanual  of  Greek 
Archaeolog3'.     i  Vol. 

Cox,  George  W. — A  Manual  of  Mythology. 
I  Vol. 


Croll,  James. — Climate  and  Time,     i  Vol. 

Discussions    on    Climate    and    Cosmology. 
I   Vol. 
CuRTius,  Ernest. — History  of  Greece.     5  Vols. 

History  and   Topography   of  Asia    Minor. 

I  Vol. 

Dana,  James  D. — A  jNIanual  of  Geology,     i  Vol. 

Darwin,  Charles  Robert. — Origin  of  Species 

by  Means  of  Natural  Selection,     i  Vol. 

Variation   of    Plants    and    Animals   under 

Domestication,     i  Vol. 
The  Descent  of  Man  and  Selection  in  Re- 
lation to  Sex.     2  Vols. 
On    the    Expression    of  the    Emotions    in 
Men  and  Animals,     i  Vol. 
Descartes,  Rene. — Discourse  on  IMethod.  i  Vol. 
Principles  of  Philosophy,     i  Vol. 
Essay  on  Man,  etc.     i  Vol. 
Complete  Works,  Edited  by  Victor  Cousin. 

I I  Vols. 

Draper,  John  William. — History  of  the  Intel- 
lectual Development  of  Europe,    i  Vol. 
History   of   the    Conflict   between   Science 
and  Religion,     i  Vol. 
Drummond,    Henry. — Natural     Law    in    the 
Spiritual  World,     i  Vol. 
The  Ascent  of  Man.     i  Vol. 
Du  Chaillu,  Paul  B. — Stories  of  the  Goiilla 
Country,     i  Vol. 
Wild  Life  tinder  the  Equator,     i  Vol. 
Mv  Apingi  Kingdom,     i  Vol. 
The  Country  of  the  Dwarfs,     i  Vol. 
The  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun.     i  Vol. 
The  Viking  Age.     i  Vol. 
Duncker,  Max. — Historj'  of  Antiquit}'.    Trans- 
lated by  Evelyn  Abbott.     3  Vols. 
Duruy,  Victor. — Historj- of  the  Romans.  5  Vols. 
Ebers,  Georg    jNIoritz. — Works   on   Egj-ptol- 
ogy-     5  Vols. 
Novels  Relating  to  Same.     2  Vols. 
Edinburgh  Review,  Complete.— All  Articles 
on  Ethnology  and  the  Natural  Historj' 
of  INIan. 
Ellis,  Edward  S. — Indian  Wars  of  the  United 

States.     I  Vol. 
Encyclopaedia   Britannica. — New  Ninth  Edi- 
tion of  A.  and  C.  Black.     24  Vols. 
Eyre,  E.  J. — Discoveries  in  Central  Australia. 

2  Vols. 
Falke,  Jakob  von. — Hellas   and   Rome,   their 
Life  and  .\rt.     Translated  by  William 
Hand  Browne.,    i  Vol.     Quarto. 

.XLVII 


XLVIII 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES. 


FiGUiER,  GuiLLAVME  Loiis. — The  World  before 
the  Deluge,     i  Vol. 
The  Vegetable  World,     i  \'ol. 
The  Ocean  World,     i  \'ol. 
Primitive  Man.     i  Vol. 
The  Human  Race.     l  Vol. 
Fourier,  Je.vx  B.\i>tiste  Jo.seimi. — Analytical 

Theory  of  Heat,     i  Vol. 
Freemax,    Kdw.ard    a. — Historj'    and     Con- 
quest of  the  Saracens,     i  Vol. 
Historj'  of  the  Xorman  Conquest.     5  Vols. 
Old  English  Historj-.     i  \'o\. 
Comparative  Politics,     i  Vol. 
Friese,  PlliLir  C. — Semitic  Philosophj-.     i  Vol. 
Gest.\  Romanoru.m.     2  Vols. 
GoBiNEAU,  A.  De. — Moral  and  Intellectual  Di- 

versitj-  of  Races,     i  Vol. 
GuizoT,  Francois. — The   Historj-  of  Civiliza- 
tion   from    the    Fall    of    the    Roman 
Em])ire    to     the    French    Revolution. 
4  \"ols. 
Hallam,  Henry. — View  of  the  State  of  Europe 
during  the  Middle  Ages.     2  Vols. 
Constitutional    Historj-   of  England   from 
the   Accession    of   Henry   VH    to   the 
Death  of  George  II.     2  Vols. 
Hamlin,  Cyrus. — Among  the  Turks,     i  Vol. 
He.\RX,  William  Edward. — The  Arj-an  House- 
hold, its  Structure   and  Development. 
I  Vol.  , 

Plutologj',  or  the  Theory  of  the  Efforts  to 
Satisfj'  Human  Wants,     i  Vol. 
Herndon,  William  Lewis. — Explorations   of 
the    V'alley    of    the     River     Amazon. 

1  Vol. 

Critiques  and  Addresses,  i  Vol. 
History   (General),  of    the   English-speaking 
Races,   their  Institutions,    Laws,  Gov- 
ernment, etc. 

Of  the  German    Races   and   their    Institu- 
tions. 

Of   the   French    Races   and   tliCir    Institu- 
tions. 

Of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  and  their  Insti- 
tutions. 
■  Of  the  Semitic   and   othar  Oriental    Races 
and  their  Institutions. 

Of  the    Ilamitic   Races   and  their  Institu- 
tions. 

Of  the  Malays  and  Polj-nesians  and   their 
Institutions. 
Horner,  Leonard. — Report  of  Royal  Society 

for  1S51.     I  Vol. 
Hue,  EVARISTE  R.— Travels  in  Tartarj-,  Thibet, 

and  China.     2  Vols. 
Humboldt,    Ale.x.^nder    von.  —  Kosmos.      s 
\'ols. 

Travels.     2  Vols. 

Views  of  Nature.     2  Vols. 
HuxLEV,    Thomas    Henry.— Man's    Place    in 
Nature,     i  \o\. 

On  the  Physical  Basis  of  Life,     i  Vol. 

An    Introduction    to   the    Classification  of 
Animals,     i  \o\. 

Laj'    Sermons,    Addresses,    and    Reviews. 

2  \'ols. 


Kampfer,  Engelbrecht. — Historj'  of  Japan. 

2  \'ols. 
Kane,  Elisha  Kent. — Arctic  Explorations  in 

the  Years  1853,  '54,  '55.     2  Vols. 
Lapham,    Increase    Allen. — Antiquities    of 
Wisconsin  (in   Smithsonian   Contribu- 
tions, Vol.  VII).      I  Vol. 
Laplace,  Pierre  Simon. — Parts  of  the  M^can- 
iciue  Celeste,  and  Somerville's  Abridg- 
ment. 
Latham,  Robert   Gordon. — Natural  Historj- 
of  the  Varieties  of  Mankind,     i  Vol. 
INIan  and  his  Migrations,     i  Vol. 
Descriptive  Ethnologj-.     2  Vols. 
Lavisse,  Ernest. — General  View  of  the  Polit- 
ical Historj-  of  Europe.     I  Vol. 
L.vvARD,    Austi.n-    Henry. — Nineveh    and    its 

Remains.     I  Vol. 
Legge,  James. — The  Chinese  Classics,     i  Vol. 
Lewes,    George    II. — Problems    of   Life    and 

Mind.     I  Vol. 
Literature  (General),  of  the  English-speak- 
ing Races. 
Of  the  Teutonic  Races. 
Of  the  Greek  Races. 
Of  the  Latin  Races. 

Of  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  and    other  Ori- 
ental Races,  .so  far  as  Translated. 
Of    the    Barbarian    Races  —  such    as    the 
Goths,  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the   Norse, 
etc. 
Livingstone,     David.  —  Missionarj-    Travels. 

I  \o\. 
Ln-Y',  TiTus.— The  Annals,     i  Vol. 
Lubbock,  Sir  John.     Prehistoric  Times  as  Il- 
lustrated bj'  Ancient  Remains  and  the 
Manners  and  Customs  of  Modern  Sav- 
ages.    I  \'ol. 
The  Origin  of  Civilization,  and  the  Primi- 
tive Condition  of  Man.     i  Vol. 
The  Origin  and  Metamorphosis  of  Insects. 
I  Vol. 
Lyell,  Sir  Charles. — Principles  of  Geology. 

1  Vol. 

Manual  of  Elementary  Geology,     i  Vol. 
Travels    in  North  America  in   the  Years 

1 84 1 -2.     2  Vols. 
A    Second    Visit    to    the     United   States. 

2  \"ols. 

Geological  Evidences  of  the   Antiquity  of 
I\Ian.     I  Vol. 
March,  1'rancis  Andrew. — .\  Method  of  the 
Philological  vStudy  of  the  luiglish  Lan- 
guage.    I  \'ol. 
An  Introduction  to  Anglo-Saxon,      i  Vol. 
Marsh,   George   Perkins. — Origin   and   His- 
torj-   of    the     English     Language.      i 
\-ol. 
The  Earth  as  Modified  bj-  Human  Action. 
I  Vol. 
Menzel,  Wolfgang. — The  History  of  Germany. 

3  Vols. 

MiVART,  St.  George. — The  Genesis  of  Species. 

I  Vol. 
Mommsen,  Theodor. — The  History  of  Rome. 

4  Vols. 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES. 


XLIX 


Morgan,  Lewis  H. — Systems  of  Consanguinity 
and  Affinity  of  the  Human  Family,     i 
Vol.     Quarto.     (In    Smithsonian    Con- 
tributions.) 
Houses    and    House-life   of  the    American 
Aborigines,     i  Vol. 
MiJLLER,  il.\x. — Chips  from   a   German  Work- 
shop.    3  \'ols. 
Science  of  Language.     2  Vols. 
Science  of  Religion,  with  Papers  on  Bud- 
dhism.    I  Vol. 
Edition  of  the  Vedas.     6  Vols. 
India  :  What  can  it  Teach  Us  ?     i  Vol. 
MuRR.\Y,  D.wiD. — Story  of  Japan,     i  Vol. 
P.-VLGR,\VE,  Sir  Fr.ajscis. — History  of  the  An- 
glo-Saxons.    I  \o\. 
PiCEiERiNG,  Ch.arles. — The  Races  of  Mankind 
and    their  Geographical   Distribution. 
I  \'ol. 
Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals  and 

Man.     I  Vol. 
Geographical    Distribution    of    Plants.      I 
Vol. 
Plongeon,  Alice  D.  Le. — Here  and  There  in 

Yucatan,     i  Vol. 
Plixy   the    Elder. — Historia    Xaturalis.      37 

Books. 
Prichard,    J.\mes    Cowles. — Researches    into 
the  Physical  History'  of  ]\Ian.     5  Vols. 
Natural  Historj- of  Man.     2  Vols. 
The  Eastern  Origin  of  the  Celtic  Nations. 
I  Vol. 
Proctor,  Rich.^rd  Anthoxy. — Other  Worlds 
than  Ours,     i  Vol. 
Saturn  arid  its  System,     i  Vol. 
Half-hours  with  the  Stars,     i  Vol. 
Elementary  Astronom3'.     i  Vol. 
Borderland  of  Science,     i  Vol. 
Old  and  New  Astronomy,     i  Vol. 
Quarterly  Review  Co.mplete. — .\11  Articles 
Relating    to    the    Races    of   Mankind, 
their  Institutions  and  Development. 
Rambaud,    Alfred. — A    Popular    Historv-    of 
Russia    from    the    Earliest    Times     to 
1S80.     3  Vols. 
Raxke,  Leopold   Vox. — The  Popes  of  Rome, 
their  Church  and  State.     3  Vols. 
Historj'   of   Germany   in  the   Time  of  the 
Reformation.     6  Vols. 
Rawlinsox,  George. — The   Five    Great   Mon- 
archies    of    the     Eastern    World.      4 
Vols. 
The   Sixth   Great    Oriental    Monarchv.      i 
Vol. 
Rawlixsox,  Sir  Henry  Creswicke. — Edition 
of  Herodotus.     4  Vols. 
Cuneiform    Inscriptions  of  Western   Asia. 
3  Vols. 
Rexax,  Joseph  ERNEST.^-Studies  in  Religious 
History-.     I  Vol. 
Concerning   the  Part  of  the  Semitic    Peo- 
ples in  Civilization,     i  Vol. 
Comparative  History  of  the  Semitic  Lan- 
gruages.     I  \o\. 
RiDPATH,  George. — Border   History   of  Scot- 
land.   I  Vol. 


Russell,  William. — History  of   Modern   Eu- 
rope.    7  ^'ols. 
Sacred  Writings  :  Of  the  Hebrews  and  Other 
Semitic  Peoples. 
Of  the  Egj-ptians. 

Of  the  Iranian  Races,  with  Translation  of 
the    Zendavesta,    bv     Dermester    and 
Mills.     3  Vols. 
Of  the  Hindus,  with  Edition  and  Transla- 
tion   of   \'edas,    by    Max    Miiller.      6 
Vols. 
Of  the  Oriental  Races. 
ScHiEFFELiN,  S.^ML'EL  B. — The  Foundations  of 
Historv:     A   Series    of   First   Things. 
I  Vol.' 
ScHLiEMAXx,  Hexry. — Troj-.     i  Vol. 

Mycense.     i  Vol. 
Schoolcraft,  Hexry  Rowe. — Historical  and 
Statistical  Information  Respecting  the 
Histor}',   Condition,  and    Prospects  of 
the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States. 
5  Vols. 
The  Indian  Fairy  Book,  from  Original  Leg- 
ends.    I  Vol. 
Plan   for   Investigating  American  Ethnol- 

og\-.     I  \'ol. 
Notices  of  Antique  Earthen  \'essels  from 

Florida,     i  Vol. 
The   Mvth  of    Hiawatha   and    Other  Oral 
Legends,     i  Vol. 
Sinding,   P.\<:l  C. — The  Northmen ;    the  Sea- 
kings  and  Vikings,  their  Manners  and 
Customs,  Discoveries,  etc. 
Spexcer,    Herbert. — Social    Statics,    or    the 
Conditions  to  Human  Happiness  Speci- 
fied.    I  Vol. 
Principles  of  Psychology.     2  Vols. 
Essaj-s,  Scientific  and  Speculative,     i  Vol. 
Essaj-s,    iSIoral,    Political,    and    ^Esthetic. 

I  \o\. 
First  Principles  of  a  System  of  Philosophy. 

I  \'ol. 
Principles  of  Biologj'.     2  Vols. 
Spontaneous  Generation  and  the  H^-pothe- 

sis  of  Physiological  Units,     i  Vol. 
Descriptive    Sociology- :     Facts    Classified 

and  Arranged.     3  Vols.     Folio. 
The  Principles  of  Sociologj-.    In  38  numbers. 
St.\xley,  Henry'    M. — How   I    Found   Living- 
stone.    I  ^'ol. 
Through  the  Dark  Continent.     2  Vols. 
Tacitus,  Caius    Corxelius. — The    Germania. 
I  Vol. 
The  Histon,-.     i  Vol. 
The  .\nnales.     i  Vol. 
T.\IXE,  HiPPOLYTE  A. — Historj-  of  English  Lit- 
erature.    2  \'ols. 
The  Ancient  Regime,     i  Vol. 
Tegxer's    Frithiof's   S.\g.\. — Translated    by 

Bayard  Ta\-lor.     i  \'ol. 
Thompson,  SirCii.^rles  Wy\-ille. — Report  of 
Sea  \'03-ages  and  Dredgings.     2  \'ols. 
Thorpe's  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,     i  Vol. 
Tour  du  Monde. — 52  Vols.     Quarto. 
Turner,  Sharox. — Historj'  of  the  Anglo-Sax- 
ons.    I  Vol. 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES. 


Tyi-KU,  Edward  R.  —  Researches  into  the 
Early  Histon,-  of  Mankind  and  Devel- 
opment of  Civilization,  i  Vol. 
Primitive  Culture :  Researches  into  the 
Development  of  Mythology,  I'hilos- 
ophv,  Religion,  Art,  and  Custom.  2 
Vols. 

Vamberv,  Arminivs.— Travels  in  Central  Asia. 
I  \'ol. 

\Vall.\cf.,  Alfred  Russel.— On  the  Tendency 
of  Varieties  to  Depart  Indefinitely 
from  the  Original  Type,  i  Vol. 
The  Malay  Archipelago  :  The  Land  of  the 
Orang-Utan  and  the  Bird  of  Paradise. 
I  Vol. 
Contributions  to  the  Theory  of  Natural 
Selection.     1  Vol. 


On  the  Geographical  Distribution  of  Ani- 
mals.    2  Vols. 
Wall.'vce,  D.  Mackenzie. — Russia,     i  Vol. 
Whitney,  William   Dwight. — Language  and 

the  Study  of  Language,     i  Vol. 
Wilkinson,    Sir    John    G.vrdner. — Manners 
and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 
5  Vols. 
Modern  Eg\pt  and  Thebes.     2  Vols. 
Architecture  of  Ancient  Egj'pt.     i  Vol. 
The  Egyptians  under  the  Pharaohs,    i  Vol. 
WiNCHELL,  Alexander. — vSparks  from  a  Geol- 
ogist's Hammer,     i  \o\. 
Preadamites,   or  a  Demonstration   of  the 
Existence  of  Men  before  .Adam,     i  Vol. 
Wood,   J.    G. — The    Natural    History   of   Man. 
I  VoL 


Copyri^hteil  tf  JhtJonts  Brothers  Pub  Ca  IS^ 


Plate  I. 


PRINCIPAL  TYPES  OF   MAN  Kl  ND.  (After  Huxley) 


I.  HiimIiiiiuii  :   I    HushKKin  Idrnwn 
XyvFrilxfA  ),  -  2,  Woman  nt"  Namaqua 

Idi'Ainiln'/'ifJn.  Irom  npliolnilrajih) 
ll.NijfriUaii  :  :)   Wuman  of  (hi;  t.nango 
Idrawii  liy  Falkrii^etn  t,  -  t ,  Mail  of  llie 


IHNugi'ito:  5.  Mnn  of  NcwHt-bndes  Idrawi, 
h>- fijf/r/7n5- 1.-6.  Woman  of  To5mama|ara«ii 
hylbnAi^v.  from aphuli)j}r«p)i). 

IV.ItalitTttn:  7.  ItalumWaiHfljiUflDradrBwing 
fromlifc),  —  fl  Italian  Man  lEtftcr a ilravnns 


V.  AuHlffiliaii:  y  Moiiof  Soath-vesI  AunliolialJr-jiTn 
l)>-!;mflu7im-.  from  apholotiraplil.- 10  Siibian  Woman 
(lirawn  b>-J(^i«j4rt'A.fromaphotoSrjphl, 
'VI.Scand!Ma>'ian:  11.  Swedish  Woman  Ifroni 
•Peoples  of  Russinl, -12.  Greal  Rus3lni>lfto"  Tro- 
pics or  Bussiu-). 


\lU.Mu<t^ol<ai>:  A 
Prixcilnraltkij  I.  - 
futBWj/l.  — B.i7 


13  Taiansha-Moiiftalldraivnlij- 
16.  Kallni-Mungol  |drawnljy/*ifjrf- 
'hlnesefiiAer  0  porU-ait.  Muaeum 


or  KihnograpIiT.BHi'linl  --l8.YakuiWoinn>i  of  *■■ 
C\\Kla\iravin\iyitlddnilirf\.~C\'i  Xurlh  Anioricon 
Inclmn  ffroin  a  pTioloHraphl  -20  South  AmLTicaii. 
Inrtinii  NVonumlilrajmln'  flrfult). 
K.Csquimau:  ZLKoriOkWoiiiniiKhjm'Pcopli-sorituuJaX 
^^.taqimuiiaf  GrvenlamlldratrribrA^Vifart.frfunaplulojlniphi. 


o 


• 


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fnri  1[ii|sL 


Preliminary  Inquiries. 


.       BOOK  I -TIME   AND  PLACE  OF  THE   BEGINNING. 


CHAPTER  I.— Sources  oe  Ixforxiation. 


N  entering  upon  the 
history  of  mankind, 
considered  as  a  race, 
certain  questions 
fundamental  to  the 
subject  naturall}^  sug- 
gest themselves  to  the 
inquirer.  They  obtrude  upon  his  atten- 
tion. If  neglected  or  put  aside  they 
recur  from  time  to  time,  as  if  to  ar- 
rest the  narrative,  until  fitting  answers 
are  given.  They  haunt  the  mind  and 
shadow  the  scholar's  study.  They 
flutter  about  the  poet's  dream,  and  cross 
on  rapid  wing  the  philosopher's  lahd- 
si.ape.  They  fly  abroad,  and  come  un- 
bidden into  the  thoughts  of  the  great 
people.  Even  in  the  most  practical  of 
all  ages  and  the  least  speculative  of  all 


nations   these   questions  are  heard  and 

repeated  in  many  accents  and  by  many 

tongues.      He,  indeed,  is  of   The  three  funda- 

dull  apprehension  and  lit-  l^^^^^S;,^. 

tie     curious      to     know     the    cal  inquiry. 

cogitations  and  dreams  of  his  fellow-men 
who  has  not  discerned  their  anxiety  to 
find  a  solid  basis  of  fact  and  reason  in 
what  may  be  called  the  principia  of 
human  history. 

The  principal  of  the  questions  to 
which  we  here  refer  are  three  in 
number: 

1 .  At  what  Time  in  the  past — exact  or 
approximate — did  the  human  race  begin 
its  career  on  the  earth  ? 

2.  In  what  Place — that  is,  in  what 
region  or  regions  of  the  earth — did  man- 
kind first  appear? 

37 


J^58670 


38 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


3.  What  was  the  Method — the  man- 
ner, the  process,  or  processes — by  which 
man  came  into  conscious  being  on  our 
planet,  rising  into  rationalitj-,  asserting 
his  sway  as  the  principal  inhabitant  of 
the  earth,  and  discovering  in  himself  the 
ability  to  consider  his  own  thoughts  and 
actions  as  a  study  in  natural  histor}^? 

These  questions,  we  repeat,  may  not 


exhibit  in  his  feeble  intellectual  activi- 
ties at  least  the  premonitions  of  curiosity 
about  the  genesis  of  his  tribe — the  origin 
of  his  kindred  and  himself.  As  for  him 
whose  thought  and  imagination  under 
the  inspiring  influences  of  the  civilized 
life  have  taken  wing  across  all  floods 
and  continents,  how  keenly,  how  eagerly 
does  he  in  his  flight  glance  eagle-wise  to 


LANDSCAPE  OF  THK  PLIOCKNE  PK  KIUD.— SHOwiNCi  Environment  at  the  Time  of  Man's  Appearance.— Drawn  by  Kiou. 


be  easily  put  aside.  It  is  in  the  ver\- 
Eagerness  of  nature  of  man  to  inquire  dil- 
ScwSs'"^  igently  and  persistently 
°"s'"-  into  the  time,  the  place,  and 

the  circumstances  of  his  own  origin. 
The  disposition  to  search  all  the  fields  of 
knowledge  in  quest  of  light  on  these 
inquiries  is  as  universal  as  the  human 
race.  In  some  the  impulse  is  stronger; 
in  others,  weaker;  but  in  all  it  exists. 
It  might  be  difficult  to  find  in  any  quar- 
ter of  the  earth  a  barbarian  so  low  in  the 
scale  of  mental  development  as  not  to 


right  and  left  in  the  hope  of  discovering 
the  true  beginning  and  fountain  of 
things ! 

In   what   spirit,    then,    should    these 
great  and  vital  questions  be  approached? 
Certainly  in  the  spirit  of  hu-  True  spirit  in 
mility.  The  honest  inquirer  ^^'^ty'^wd 
must    recognize    from   the  be  approached, 
first  hour  of  his  research  the  nature  and 
limitations  of  his  own  powers  and  the 
uncertainty  of  all  the  sources  of  informa- 
tion   from    which    he    must    draw    his 
materials.     Honesty,  also,  and  freedom 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— SOURCES   OF  INFORMATION. 


39 


from  prejudice  must  be  his.  Sincerity 
of  purpose  must  guide  him  on  the  way. 
Singleness  of  aim  must  light  his  course. 
Fidelity  must  steady  his  thought  and 
hand.  Simple  love  of  changeless  truth 
must  be  his  inspiration.  His  great  ob- 
ject and  passion  must  be  to  enlarge 
somewhat,  if  he  may,  for  the  benefit  of 
his  fellow-men  the  existing  treasure  of 
human  knowledge ;  to  widen  and  clear 
the  landscape  toward  which  so  many 
earnest  eyes  are  directed.  Not,  indeed, 
to  establish  some  foregone  conclusion ; 
not  to  verify  some  little  prejudice ;  not 
to  shore  up  some  tottering  fiction  which 
the  ignorance  of  men  has  reared  —  is 
the  aim  and  end  of  the  questioner,  the 
real  student,  the  faithful  delineator  of 
the  concepts  and  judgments  which  he 
has  formed  of  the  truth.  Not,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  it  part  or  purpose  of  his 
work  to  assail,  to  destroy,  to  obliterate 
the  existingf  forms  of  knowledgfe  and  be- 
lief,  or  to  disturb  with  wanton  hand  any 
of  the  oldtime  concepts  which  the  mind 
of  his  ancestors  has  evolved  as  the  best 
expression  of  its  hopes  and  fears.  But 
rather  must  the  true  inquirer  hold  all 
things  in  equal  and  steady  balance. 
With  dispassionate  purpose  he  must 
consider  and  weigh  every  existing  fact — 
every  form  of  human  thought  and  belief, 
every  tangible  institution  and  practice 
of  mankind. 

But  in  what  attitude  does  man  stand 
with  respect  to  the  time  and  place  of  the 
Individual  life  beginning?  What  is  his 
^?t:^::^^Z^  condition  of  mind  relative 
the  race-life.  to  the  problem  of  the  meth- 
od and  circumstances  whereby  man- 
kind began  to  be  on  the  earth.  Perhaps 
the  best  of  all  analogies  bearing  on 
these  great  questions  are  drawn  from  the 
individual  life  and  experience,  from  the 
recollection  which  each  member  of  the 
race  has  of  his  own  origin  and  of  the 


conditions  under  which  his  existence 
was  begun.  This  is  a  consideration 
which  has  been  astonishingly  neglected. 
The  experiences  of  the  individual  man 
with  respect  to  himself  are  so  obvious 
that  he  has  failed  to  note  their  signifi- 
cance with  respect  to  the  larger  prob- 
lems of  his  tribe  and  race.  If  we  take 
our  stand,  as  it  were,  inside  of  ourself, 
and  look  backward  along  the  lines  which 
we  have  traversed  from  our  individual 
beginning  in  the  world,  we  shall  find 
those  lines  converging  in  the  distance, 
first  into  youth ;  then  still  more  narrow- 
ly into  childhood  ;  and  finally  to  a  point 
in  infancy. 

As  we  look  steadily,  patiently,  in  the 
direction  from  which  we  have  come,  we 
see  that  the  nearer  land-  what  may  be 
scape  of  our  life  is  flooded  ^^^^ 
in  every  part  by  the  broad  i°°^- 
light  of  consciousness.  Further  down 
the  converging  lines  the  light  is  less 
abundant,  the  objects  less  distinct. 
Here  and  there  already  in  the  second  dec- 
ade of  our  life  memory  begins  to  fail; 
the  clue  is  lost,  and  we  discover  many 
patches  of  obscuration,  man}^  parts  in 
which  the  light  rests  only  on  the  rim  of 
the  hills  or  on  one  side  of  the  forest. 
The  valleys  and  depths  and  remoter 
fields  fade  into  twilight,  indistinctness, 
and  thick  mist.  Further  on,  and  near 
the  beginning  of  the  first  decade,  only  a 
few  luminous  points  are  discoverable. 
The  father's  face,  the  brother's  pudgy 
hand,  the  mother's  blessed  bosom  are 
still  seen ;  but  beyond  that  the  obscura- 
tion is  complete.  We  know,  indeed, 
from  testimony  aliunde  that  we  had  an 
existence  beyond  the  point  to  which  the 
utmost  stretch  of  memory  can  reach. 
We  also  know  from  observing  the  in- 
fancy of  others  that  our  own  state  for 
the  first  two  years  or  more  of  our  being 
was    one    of    utter  unconsciousness.     It 


40 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


was  a  state  of  mere  potentiality  and 
growth.  No  genius,  not  even  the  pow- 
erful soul  of  Plato  or  Shakespeare  or 
Goethe,  has  been  able  by  the  backward 
look  to  pierce  the  impenetrable  shadows 
of  his  own  infancy;  to  know  by  experi- 
ence what  manner  of  creature  he  was 
at  the  beginning;  to  declare  by  direct 
knowledge  through  what  stages  and 
moods  of  evolution  and  tentative  flight 
his  own  infant  spirit  first  raised  the 
wing  and  sought  to  journey  through  the 
boundless  air. 

But,  as  we  have  said,  we  are  able  to 
discover  much  of  interest  with  respect 
Methods  of  to  the  epoch  of  unconscious- 

t^.TnV'?h!M^''"  ness  in  the   beginning   of 

tory  01  the  un-  o  & 

conscious  epoch,  our  own  individual  lives. 
We  were  observed  in  that  stage  of  our 
existence  by  our  parents  and  kinsfolk. 
The  nurse  was  busy  with  her  eyes  and 
her  garrulous  tongue.  Tradition  was 
rife  in  the  family  and  neighborhood 
relative  to  ourselves.  The  first  motions 
of  intelligence  were  noted  by  those  w-ho 
were  keenly  anxious  for  our  welfare  and 
promise.  Tales  were  told  about  us, 
having  their  origin  in  truth  and  their 
ornaments  in  loving  fiction.  Presently, 
with  the  dawn  of  consciousness,  this 
nursery  history  of  our  lives  was  recited 
in  our  hearing,  and  we  imbibed  it  as  the 
true  narrative  of  our  previous  career — - 
but  by  no  means  sufficiently  wonderful 
to  meet  the  demands  of  fancy.  There- 
fore must  we  ourselves  expand  and 
exaggerate  the  story.  We  became  in- 
terested in  our  past,  and  carefully  stored 
the  vivid  memory  of  childhood  with  the 
poetic  and  half-fanciful  stories  of  our 
former  state.  Thus  around  the  life  of 
every  youth  are  thrown  the  traditions 
and  legends  of  his  own  unconscious  ex- 
istence in  infancy;  and  these  forms  of 
half-knowledge  he  is  constrained  in  after 
years  to  accept  and  to  use  as  the  best 


attainable  evidences  of  his  progress  by 
growth  and  evolution  through  the  first 
epoch  of  his  being. 

From  all  this   we  are   able   to   draw 
some  useful  analogies  with  respect  to  the 
infancy  of   the  kindred  to  useful  anaio- 
which      we     belong,      the  ^;!"  ;[!;^ '""^i' 

t> '  vidual  an  epit- 

people  of  which  we  are  omeofrace. 
the  individual  parts,  and  finally  the  race 
of  mankind  within  which  we  are  in- 
cluded. It  is  only  in  recent  times  that 
these  analogies  have  come  to  be  regarded 
at  their  true  valuation.  More  and  more 
it  has  come  to  be  accepted  as  true  that 
the  individual  is  the  epitome  of  the 
species  to  which  he  belongs.  More  and 
more  the  reasonableness  of  that  hypoth- 
esis has  become  apparent  which  places 
the  life  of  the  race  in  analogy  with  the 
life  of  the  individual.  More  and  more 
we  have  been  able  to  detect  in  the  various 
stages  of  our  individual  lives  the  like- 
ness and  miniature  forms  of  the  corre- 
sponding stages  in  the  history  of 
the  human  race.  Some  of  the  ablest 
and  most  satisfactory  expositions  of 
the  great  fact  called  civilization — of  its 
origin,  its  materials,  its  conditions,  its 
growth,  and  tendencies  toward  maturity 
— have  been  produced  by  the  process 
of  comparisons  instituted  between  the 
life  of  the  individual,  the  life  of  the 
species,  and  the  history  of  the  race  to 
which  he  belongs.'  With  these  facts, 
however,  we  are  not  at  the  present  im- 
mediately concerned. 

If,  then,  the  human  race  may  be 
looked  upon  as  an  individual  entity  or 
being,  having  an  uncon-  sources  of  Ught 
scious  infancy,  a  half-con-  ttx^i^^^::. 
scious  childhood,  a  wholly  inquiry- 
conscious  but  erratic  and  visionary  youth, 
and  a  rational  and  reflective  maturity. 


'  Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe  is 
the  finest  of  the  treatises  in  this  department  of 
modern  inquiry. 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— SOURCES   OF  INFORMATION.        41 


what  facts  or  circumstances,  what  condi- 
tions of  knowledge  may  be  said  to  exist 
from  which  evidence  and  information 
may  be  drawn 
concerning  the 
earliest  stages  of 
human  existence 
— that  u  n  c  o  n  - 
scious  and  infan- 
tile condition  be- 
yond the  reach  of 
all  ethnic  mem- 
ory— beyond  the 
horizon  of  light 
and  vision?  Are 
there  any  sources 
of  thought  and 
reflection,  suffi- 
ciently matured 
to  take  the  name 
o  f  knowledge, 
from  which,  as  if 
by  a  mirror,  light 
and  intelligence 
may  be  thrown 
into  that  remote 
region  below  the 
dawn  of  our  race- 
consciousness? 

Fortunately — 
most  fortunately 
— such  sources  of 
knowledge  d  o 
actually  exist. 
Most  of  them 
have  been  dis- 
covered in  com- 
paratively recent 
times.  Several 
fields  of  investi- 
g  a  t  i  o  n  have 
opened  their 
treasures  to  the  human  mind,  and  with 
every  stage  of  the  exploration  new  and 
valuable  evidence  has  been  gained  rela- 
tive to   the   great   questions  which   we 

M.— Vol.  1—4 


have  placed  at  the  head  of  this  chapter. 
A  whole  group  of  sciences,  growing 
ever  more  luminous  with  each  additional 


<JRIGI.\    UV    M.WKIM) — VVHK.iN    AND    WHKKE? 
Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 


discovery,  have  yielded  their  results, 
from  which  ever-improving  generaliza- 
tions may  be  drawn  regarding  the  prim- 
itive stages  through  which  the  race  of 


42 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


man   has  come    into   its   present   state. 

The   principal  of  these   sciences  are  as 

follows :  Astronomy,  Geol- 

Cycle  of  sciences 

that  may  be  ogy,  Archseology,  Palaeon- 
ma  e  o  es  1  .  ^^^Qgy^  Anthropology,  Eth- 
nology, Ethnography,  Tradition,  and 
History — the  last  named  including  the 
poems,  the  dim  chronicles,  and  mis- 
shapen annals  in  which  the  records  of 
the  Ancient  World  are  mostly  contained 
■ — and  finally  Chronology  proper. 


edge  which  considers  the  distribution, 
motions,  and  characteristics  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies.       It  has  for  its   Astronomy  con. 

first  and  immediate  sub-  .^nt^^Tor^- 
ject  the  solar  system,  of  history  of  life, 
which  our  own  earth  constitutes  one  of 
the  minor  members.  Dating  from  the 
days  of  Galileo  and  Copernicus,  the  sci- 
ence has  passed  through  several  stages 
of  development,  the  last  of  which,  known 
in  the  lamjuasfe  of  our  times  as  the  New 


liEGINNlNU  Ob    IHK  CciNSClUUb  LltK  (J.\    1  il  K   KA  k  TH.  — Ijruwn  by  Kiou. 


At  first  view  it  may  be  difficult  to  per- 
ceive in  what  way  the  sciences  here  re- 
ferred to  can  give  any  satisfactory  evi- 
dence relative  to  the  origin  and  primitive 
life  of  our  race.  But  a  more  careful 
consideration  of  the  subject  will  at  once 
discover  the  bearing  of  the  same,  each 
and  several,  upon  the  great  questions 
before  us. 

I.  Astro>io»iy. — By  this  science  we  un- 
derstand that  branch  of  human  knowl- 


Astronomy,  has  concerned  itself  particu- 
larly with  the  ultimate  constitution  and 
philosophy  of  our  own  solar  group,  and, 
indeed,  of  the  whole  sidereal  heavens. 

One   of   the   branches   of    this    great 
theme  has  been  a  specific  inquiry  into 
what  mav  be  called  the  Or-  order  of  vital 
derof  Cr'eation.     The  sub-  ''^^^^ItT 
ject  embraces,  in  the  half-  world  history. 
poetical  language  which  it  has  adopted,, 
such  topics  as  the  birth,  the  youth,   the 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING. —SOURCES   OF  INFORMATION. 


43 


■maturity,  the  old  age,  and  the  death  of 
worlds.  The  stages  through  which  plan- 
ets— all  planets — pass  in  their  evolution 
from  a  primordial  condition  into  world- 
hood  have  been  determined  with  such 
an  approximation  to  certainty  as  to  fur- 
nish a  clear  concept  of  planet  history. 
The  inquiry  has  entered  still  more  pro- 
foundly into  the  subject,  showing  that 
world-growth  is  correlated  in  all  of  its 
stages  with  certain  possibilities  of  life. 
More  precisely  it  has  been  shown  and 
determined  that  the  great  fact  called  life 
is  related  with  a  certain  stao-e  or  stagfes 
of  planet  growth,  and  that  the  former 
does  not  and  can  not  exist  except  under 
the  conditions  which  are  present  at  those 
stages  of  world  development. 

This  signifies  in  exact  language  that 
the  infancy  of  a  planet  can  not  bear  life. 
ilany  of  the  conditions  then  present  are 
utterly  incompatible  with  the  existence 
of  vital  phenomena  in  any  form.  It  is 
doubtless  true  that  every  planet  passes 
through  a  series  of  primary  evolutions, 
tending  ever  to  worldhood  proper,  be- 
fore any  forms  of  life  can  exist  therein. 
At  a  later  stage  certain  forms  of  vital 
existence  appear,  and  still  further  on 
higher  orders,  until  at  length  animated 
existence,  properly  so  called,  is  seen  in 
the  new  Avorld,  inhabiting  its  surface, 
teeming  in  the  waters,  or  traversing  the 
air.  We  are  thus  introduced  in  planet 
history  to  what  may  be  called  the  Epoch 
of  Life. 

In  the  latter  part  of  this  epoch  intel- 
ligences such  as  ourselves,  a  race  like 
TheEpochof  mankind,  may  appear  and 
^'cenSlgts  fi^^d  the  means  of  continu- 
of  worldhood.  ity.  For  a  period  of  variable 
but  great  duration  this  high  form  of 
animated  being,  intelligent,  conscious, 
rational,  becomes  the  principal  inhabit- 
ant of  the  planet  under  consideration. 
Speculative  astronomy  does  not  hesitate 


to  go  beyond  the  limits  of  this  period, 
and  to  point  out  the  old  age  of  worldhood, 
the  disappearance  of  life  from  the  planet, 
and,  in  a  word,  the  death  of  the  ex- 
hausted sphere.  In  so  far  as  investiga- 
tion, the  principles  of  right  reason,  de- 
ductions warranted  from  existing  data, 
and  conclusions  reached  by  scientific 
methods  may  go  toward  determining  the 
past  and  present  condition  of  our  own 
planet  with  respect  to  the  Epoch  of  Life, 
— to  that  extent  is  the  science  of  astron- 
omy available  as  one  of  the  sources  of 
information  relative  to  the  age  of  the 
human  race,  the  date  of  the  infancy  of 
man,  the  time  of  the  beginning. 

2.  Geology. — Close  after  this  astro- 
nomical view  of  world-life  and  man-life 
comes  the  science  of  geol-  Geology  indi- 
ogy,  with  its  vast  treasures  ^^^/^^l^/e  o°f t-"ai 
of  information  and  sug-  phenomena, 
gestion.  Geology  takes  up  the  investi- 
gation of  planet  life  where  astronomy 
leaves  off.  The  latter  deals  with  worlds 
in  their  relation  to  each  other,  and  in- 
cidentally with  world  constitution.  The 
former  investigates  the  history  of  our 
own  earth  in  particular.  The  object  of 
this  field  of  inquiry  is  to  trace  the  prog- 
ress and  development  of  our  planet 
from  the  date  of  its  separation  from  the 
primordial  mass  of  matter  through  all 
its  stages  of  evolution  down  to  its  present 
condition.  Such  a  field  of  inquiry  in- 
volves the  consideration  of  the  physical 
bases  of  all  forms  of  earth-life.  It  is 
out  of  geological  relations  and  conditions 
that  all  vital  phenomena  arise.  Given 
a  thorough  establishment  of  geological 
knowledge — a  complete  determination 
of  the  succession  of  events  in  our  world 
history — and  the  true  place  of  vital  phe- 
nomena therein  can  be  determined  with 
approximate  certainty. 

The  successive  stages  in  the  history  of 
our  planet  are  correlated  in  every  part 


44 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKfXD. 


with  the  successive  stages  in  the  history 
of  life.  The  position  of  our  own  race  in 
The  earth  pre-  the  general  scheme  is  de- 
tTeTa^VvAr"  terminable  by  a  careful  ob- 
phenomena.  servation  of  the  succession 
of  facts  and  events  in  the  physical  order 
of  the  planet.  The  earth  has  received 
the  markings  and  the  vestigia  of  all  the 
orders  of  life,  each  in  its  turn,  and  has 
fortunately  preserved,  as  if  for  the  wis- 
dom of  after  ages,  very  intelligible  frag- 
ments of  testimony  respecting  the  time 
and  circumstances  at  which  each  new 
order  of  living  beings  began  to  exist, 
and  the  successive  stages  through  which 
the  same  passed  in  its  differentiation, 
growth,  distribution,  and  maturity. 

3.  Arcliceology. — Just  as  geology  lies 
back  upon  astronomy  for  its  foundation, 
„  taking  up  the  history  of  life 

Place  of  archae-  ox-  .' 

oiogy,  and  its       whcrc  the  latter  leaves  off, 

subject-matter.  ,         ,  ,  . 

so  archaeology  rests  m 
turn  on  geology.  Whatever  evidences 
of  the  existence  and  sequence  of  vital 
phenomena  have  been  left  in  the  astro- 
nomical and  geological  records  of  the 
universe  have  been  in  the  nature  of 
tracks,  traces,  impressions,  which,  while 
they  are  sufficiently  distinct  and  unmis- 
takable in  character,  are  not  in  the 
nature  of  remains  left  behind  by  the 
living  beings  that  have  inhabited  the 
earth.  They  are  thus  considered  by  the 
two  sciences  referred  to  as  the  testimony 
of  the  former  presence  of  things  unseen. 
Besides  such  markings  and  indentations, 
so  to  speak,  which  the  creatures  endowed 
with  life  have  left  in  the  organic  struc- 
ture  of  nature,  there  are  many  direct 
remains  of  the  living  beings  that  have 
flourished  in  the  different  epochs  of 
world  histor3\ 

Our  own  race  has  done  its  part  in  this 
respect.  The  earth  is  full  of  rcliqucB 
hmnana:.  This  is  to  say  that  the  race 
of  man  has   left   its    debris   behind   in 


every  part  of  the  world  where  human 
beings  have  existed.  It  has  been  in  the 
nature  of  the  ingenious  Reiiqua^hu- 
and  highly  intellectual  be-  ^rreU^^"of 
ings  of  whom  we  are  our-  man-iife. 
selves  the  living  exemplification,  from 
whom  we  are  descended,  with  whose 
methods  of  life  we  are  so  intimately 
acquainted  by  experience  and  observa- 
tion, to  handle  the  materials  of  nature, 
to  modify  them,  to  adapt  them  to  vari- 
ous uses,  and  tJien,  witli  death  or 
removal,  to  cast  them  aside.  Human 
relics  are  thus  scattered  far  and  wide  on 
the  surface  and  under  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  Many  of  them  are  of  imperish- 
able materials.  They  survive,  not  only 
for  years  and  for  centuries,  but  for 
immeasurable  eons  of  time.  Nor  is  it 
possible  that  the  existing  race  of  men 
should  be  mistaken  as  to  the  origin  and 
character  of  this  large  detritus  of  the 
human  race.  It  bears  in  all  its  parts 
the  marks  of  an  unmistakable  intelli- 
gence which  divides  the  relics  of  man 
from  the  remains  of  all  other  creatures. 

Within  the  present  century  the  scien- 
tific consideration  of  the  reliquae 
humanse  has  been  under-  Historic  and  pre- 
taken.  That  vast  and  im-  '^^'^^ 
portant  domain  of  knowl-  oiogy- 
edge  called  archaeology  is  the  result. 
In  its  application  it  is  partly  prehistoric 
and  partly  historic ;  that  is,  one  branch 
of  the  inquiry  reaches  far  back  into  the 
geological  history  of  our  planet,  cover- 
ing the  period  anterior  to  the  first  ex- 
pressions of  human  consciousness  in  the 
form  of  traditions  or  written  records. 
The  other  branch  relates  to  the  conscious 
period  of  our  existence  as  a  race ;  that 
is,  to  the  epoch  which  has  been  covered 
more  or  less  perfectly  by  those  annals 
and  monuments  which  men  have  in- 
vented as  the  means  of  expressing  and 
preserving  the  story  of  themselves. 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING>-SOURCES   OF  INFORMATION. 


45 


Eiders  the  ordo 
of  facts  in  the 
history  of  life. 


In  its  methods  and  principles,  the 
science  of  archaeology  confines  itself 
The  science  con-  Strictly  to  the  works  of  man . 
These  are  considered  with 
respect  to  their  geologi- 
cal surroundings.  The  scheme  of 
geology  being  understood,  the  relics  of 
the  human  race  are  estimated  by  their 
juxtaposition  and  character.  The  flora 
and   fauna   of  past   ages,    the  order  of 


have  been  exercised.  It  thus  happens 
that  archaeology  furnishes  to  the  inquirer 
much  valuable  and  almost  direct  evi- 
dence as  to  the  time  when  mankind,  as 
a  race,  began  upon  the  earth. 

4.  Palceontology. — Closely  related  with 
archaeology  is  the  next  branch  of  inquiry, 
palaeontology,  which  treats  of  the  struc- 
ture, aiBnities,  classification,  and  distri- 
bution of  the  prehistoric  plants  and  ani- 


^^  CI^  , 


43  <**® 


^  §  6   «»^ ^  \   ^^ 

y  s^     ti^^iir,  ^^  R  « 

a  ®  %  •i'^— i»  0  ,®  # 
^  ^   ^  ^6,®©  ®  ^  n 


C  D 

ARCH.EOLOGICAL  EVIDENCES  OF  MAN'S  EXISTENCE. 
A,  megalithic  covered  structure  ;  B,  stone  circle— horizontal  and  vertical  views  ;  C,  mound  with  stone  entrances  ; 

D,  megalithic  ruins  of  causeway. 


which  has  been  already  geologically 
determined,  holding  the  remains  of 
man's  work  and  workmanship  in  a 
matrix,  furnish  therefore  an  ordo  which 
can  not  well  be  misapprehended.  The 
bottom  principle  of  the  science  is  that 
there  is  a  definite  correlation  betw^een 
all  the  arts  in  the  varioiis  periods  of 
human  development  and  the  world  his- 
tory in  which  and  on  which  those  arts 


mals  which  have  existed  on  the  earth. 
These  are  classified  and  arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  natural  order  in  „  , ,    . 

°_  Scope  and  liml- 

which  thev  have  succeeded  tations  of  pa-    . 

,1'  ■  e  laeontology. 

one  another  as  species  of 
living  organisms.  The  relations  between 
plant-life  and  animal  life  are  established, 
and  the  dependencies  of  animate  upon 
inanimate  forms  of  existence  scientific- 
ally determined.     Not  only  the  surface 


46 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


of  the  eartn,  but  the  crust  of  the  earth 
to  a  considerable  depth  has  been  ex- 
plored in  the  investigation  ;  so  that  pa- 
laeontology, like  archaeology,  of  which  it 
is  properly  a  branch,  may  be  said  to  rest 
firmly  on  a  geological  basis.  In  its  after 
developments  it  yields  the  two  sciences  of 
botany  and  zoolog}%  each  of  which  has 
its  roots  and  historical  antecedents  in 
the  prehistoric  and  extinct  flora  and 
fauna  of  the  earth.  At  many  points  pa- 
Iseontological  research  touches  the  exist- 
ence and  conditions  of  man  in  the 
geological  and  archaeological  ages.  It 
considers  him,  indeed,  as  the  culmina- 
tion of  the  animal  races  whose  antiquity 
is  in  the  rocks  and  whose  present  activi- 
ties are  displayed  on  the  dry  land  and  in 
the  waters  of  our  globe.  The  science  thus 
furnishes  another  of  the  collateral  and 
contemporaneous  evidences  of  the  primi- 
tive state  of  man,  and  incidentally  of 
the  epoch  at  which  our  race  appeared  on 
the  earth. 

5.  Anthropology. — vStill  a  fifth  science 
has  recently  been  developed  which  in 
Anthropology  sonie  of  its  subject-mattcr 
r/wttirub^'^r  touches  the  great  question 
matter.  of   the   antiquity  of   man. 

This  is  anthropology.  The  nature  and 
limitations  of  this  important  branch  of 
inquiry  have  scarcely  yet  been  clearly 
defined.  It  considers  the  race  of  man 
as  a  fact  in  natural  history.  It  looks  at 
the  race,  first  of  all,  from  the  physical, 
or  material,  point  of  view.  It  considers 
the  form  and  structure,  the  adaptations 
and  relations  of  the  beings  called  men, 
as  though  they  were  a  genus  of  animals. 
Anatomy  and  physiology  thus  become 
subordinate  branches  of  a  higher  anthro- 
pological study.  But  the  new  science 
also  brings  into  view  the  intellectual 
and  moral  nature  of  mankind.  It  con- 
siders the  evolution  of  mind  and  all  of 
those    important    facts    and    principles 


which  in  their  scientific  expression  go  by 
the  name  of  psychology. 

The  inquir}^  also  extends  backwards 
along  the  lines  of  human  development, 
and  becomes  historical  in  its  And  divides 
character.  It  investigates  :Se''reiicsof°'°^ 
the  \-arious  stages  through  mankind, 
which  the  race  of  man  has  passed.  It 
follows  the  clue  in  the  direction  from 
which  that  race  has  emerged  until  it  en- 
ters the  domain  of  archaeology,  and  with 
that  science  divides  the  prehistoric  relics 
of  mankind.  The  line  of  division  is 
made  on  the  principle  that  the  remains 
of  W'hat  man  has  done  shall  fall  to  archae- 
olog}',  and  the  remains  of  what  man  was 
to  anthropology.  The  two  sciences  are 
thus  allied,  the  one  rising  out  of  the 
other  in  the  same  manner  in  which  ar- 
chaeological investigation  springs  from  a 
geological  basis. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  re- 
mains of  men  have  survived  from  the 
prehistoric  ages.  Such  re-  Two  classes  of 
mains  are.  for  the  most  ^™,\°LT"'' 
part,  osseous  in  character,  activity. 
It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  such  relics 
are  strongly  discriminated  in  their  na- 
ture from  those  which  consist  of  the 
fragments  of  man's  Avorkmanship,  as, 
for  instance,  his  implements,  utensils,  ap- 
parel, etc.  While  it  is  true  that,  for  prac- 
tical purposes,  the  skull  or  other  part  of 
a  prehistoric  human  being  and  the  hatch- 
et of  stone  or  bronze  which  the  prehis- 
toric man  was  wont  to  Avield  in  his  bat- 
tles for  existence  may  be  considered 
together  as  common  evidences  of  his 
existence,  and,  in  a  certain  degree,  of 
the  time  at  which  he  flourished,  yet  the 
two  relics,  as  will  be  seen  at  a  glance, 
belong  really  to  wide  apart  branches  of 
investigation.  The  one  is  a  part  of  the 
organic  stinicture  of  the  man  of  the  ar- 
chaeological period,  and  the  other  is  a  part 
of  what  may  be  called  his  civilization 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. 


47 


The  significance  of  the  one  is  anthropo- 
logical, while  the  other  is  a  part  of  the 
subject-matter  of  that  prehistoric  history 
called  archaeology.  It  will  be  seen  in 
the  following  pages  to  what  extent  an- 
thropology, the  study  of  man  as  man, 
has  thrown  light  upon  the  date  of  his 
origin — the  time  of  his  apjjearance  on 
the  earth. 

6.  Etitnology. — Springing  out  of  the 
last-named  department  of  investigation, 
and  constituting  in  some  sense  a  subor- 


of  men.  It  deals  with  the  physical  con- 
ditions under  which  mankind  have  ex- 
isted ;  the  stages  of  culture  through  which 
they  have  passed ;  the  various  aspects  of 
social  life  which  have  presented  them- 
selves in  different  ages;  and  with  the 
universal  laws  of  progress  in  accordance 
with  which  our  species  has  moved  for- 
ward from  the  most  primitive  to  the  mogt 
recent  stage  of  the  human  evolution. 

Beginning  with  the  most  rudimentary 
arts  which  were  invented  and  practiced 


^^5a.N:^'-^"^<^^-*s^«^~  - 


REMAINS  OF  PREHISTORIC  MAX. 


dinate  division  thereof,  next  follows  eth- 
nology. This  includes  a  specific  depart- 
Ethnoiogy  ment    of    studv,    the    sub- 

S'opX;  ject-matter  of  which  is  the 
its  materials.  different  tribes,  kindreds, 
and  races  of  men  that  have  inhabited 
the  earth,  considered  in  their  relations, 
affinities,  derivation,  descent,  and  gen- 
eral characteristics.  Ethnolog\'  is  a  truly 
philosophical  inqiiiry  into  the  origin, 
differentiation,  development,  and  distri- 
bution of  the  different  families  consti- 
tuting the  originals  of  the  present  races 


by  men,  and  with  the  coarsest  needs  by 
which  the  primeval  race  was  pressed  and 
held   in    thrall,   ethnology  Deals  with  evo- 
proceeds      confidentlv     by  l^tT.fnl-r^t" 

■T  -  ./     nomena  oi  race- 

comparison,  by  hypothesis,  Ufe  on  earth, 
by  analogy,  along  the  lines  of  growth 
and  expansion  until  it  reaches  the  grand 
discoveries  and  noble  impulses  which 
constitute  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  most  re- 
cent epochs.  The  science  is  patient  and 
laborious  in  its  methods.  It  stoops  to 
consider  the  food-supply  whereby  human 
life,  in  common  with  all  other  animal 


48 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


life  on  our  planet,  has  been  supported 
and  perpetuated;  the  sexual  relation, 
being  the  general  term  to  express  the 
methods  and  practices  of  the  various 
tribes  and  peoples  as  it  respects  the  union 
of  the  man  and  the  woman  for  the  in- 
crease of  the  race — the  laws  and  the  sen- 
timents under  which  the  sexual  alliance 
has  been  sanctioned  and  encouraged  by 


eral  rules  of  conduct  which  men  by  ex. 
pcrience  and  right  reason  have  invented 
in  different  ages  for  the  subordination 
of  themselves  in  communities  and  states ; 
and  finally,  the  religious  systems  which 
have  appeared  in  many  forms,  but  with 
many  common  features,  as  the  expres- 
sion of  the  hopes,  the  fears,  the  beliefs, 
and  yearnings  of  the  human  spirit  in  its 


rROUUCTIUX  Ul'  FIRE— THE   IIRST  ART   I'KACIICKIl   1!V  MAX.— Ur.iwn  by  Emile  Bayard. 


mankind  on  the  way  from  rude  savagery 
to  a  highly  civilized  condition ;  the  phe- 
nomena of  language,  including  a  study 
of  the  affinities  and  connections  of  the 
different  tongues  in  which  the  families 
and  kindreds  of  men  have  endeavored 
to  give  a  rational  embodiment  to  their 
thoughts,  beliefs,  and  visions;  tjie  tech- 
nology, or  art  interpretation  of  the  va- 
rious peoples ;  the  government,  civil  and 
social,  and  the  laws  constituting  the  gen- 


discontent  with  the  things  seen  and  its 
aspirations  for  the  things  eternal.  Fol- 
lowing the  clues  furnished  by  ethnolog- 
ical research,  the  inquirer  is  enabled  to 
make  his  way  along  the  course  from 
which  men  have  descended,  and  to  learn 
much  of  the  time  and  circumstances  un- 
der which  the  race  began  its_  existence 
on  the  earth. 

7.  Etlinograpliy. — It  has  been  proposed 
by  modern  scholars  to  separate  that  part 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— SOURCES   OF  INFORMATION. 


49 


of  ethnology  Avhich  describes  the  cus- 
toms, laws,  and  habits  of  nations  from 
Narrower  and  the  principal  Science,  and 
reMcTvTredby  to  name  the  new  divi- 
ethnography.  ^ion  ethnography.  Oi  this 
branch  of  inquiry  it  is  the  proper  func- 
tion to  describe  the  phenomena  of  race 
rather  than  to  explain  the  same  in  terms 
of  the  known.  The  office  of  the  one  is 
delineative ;  of  the  other,  expository. 
To  the  one  belongs  the  descriptive  and 
pictorial  part  of  race  inquiry,  and  to  the 
other  the  philosophical  interpretation  of 
the  things  described.  The  relation  of 
the  two  sciences  is  analogous  to  that 
existing  between  geography  and  geology, 
though  the  difference  between  the  latter 
is  more  pronounced  and  conspicuous 
than  that  between  the  former.  The 
ethnographic  inquiry  is  much  more  easy 
and  superficial  than  ethnology,  inas- 
much as  the  latter  looks  more  profound- 
ly into  the  subject-matter  of  the  investi- 
gation, and  must  proceed  by  wider  and 
more  difficult  generalizations. 

The  data  of  man-life  obtained  by  mere 
observation  and  description  are  easily 
Kase  of  ciassifi-  classified  and  arranged  ac- 
^^Cnntef  ■  cording  to  the  nature  of 
preting.  the  subjects  to  which  they 

refer.      But   the    interpretation    of   the 
great    facts    in    which  the    origin,    the 
character,  and,  in  a  word,  the  history  of 
the  different  races  of  men  are  embodied, 
requires   a  breadth  of    research   and  a 
scope  of  vision  worthy  the  name  of  genius. 
In  so  far  as  ethnography  preserves  by 
careful   delineations   the   characteristics 
of  primitive   peoples,  in    so  far   as  the 
science  notes  the  rate  of  departure  and 
the  extent   of  the   divergencies   among  | 
the  ancient  races  of  mankind,   to  that  , 
extent    it  affords    valuable    suggestions  ; 
relative  to  the  time  of  the  beginning. 

8.  Tradition  and  History. — We  have 
now  followed  the  lines  of  scientific  evo- 


lution from  a  high  view  of  world  history 
downwards  to  man  hi.story  proper.  As 
in  the  case  of  the  individual, 

In  -what  manner 

there  comes  to  pass  a  time  tradition  begins 

,1  J.   1  .      T        1    to  be  evolved. 

in  the  progress  of  kindred 
and  tribe  and  race  when  consciousness 
appears.  When  this  happens  in  the  in- 
dividual, he  at  once  begins,  as  we  have 
seen,  to  consider  himself,  to  remember 
with  more  or  less  distinctness  the  prin- 
cipal events  in  his  past  career,  to  speak 
of  them  as  matters  of  importance  to  him- 
self and  others.  In  like  manner  the  rise 
of  ethnic  consciousness  leads  at  once  to 
that  peculiar,  reflective,  and  communi- 
cative form  of  mental  activity  which  we 
call  tradition  and  history.  When  the 
proper  stage  has  been  reached,  the  tribe 
that  was,  becoming  a  people,  begins  to 
consider  itself.  The  wisest  members  of 
the  ethnic  family,  the  most  vigorous  in 
tliought  and  imagination,  frame  from 
the  vague  legends  that  have  drifted 
downwards — assisted  in  rare  instances 
by  the  monumental  evidences  which 
their  race  ha."  left  behind — at  first  an 
incoherent,  and  afterwards  a  coherent, 
account  of  the  past. 

Tradition  and  histoiy  thus  become  the 
first  formal  expression  of  national  con- 
sciousness. Such  expres-  Blendingsof 
sion  is  older  than  any  other  S^t^ryTnTht 
form  of  literary  product,  dawn. 
It  may  be  indeed  that  the  earliest  story- 
teller of  mankind  takes  for  his  legend  the 
vehicle  of  metrical  language,  but  the 
subject-matter  is  essentially  historical. 
The  man-life  thus  begins  to  be  delineated. 
Of  a  ceilainty  everything  is  at  the  first 
local  and  peculiar.  The  myth-making 
power  is  busy  in  the  production  of  the 
narrative.  Fact  and  fiction  are  equally 
present  in  the  concept  and  the  work. 
The  historian  of  the  dawn  is  at  once  a 
sage  and  a  bard,  an  annalist  and  a  rhap- 
sodist,  a  storv-teller  and  a  singer.  What 


60 


GREAT  RACES   OF  J/AXA'/XP. 


he  produces  blends  henceforth  with  the 
memory  of  his  race.  It  is  imbibed  as  a 
verity,  and  is  used  by  future  chroniclers 
and  poets  as  the  subject-matter  of  their 
work.  The  volume  of  tradition  expands 
rapidly,  and  is  to  a  certain  extent  rec- 
tified by  the  improving  judgment  and 
critical  skill  of  after  times.     But  ages  go 


history  of  mankind  continues  to  flow  in 
the  mighty  stream  of  history  and  to 
color  all  its  waters. 

But  what  is  the  difference  between 
history  and  tradition  ?  Is  not  the  one 
the  other,  and  the  other  that?  Is  it 
possible  to  discriminate  with  exactitude 
between  that  form  of  intellectual  product 


A  CHALDEE  RHAI'SnDIST  RECITING  (MODERN).— Drawn  by  Barbanl. 


by  ere  the  elements  of  myth  and  tradi- 
tion are  eliminated  from  the  narrative. 
Mankind  advance  to  the  possession 
and  civilization  of  the  great  conti- 
nents. Other  branches  of  knowledge 
spring  from  the  mental  fecundity  of  the 
race.  Nations  react  upon  nations.  A 
vast  civil  and  political  life  appears.  The 
mind  improves  by  culture  and  discipline ; 
and  yet  the  fictitious  part  of  the   early 


which  goes  by  the  name  of  tradition  and 
that  other  form  which  is  called  history.' 
May  these  two  parts  of  the  Distinctions  to 
intellectual  work  of  our  ^^^^^radftion 
race  —  its  history  and  its  and  history, 
tradition — be  separated  the  one  from  the 
other  and  be  considered  apart?  Cer- 
tainly the  two  facts  to  which  these  terms 
refer  are  not  the  same  fact ;  and  yet  the 
blending  of  the  one  with  the  other  is  so 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGLVNING.— SOURCES   OF  INFORMATION. 


51 


intimate  and  universal  as  almost  to  pre- 
clude the  division  of  the  one  from  the 
other.  Tradition  is  a  general  term, 
signifying  any  form  of  story  relative  to 
past  events  which  has  been  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation  simply  by 
the  vehicle  of  human  memory  and  oral 
utterance.  Tradition  depends  for  its 
existence  upon  the  two  faculties  of 
memory  and  speech.  It  is  perpetuated 
by  repetition.  True,  a  tradition  may 
be  written,  and  may  in  this  manner 
come  at  length  to  masquerade  in  the 
form  of  history ;  but  the  fact  that  it  is 
written  does  not  alter  its  essential  na- 
ture. If  the  subject-matter  have  been 
handed  down  by  memory  and  oral  nar- 
ration, repeated  from  one  age  to  the 
next,  the  character  of  tradition  in  the 
thing  narrated  is  ever  aftenvards  pres- 
ent, though  it  be  written. 

From  this  consideration  it  Avill  at  once 
appear  how  variable  is  the  value  of 
Variations  in  the  traditions  as  measured  by 
v^iue^of  trrdr."^'  the  length  of  time  between 
tiois.  the  date  of  the  thing  con- 

stituting the  subject-matter  of  the  story 
and  the  date  of  the  record  in  which  it  is 
contained.  If  a  great  period  of  time 
have  elapsed  between  the  one  and  the 
other — if  the  tradition  have  thus  been 
subjected  to  the  modifications,  exagger- 
ations, and  reflections  to  which  all  stories 
are  subject  so  long  as  they  dwell  on  the 
tongues  of  men,  then,  indeed,  is  the 
tradition  of  small  importance  considered 
as  a  material  of  history.  But  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  only  a  single  generation  or 
a  fraction  of  a  generation  have  inter- 
vened between  the  date  of  the  event  and 
the  record  which  preser\-ed  the  story, 
then  we  may  allow  to  the  tradition  a 
weight  almost  equal  to  that  of  true  his- 
torical narrative. 

The  question  will  at  once  arise.  Is  not 
all   history   dependent   upon    or   rather 


derived  from  a  traditional  origin?  Of 
a  certainty  every  narrative,  however 
immediate  and  exact,  must  How  history 
have  passed  through  the  ^li^^^^^rre'r 
medium  of  consciousness  in  t^e  definition, 
the  author,  and  to  that  extent  it  is  tinged 
with  the  quality  of  tradition.  But  if  the 
author,  while  the  event  is  still  immedi- 
ately present  to  his  memory,  makes 
record  of  the  fact  which  he  has  seen  and 
known,  if  he  follows  the  criterion  to 
which  ^neas  so  confidently  refers,  and 
speaks  only  of  the  things  ' '  of  which  he 
has  been  a  part,"  then,  indeed,  is  the 
traditional  element  so  slight  that  it  may 
be  well  neglected.  Caesar  in  his  tent  by 
night  recording  the  incidents  and 
results  of  the  day's  conflicts,  thus  be- 
comes the  exemplar  and  type  of  the 
historian  and  his  work  pure  and  simple. 
But  of  a  certainty  many  other  quali- 
ties besides  this  of  the  contemporaneity 
of  the  witness  and  the  event  must  enter 
in  before  the  work  can  be  called  true 
history.  The  definition  of  this  great 
and  important  form  of  human  knowl- 
edge and  achievement  narrows  from  age 
to  age  and  becomes  ever  more  exact. 
At  the  present  day  it  is  limited  to  that 
species  of  authentic  narrative  of  human 
events  which  is  arranged  on  the  lines  of 
the  forces  which  produced  them ;  that 
is,  on  the  lines  of  universal  sequence 
and  causation.  Chronicles  and  annals, 
merely  such,  are  no  longer  considered 
as  history  proper.  Neither  is  that  form 
of  dissertation  which  embodies  the 
speculations  of  a  writer  with  regard  to 
the  facts  and  tendencies  of  human 
society  to  be  reckoned  as  true  history. 
The  latter  implies  that  the  personal 
element  in  the  narrative  shall  be  as  little 
discoverable  as  possible.  The  historian 
in  the  ideal  history  is  as  little  seen  as 
Shakespeare  is  seen  in  the  tragedy  of 
Hamlet. 


52 


GREAT  RACES   OF  .V.LYAVXn. 


The  historian  is  an  interpreter  of 
events ;     but    the    interpretation    is    not 

Impersonality  of  COlorcd — doCS      not      SUffer 

the  historian ;       diffraction— bv  the  medium 

sources  of  his 

materials.  through   which    it    passes. 

The  camera  is  essential  to  the  photo- 
graph. The  easel,  the  palette,  and  the 
brush,  aye,  the  arm  and  hand  and  eye 
of  the  master  are  essential  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  painting.  But  the  camera 
is  not  seen  in  the  sun  picture ;  neither 
are  the  easel,  the  brush,  the  hand,  and 
the  eye  of  the  artist  seen  on  his  canvas. 
So  also  of  the  historian.  Beginning 
where  tradition  leaves  off,  freely  em- 
ploying every  form  and  product  of 
human  knowledge,  gathering  in  mate- 
rials, especially  from  contemporaneous 
annals,  chronicles,  dramas,  and  fictions, 
he  discovers  wherever  he  may  the 
threads  of  causation,  of  antecedence  and 
consequence,  and  along  these  fine  nerves 
of  the  man-life  he  builds  his  narrative 
on  the  principle  of  the  photograph  or 
the  reproduction  of  a  landscape. 

But  the  thing  which  we  are  here  to 
consider  is  not  so  much  the  essential 
Tradition  deals  nature  of  tradition  and 
Snel"of  ^^i^tory,  not  so  much  ibeir 
mankind.  differences     and     depend- 

encies, but  rather  the  testimony  Avhich 
these  two  forms  of  human  knowledge 
may  bear  with  respect  to  the  time  of  the 
appearance  of  our  race  on  the  earth,  the 
date  of  the  beginning.  It  is  in  the 
nature  of  tradition,  then,  to  deal  directly 
with  these  great  questions.  The  brain 
of  the  primitive  man  was  rife  with  con- 
jectures and  dim  memories  of  his  former 
state.  Doubtless  his  recollection  of  the 
past  had  much  of  the  nature  of  a  dream. 
Doubtless  the  former  experiences  of  the 
half-conscious  race  were  transmitted  to 
him  with  his  blood.  Doubtless  the 
vicissitudes  and  the  vivid  impressions 
which  time  and  circumstance  had  made 


on  his  unthinking  but  highly  sensitive 
ancestry  recurred  in  his  own  thought, 
and  constituted  a  sort  of  basis  ou  which 
all  of  his  theories  respecting  his  past 
history  were  built.  As  for  the  sub- 
stance of  these  theories,  that  was 
gathered  from  the  folklore  of  his  tribe. 

Not  deficient  or  inactive  was  the  talk 
passion  among  primeval  men.  In  this 
respect  the  various  peo-  work  of  the  talk 
pies  differed  greatly,  some  ?,\^~,':e'^^ 
being  comparatively  taci-  races, 
turn,  little  disposed  to  communicate  with 
their  fellows,  and  others  having  a  nat- 
ural enthusiasm  and  gift  in  the  com- 
merce of  speech.  Some  of  the  most 
intellectual  and  vigorous  of  the  ancient 
races  were  loquacious  to  a  degree  that 
can  not  now  be  well  appreciated.  In 
such  cases  much  of  the  reflective  talk  of 
the  tribe  took  the  form  of  traditional 
lore.  The  origin  of  man  was  the  key- 
note of  the  ukltime  story.  The  primi- 
tive peoples,  especially  those  gifted  with 
imagination  and  a  highly  developed 
language,  were  ever  busy  with  the 
theory  of  the  genesis  of  the  race. 

At  the  same  time  they  took  up  the 
problem  of  nature  outside  of  man.  The 
forms,  aspects,  and  phenomena  of  the 
material  world    demanded  ^, 

Nature,  also,  de- 
an   explanation    as    well    as   manded  an  in- 
,   .  . ,        -,  r    i  1      1  terpretation. 

man  himself.  ^Mythology, 
leeend,  and  tradition  were  soon  rife,  and 
were  infinitely  inflected  according  to 
the  fancy  and  fragments  of  information 
which  the  various  tribes  possessed.  All 
agreed  that  so//n-  explanation  must  be 
given  of  the  time,  the  place,  and  the 
circumstances  of  man's  appearance  on 
the  earth.  All  were  agreed  that  in  some 
way  he  had  come.  None  conjectured 
that  his  past  existence  was  an  eternity. 
Each  had  the  concept  of  a  previous  con- 
dition  in  earth  and  heaven  wherein  man 
had  no  part  or  lot. 


TIME    OF   THE   BEG  INNING. —SO  URGES   OF  INFORMATION. 


53 


It  thus  happened  that  each  race,  accord- 
ing to  its  light,  according  to  what  it  had 
Primitive  con-  received  from  older  mem- 
SJSnuoT-  bers  of  the  tribe,  accord- 
philosophy.  jj^g  to  its  Concepts  of  the 

methods  and  possibilities  of  the  case, 
produced  the  story  of  man-life  in  the 
earth.  The  story  was  from  one  point  of 
view  as  variable  as  the  fancies  of  the 


with    respect   to    the    remote    past.     It 
might  be  said,  even  at  this  late  day,  that' 
the  whole   intellectual  structure  of   the 
world  rests  on  the  concrete  Beliefs  of  man- 
of  tradition.    He  who  there-  rarg^/^"™" 
fore  would  investigate  for  from  tradition, 
himself  and  for  others  the  primitive  state 
of  man — would  in  particular  inquire  into 
the  probable  time  and  conditions  under 


LANDSCAPE   OF  THE   DEGlNNIXG.— Drawn  by  Riou. 


race  were  vague  and  their  creative 
powers  capricious.  But  from  another 
point  of  view  there  were  common  fea- 
tures in  the  traditions  which  now  gained 
currency,  and  these  common  features  at 
length  constituted  a  sort  of  body  of 
philosophy  which  was  accepted  with 
more  or  less  reservation  by  the  great 
minds  of  antiquity. 

From  all  this  it  must  readily  appear 
how  great  a  part  tradition  has  performed 
in  establishing  the  beliefs  of    mankind 


which  men  began  to  be  among  the  living 
creatures  of  our  globe — must  carefully 
consider  the  traditions  which  the  races 
of  men  have  formed  with  respect  to 
themselves. 

Here,  then,  true  history  begins.  As 
it  was  the  first,  so  also  it  seems  to  be  the 
last    and    greatest    of   the 

^  Office  of  history- 

products       of       the      human    to  solve  all  prob- 
1        A       • .  ,1  T       .     lems  of  man-life. 

mind.   As  it  was  the  earliest 

endeavor  of  the  conscious  race  to  express 

its  concepts  of    itself,   so  also    is  it  the 


54 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


latest  endeavor  of  that  same  race  to  ex- 
plain, interpret,  and  elucidate  the  true 
course  and  character  of  human  affairs  in 
the  earth.  It  goes  with  the  saying  that 
it  is  sooner  or  later  the  function  of  his- 
tory to  answer  in  a  satisfactory  manner 
the  all-important  questions  which  stand 
at  the  beginning  of  the  present  inquiry. 
In  doing  so  the  science — if  science  it 
may  be  called — draws  within  its  compass 
all  the  results  which  have  been  reached 
in  all  the  fields  of  human  inquiry. 

Above  all  other  branches  of  knowl- 
edge, history  sits  and  broods,  with 
Supreme  place  wings  outspread  as  though 
°eat*o7h™  the  universe  of  things  were 
inquiry.  pregnant  and   must   bring 

forth  under  the  shadow  and  power  of 
thought.  It  may  be  truthfully  said  that 
every  other  form  of  learning  tends  to 
this.  True  history  is  the  generalized 
result  of  all  things  that  have  been 
thought  and  done  by  men.  When  com- 
plete, it  must  of  course  take  cognizance 
not  only  of  the  genesis,  but  also  of  the 
,  final  destiny  of  man.  For  the  present 
it  may  be  freely  confessed  that  true  his- 
torical inquiry  has  not  extended  very 
far  into  the  past,-  and  that  it  has  still 
more  feebly  divined  the  future.  Nor 
may  the  historian  of  this  age  with  right 
reason  hope  greatly  to  extend  the  domain 
of  this  science  of  the  sciences  in  either 
direction.  He  may,  however,  properly 
aspire  to  place  in  better  light  that  part 
of  human  history  which  relates  to  the 
primal  appearance  of  mankind  on  the 
earth,  and  to  throw  some  pencils  of  re- 
flected light  on  the  time  and  circum- 
stances of  the  beginning. 

9.  Chronology. — Out  of  history,  and  as 
a  department  thereof,  has  arisen  chro- 
nology as  a  special  branch  of  inquiry. 
It  vs\3.y  be  said  to  be  at  once  a  factor  and  a 
result  of  all  historical  investigation. 
With  the  ancients  it  meant  properly  the 


computation  of  time.     With  the  general 
analysis  and  classification  of  the  sciences 
it  has  come  to  be  a  consider-  chronology  a 
ation  of  the  time-order  of  "^,2^%°^^}^-^^ 

tory ;  its  proper 

the  successive  events  which  function, 
have  occurred  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
It  is  the  function  of  chronology  to  de 
termine,  not  only  the  particular  dates  at 
which  the  events  of  the  past  have  hap- 
pened, but  the  order  of  their  succession 
and  the  intervals  of  time  between  them. 
It  thus  furnishes  the  framework  of  all 
things  soever  that  have  occurred  in  the 
human  universe.  There  is  a  sense  in 
which  the  whole  structure  of  tradition 
and  history  rests  upon  the  chronological 
foundation.  Even  the  ancients  who 
gave,  sometimes  in  charming  manner, 
the  narrative  of  events,  paying  attention 
to  the  dramatic  order — which  is  only  the 
natural  order  of  all  things  soever — and 
who  were  as  a  rule  given  to  the  neglect 
of  dates,  nevertheless  showed  consider- 
able appreciation  of  the  importance  of 
chronology.  The  true  .science,  however, 
is  of  modern  origin ;  its  exact  phases 
belong  to  the  last  quarter  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  and  more  particularly  to 
the  clo-ser  investigations  of  the  present 
age. 

Chronology  finds  its  possibility  in  the 
movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The 
primarv  facts  are  the  ro-  Foundation  of 
tation  'of  the  earth  on  its  t:::^ZT,i 
axis  and  its  revolutions  the  planets, 
around  the  sun.  The  abstract  concept 
of  time  is  more  difficult  to  grasp  than 
might  at  first  thought  be  easily  appre- 
hended. This  is  to  say  that  in  the  ab- 
sence of  tangible  phenomena,  such  as 
those  produced  by  the  movements  of  the 
spheres,  it  might  be  difficult  to  form  a 
true  notion  of  that  abstract  continuance 
or  duration  to  which  we  give  the  name 
of  time.  But  the  revolution  of  our  globe, 
and  the  resulting  aspects  of  the  heavenly 


TIME  OF  THE  BEGIXXIXG.—ASTROXOMICAL  ARGUMEXT. 


55 


Dodies  as  viewed  therefrom,  divides  dura- 
tion into  parts,  and  furnishes  an  easy 
calculus  for  time  measurement. 

Out  of  nature  a  scale  may  thus  be 
constructed  to  which  human  affairs  are 
Historical  per-  adjustable,  and  in  the 
spectivede-        Y\<r\it  of    which    they    are 

pends  on  cnron-         t>  J 

oiogicai  order,  ruost  easily  Comprehended. 
ChronologfV  furnishes  a  sort  of  time  locus 
for  everything,  and  it  is  by  the  employ- 
ment of  such  a  scheme  that  the  vast  and 
orderly  progress  of  human  events  is  first 
discovered.  All  historical  perspective 
depends  upon  the  chronological  relations 
of  the  objects  of  the  human  landscape. 
There  is,  first  of  all,  a  horizon.  The 
remoter  facts  stand  far  back  against  the 
dim  line  which  divides  the  known  from 
the  unknown.  The  size,  appearance, 
and  relative  importance  of  such  facts 
must  be  estimated  by  their  distance  from 
the  observer.  The  objects  of  the  nearer 
landscape,  as  judged  by  the  senses,  seem 
vast  and  tall.     Without  the  aid  of  the 


chronological  perspective  the  concept  of 
the  past  would  be  utterly  distorted  aud 
ludicrous. 

We  have  here  reached  one  of  the  par- 
ticular grounds  of  the  inquiry  constitut- 
ing   the     theme      of      the  if  knowledge 

°  ■were  complete 

present  book,  namel}',  the  chronology 

.     ,       ,         .        .  T  /•   wovild  end  the 

time  of  the  beginning.  Ir  inquiry, 
the  scheme  of  human  knowledge  -^ere 
perfected  the  inquiry  would  be  simply 
chronological  and  nothing  more.  But 
the  reader  must  bear  in  mind  that  the 
thing  attempted  is  to  extend  the  chrono- 
logical lines  into  that  obscure  domain 
under  whose  mists  and  shadows  the  un- 
conscious part  of  human  history  was 
transacted.  For  this  rea.son  all  the  pre- 
ceding sciences  to  which  we  have  referred 
are  called  into  requisition,  in  this  part 
or  in  that,  in  the  hope  of  extending  the 
scheme  of  chronolog}',  not  indeed  with 
exactitude,  but  with  some  approximate 
certainty  to  the  infancy  and  childhood 
of  the  human  race. 


CHAPTER    II.— A.SXROXO>.IICAIv  ^RGU^vIEXT    RESF'ECX= 
IXG    THE    ^XTIQUITY    OE    ^.IAX. 


I  ROM  what  has  been 
presented  in  the  first 
chapter  we  may  dis- 
cover the  general 
sources  from  which  in- 
formation and  sugges- 
tion may  be  derived 
with  respect  to  the  antiquity  of  man. 
The  various  branches  of  science  to  which 
we  have  referred  in  the  preceding  pages 
are  the  witnesses  which  may  be  sum- 
moned to  give  testimony  on  the  great 
question  involved  in  this  inquiry.  It  will 
be  seen  at  a  glance  that,  for  the  most 
part,  such  testimony  is  not  direct.  In 
some  instances,  particularly  in  archasol- 


og\-  and  geology,  the  evidence  may  be 
considered  immediate  and  indubitable. 
But  in   most   respects  the  science  testifies 

scientific  knowledge  which    itfani'order''" 

Ave  possess  relative  to  the  of  lift, 
time,  the  place,  and  the  circumstances 
under  which  the  human  race  made  its 
appearance  on  the  Earth  is  indirect  and 
only  by  reflection.  It  is  as  though  a 
mirror  were  held  aloft  in  the  surface  of 
which  we  may  see  the  objects  and  move- 
ments below  the  horizon.  He  who 
studies  the  prehistoric  career  of  man- 
kind by  the  aid  of  the  sciences  to  which 
we  have  referred,  is  as  the  observer  who, 
sitting  by  the  window  of  the  fljang  car. 


56 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIXD. 


may  see  the  moving  spectra  of  distant 
landscapes  appearing  and  disappearing 
among  the  shadows  of  tlie  otlier  side. 

On  the  whole,  those  forms  of  human 
knowledge  which  we  now  possess,  bearing 
Authenticity  of  on  the  question  of  the  rela- 
ti^llSl.^  tions  of  world-life  and  man- 
race  compared,  life,  are  in  analogy  with 
the    witne.sses   who    observed  our  indi- 


CO.MPARATIVE   SIZE  OF   THE   PIANEIARY   WORLDS. 


vidual  development  through  the  uncon- 
scious stages  of  infancy.  In  some 
respects  the  evidence  which  we  possess 
with  regard  to  our  own  growth  and 
conduct  during  the  unconscious  stage — 
with  respect  to  the  date  and  circum- 
stances of  our  birth  and  the  events  with 
which  the  first  years  of  our  individual 
life  were  associated — is  superior  in 
quality,   more  satisfactory  to  the  condi- 


tions of  right  reason,  more  conclusive  as 
to  the  things  in  question,  than  is  the 
evidence  derived  from  the  branches  of 
knowledge  referred  to  with  respect  to 
the  time  and  conditions  of  the  infancy 
and  childhood  of  mankind.  But  in 
other  respects  the  latter  evidence  is  the 
better  of  the  two.  It  is,  on  the  whole, 
less  colored,  less  perverted  by  the  im- 
perfections of  merely 
human  testimony,  less 
affected  with  errors 
arising  from  what  is 
called  the  personal 
equation,  than  is  the 
purely  oral  tradition 
handed  down  by  our 
fathers  and  ancestors 
with  respect  to  the  un- 
conscious epoch  in  our 
individual  lives  or  in 
the  lives  of  themselves. 
We  may,  therefore,  in 
a  general  way  take 
our  stand  among  the 
sciences  above  deline- 
ated, and  interrogate 
them  with  some  ante- 
cedent expectation  of 
pi'ofit  with  regard  to 
the  place  of  the  appear- 
ance of  primeval  man. 
If  we  take  a  critical 
survey  of  our  solar 
system,  occupying  the 
astronomer's  point  of 
that  system  to  be  in 
of    development    as    it 


Probability  of 
the  diffusion  of 
life  through- 
out our  system. 


view,  we  find 
various  stages 
respects  the  great  fact 
called  life.  We  here  plant 
ourselves  upon  the  assump- 
tion that  the  phenomena  of  life  are 
generally  distributed  through  the  vis- 
ible universe.  The  discovery  in  our  own 
age  of  the  fundamental  identity  of  the 
stellar  and  planetary  materials  furnishes 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL  ARGUMENT. 


57 


a  solid  basis  for  the  inference  of  the 
accompanying  distribution  of  life.  It  is 
clearly  demonstrable  that  the  small  group 
of  worlds  with  which  our  own  globe  is 
associated  are  fundamentally  identical 
in  structure.  From  the  sun  outward  to 
the  lone  satellite  of  Neptune  no  consider- 
able variation  has  been  discovered  from 
the  established  material  unity  of  the 
whole  group.  There  is,  therefore,  in 
the  first  place,  no  perceptible  physical 
barrier  to  the  dissemination  of  the  com- 
mon forms  of  life  throughout  our  neigh- 
boring worlds.  But  a  stronger  ground 
even  than  this  for  the  hypothesis  of  life 
in  the  planets  is  found  in  the  conditions 
of  right  reason.  That  indeed  must  be  a 
strangely  constituted  intelligence  which 
can  accept  the  theory  of  the  limitation  of 
life  to  our  own  earth.  Such  a  supposi- 
tion must  rather  provoke  a  smile  on  the 
countenance  of  every  intelligent  being 
who  has  risen  to  anything  like  an  ade- 
quate conception  of  the  scale  and  char- 
acter of  the  material  universe.  To 
suppose  that  a  single  insignificant  orb 
like  our  own,  scarcely  discoverable  in 
the  multitude  of  worlds  and  systems, 
should  be  the  favored  spot  in  which  life 
and  intelligence  are  manifested,  while  all 
the  rest  of  the  stupendous  universe 
round  about  is,  as  it  were,  a  mere  waste 
of  material  structure,  is  to  entertain  a 
concept  of  nature  utterly  absurd.  Such 
a  view  is  the  very  essence  of  that  natural, 
but  irrational,  anthropomorphic  notion  of 
the  universe,  the  existence  of  which  in 
the  mind  of  antiquity  we  can  well  under- 
stand, but  the  perpetuation  of  which  in 
the  era  of  light  and  knowledge  seems  at 
once  unaccountable  and  preposterous. 

The  fact  of  life  constitutes,  then,  the 
only  rational  explanation  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  material  universe.  On  any 
hypothesis  material  nature  can  hardly 
be  said  to  exist  for  itself.     A  system  of 

M.— Vol.  1—5 


worlds  like  our  own  has  no  rational  ex- 
planation except  that  which  is  found  in 
the  suggestion  of  an  arena  Life  and  intern- 
of  life,   and   finally  of  in-  ^.^^^^^ 

telligent  activity.      Let  him   material  nature. 

who  will  attempt  to  frame  any  other  ex- 
planation of  the  existence  of  worlds,  any 
other  intelligent  or  even  conceivable 
purpose  for  which  things  are  designed 
or  for  which  they  merely  exist,  and  he 
shall  soon  find  the  futility  of  the  effort. 
Material  nature  has  its  tatio  ultima  in 
the  basis  which  it  furnishes  for  the  dis- 
play of  vital  phenomena,  including  in- 
telligence as  the  highest  expression  of 
living  force. 

It  is  freely  admitted  that  direct  scien- 
tific demonstration  of  the  existence  of 
life  and  intelligence  in  any  Reason  must  aid 
world  other  than  our  own  The  ^^^'^"i 
is  not  possible  in  the  pres-  the  universe, 
ent  condition  of  human  knowledge.  It 
may  not  be  possible  for  ages  to  come,  or 
ever  possible  to  the  end  of  our  own 
world-life  and  the  final  scene  of  the  pres- 
ent state.  One  of  the  elements,  how- 
ever, of  all  our  best  attainment  is  the 
use  of  right  reason  and  the  ready  accept- 
ance of  the  results  to  which  it  leads. 
We  may  not  admit  that  the  universe  is 
an  absurdity.  We  may  not  any  longer 
suppose  that  our  own  small  earth  with 
its  burden  of  interests,  to  us  so  over- 
whelming, is  of  any  superior  conse- 
quence in  the  universal  scheme  beyond 
what  the  size,  place,  and  physical  im- 
portance of  our  little  globe  may  reason- 
ably imply. 

We  are  thus  to  consider  the  system  of 
worlds  with  which  our  own  is  associated 
as  a  common  system,  hav-  General  view  of 
ing  common  features,  obey-  ^i^ its  coT-- 

ing    common    laws,   subject    mon  features. 

to  common  vicissitudes,  and  determined 
by  a  common  destiny.  The  planets  that 
traverse  the  adjacent  spaces  are  even  as 


The  dots  round  the  orbits  sho~.v 
tkt  position  of  the  planets  at 
'ntef^ai^  oj" a  thousand  days. 


The  symbois  \\  indicate  in. 
greatest  distance  o/  an  o^bt'. 

north  and  south  0/  the  />ian^ 
cf  the  Ecii/'tic 


XqbJ^  of  huniiredj  of  milhanj  of  mUe^ 

6    1'  ; i i 1 It. 

WOO  mtUu>n   mUes  —  1    i/uK 


Orbits  0/  Neptune  {^  ),  Uranus  (JJ^), 
Saturn  (  ^  )^  and  Jupiter  (  2^  ). 


nurcuij  Viuiu*  Eaitb 


Jupiter 


The  arroiv-head  on  each  orbit  shoiu* 
the  direction  0/  rezioiution^  also  eUf 
place  0/  each  planet  on  Jan,  ist,  t  iVs. 
at  noon. 

{Zone  oJ" Asteroids^  and  o*l-its 

1^  ),      Nodes   Q  P9,  Near-fv 
Apses  N.  U,  S,  7. 


Uranus  Nepiune 


Scale  0/  Planets  lO^ooQ  times  that  of  Orbits. 
t^fupiter  and  Saturn  are  shown  iniheir  true  axial  position.  Uranus  and  Neptune  in  the  axial  positions  in/erredjrom  the  ^notions  0/  their  Satellites. \ 


Scale  2fioo  times  that  0/  the  Orbits. 


Urtmaj's   batctm^ 


SOLAR  SYSTEM— SHOWING  RELATION'S  OF  ORBITS,  COMPARISIONS  OF  PLANETS.  AND  PLACE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Drawn  by  Richard  A.  Proctor.  F.  R,  A.  S 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL   ARGUMENT. 


59 


our  own.  Some  are  smaller  and  some 
are  almost  infinitely  greater,  but  all  are 
virtually  identical  in  structure,  character- 
istics, and  final  purpose.  But  the  worlds 
above  and  around  us  are,  nevertheless, 
greatly  discriminated  from  our  own  with 
respect  to  the  stage  of  development  in 
which  they  are  respectively  found.  Some 
are  old  and  some  are  young  as  compared 
with  our  planet.  vSome  are,  doubtless, 
at  the  present  time  in  a  process  of  evo- 
lution and  development  almost  iden- 
tical with  that  through  which  our 
own  globe  passed  in  geological  ages 
far  agone.  Others  have  gone  for- 
ward more  rapidly  than  the  earth, 
and  have  reached  the  condition  to- 
ward which  our  planet  is  slowly, 
steadily,  but  surely  tending,  and  at 
which  it  must  at  length  arrive  under 
the  force  of  universal  laws. 

Not  only  do  the  worlds  differ  among 

themselves  with  respect  to  their  age, 

considered  as  planetary 

Relations  of  .  ^ 

world  age  to  the   bodics,    but    they    also 

epoch  of  life.  t  -  rr  •  1 1 

diner  m  another  ratio 
with  respect  to  their  age  relative  to 
the  epoch  of  life.  The  antiquity  of  a 
planet,  considered  as  a  planet,  does 
not  determine  its  relation  to  life  and 
its  conditions.  This  is  to  say  that  the 
process  of  evolution  may  go  on  so  '''^' 
slowly  in  some  of  the  older  w^orlds 
that  they  reach  the  epoch  of  life  at  a 
period  much  later  in  world  history  than 
do  some  other  planets  in  which  the  proc- 
ess of  world  formation  goes  on  more 
rapidly.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be 
scientifically  alleged  that  the  smaller 
globes,  having  once  assumed  the  plan- 
etary form  and  condition,  sweep  on  more 
rajiidly  toward  the  epoch  of  life  than 
do  the  larger,  in  which  the  development 
in  the  planetary  sense  is  slow  and  long- 
postponed. 

The  New  Astronomy  has  now  assigned 


to  each  of  the  worlds  of  our  system  its 
approximate    place    in    the    scheme    of 

development.     It  would  ap-  '  science  deter- 

pear  that  as  to  mere  plan-  ^i;^^^ 
etary  genesis  the  great  planets, 
worlds  Jupiter  and  Saturn  are  the  eldest- 
born  of  the  system  ;  but  so  far  as  the  epoch 
of  life  is  concerned,  those  mighty  worlds 
are  the  youngest  of  all.  The  planets 
most  advanced  in  age  as  it  respects  the 
correlated    phenomena   of   life,  are    the 


ITION    OF    IHt    1'l.ANETS    INKEKIuK      lO    JUHltK — SHOWING 
THE   ZONE   OF   THE   ASTEROIDS. 

earth  and  Mars,  between  which  many 
analogies  are  discoverable.  Of  the  two 
the  earth  is,  doubtless,  considerably 
older  than  the  other,  as  world-age  is 
measured  by  the  manifestations  of  life 
thereon.  This  is  to  say  that  the  earth 
and  I^Iars  gave  off  their  excessive  heat 
and  were  cooled  sufficiently  to  admit  of 
vegetable  and  animal  life  at  an  age  far 
earlier  than  in  the  case  of  any  of  the 
other  planets.  Drawing  our  analogies 
from  the  forms  of  life  wdth  which  we  are 
familiar,  it  is  quite  certain  that- Jiipiter 


60 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKLYD. 


and  Saturn  have  not  yet  reached  the  life- 
bearing  epoch.  That  they  will  at  length 
reach  a  stage  of  worldhood  at  which  ani- 
mate beings  can  exist  upon  their  surface 
and  in  their  waters  can  not  be  doubted. 
As  little  can  it  be  doubted  that  in  course 
of  time  the  earth  and  Mars  will  lose  the 
conditions  under  which  life  can  be  per- 
petuated. In  that  event  we  may  be  sure 
that  the  epoch  of  life  will  cease  in  our 
own  planet,  though  the  earth,  as  such, 


JUrntK — A    I'LANEr    NOr   vet    arrived   at   the   ErOUH    OF    LIFE. 


may  continue  to  occupy  its  place  indefi- 
nitely in  the  solar  system. 

The  thing  to  be  granted  from  the  con- 
sideration of  these  facts  is  that  all  worlds 
Epoch  of  Life  is  have  a  planet  life,  and  that, 
adjusted  to  cer-    jj^     connection     with     this 

tain  stages  of 

planet  life.  planet    life,  at    a    certain 

stage  thereof  life  proper  becomes  toler- 
able in  the  given  sphere.  With  this 
event  the  Epoch  of  Life  begins  and  runs 
parallel  with  the  history  of  the  given 
world  until  the  conditions  of  the  latier 


are  so  changed  as  to  prevent  the  furthei 
propagation  or  existence  of  life  upon  it. 
After  that,  as  in  the  probable  case  of  our 
secondary,  the  Moon,  the  given  orb  be- 
comes a  dead  world,  though  still  obeying 
the  physical  laws  under  which  its  place 
and  motions  have  been  hitherto  deter- 
mined. 

Let  us,  then,  briefly  consider  what  we 
may  call  the  astronomical  preparation  of 
the  earth  for  the  appearance  of  man-life 
upon  it.  By  what 
process  of  world-evo- 
lution was  it  brought 
into  the  state  of  hab- 
itability?  For  we 
may  be  certain  that 
the  fact  of  habita- 
bility  and  the  first 
appearance  of  man 
were  coincident  cir- 
cumstances. The 
preparation  of  our 
globe  for  the  human 
race  had  respect  pri- 
marily to  the  condi- 
tion of  heat.  This 
is  to  say  that  a  heat 
equation  had  to  be 
established  on  an  as- 
tronomical basis; 
and  by  considering 
the  astronomical  con- 
ditions antecedent  to 
the  appearance  of  man-life,  preparation  of 
and  by  knowing  the  rate  of  ^^.^.T/bX^i,, 
change  which  the  world  has  i^eat  equation, 
undergone  in  its  planetary  relations,  we 
may  arrive  at  an  approximate  date  for 
the  beginning  of  the  human  race. 

The  equation  of  heat  to  which  we 
have  just  referred  has  for  its  principal, 
though  not  its  only,  element  a  certain 
vibration,  or  oscillation,  which  has  been 
going  on  in  the  orbit  of  the  earth  from 
the  time  when  that  bodv,  loosened  from 


TIME    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL  ARGUMENT. 


61 


earth's  orbit  as 
affecting  distri- 
bution  of  heat. 


the  common  nebulous  mass,  began  to  be 
evolved  into  worldhood,  and  which  will 
Vibrations  of  the  continue  to  the  end  of 
our  planetary  career.  We 
must  here  refer  to  many 
astronomical  facts  which  are  familiar  as 
facts,  but  of  which  the  significance  has 
in  some  measure  been  overlooked.  The 
orbit  of  the  earth  is  an  ellipse,  having 
the  Sun  in  one  of  the  foci ;  but  the  ele- 
ments of  the  ellipse  are  not  constant. 
On  the  contrary,  the  two  axes  of  our 
orbit  lying  at  right  angles  to  each  other 


approached,  but  never  quite  attained. 
The  elongation  of  the  minor  axis,  with 
the  consequent  expansion  of  the  orbit, 
ceases,  and  the  major  axis  once  more 
begins  to  project  like  a  lengthening  arrow 
into  space. 

These  changes  in  the  two  axes  of  the 
orbit,  with  the  consequent  fluctuation 
toward  and  away  from  the  circle,  con- 
tinue at  immense  intervals,  and  will 
continue  as  long  as  the  present  sj'stem 
of  world  order  endures.  Under  the  force 
of  the  precession   of  the  equinoxes,  the 


SATURN-A  KING  PLANET. 


are  inconstant  or  variable  quantities.  A 
change  is  ever  going  on  by  which  the 
ratio  between  the  major  axis  and  the 
minor  axis  is  affected. 

The  character  of  the  earth's  orbit  is 

thereby  constantly  modified.     At  first  it 

approximates  the  circle,  and  then  recedes 

from    the    circle    until    it 

Nature  of  the 

fluctuation  in       rcaclics  a  maximum  elonga- 

our  orbital  axes.     ,.  rr'-i-         i  <.-  „ 

tion.  This  elongation,  or 
departure  from  the  circle,  is  called  the 
eccentricity  of  the  orbit.  Having  reached 
the  maximum  of  this  eccentricity,  the 
major  axis  begins  to  contract  and  the 
orbit  to  expand  laterally,  until  after  a 
great  lapse  of  time  the  circle   is  again  I 


position  of  the  two  axes,  always  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  constantly  changes. 
They  point  to  different  parts  of  the  sur- 
rounding heavens,  each  of  them  con- 
tracting and  expanding  within  fixed 
limits  which  are  determinative  of  the 
character  and  stability  of  our  orbit. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  reader  is  famil- 
iar  with  such   terms   as    aphelion   and 
perihelion,   that  he   has  a  Assumption  of 
clear  concept  of  our  planet-  ^"rr^Tc^' 
ary  orbit,  of  the  plane  of  phenomena, 
the  ecliptic,  of  the  equator  of  the  earth 
and  the  heavens,  of  the   inclination  of 
the  earth's  axis  to  the  plane  in  which  our 
globe  makes  its  journey  around  the  sun, 


62 


GREAT  RACES   OE  JirAXk'fXP. 


and  of  the  circumstance  of  a  summer 
and  winter  solstice,  a  vernal  and  autum- 
nal equinox,  and  of  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes.  It  is  also  assumed  that  he 
apprehends  the  nature  of  the  solar  illu- 
mination of  an  ever-changing  hemisphere 
of  the  earth's  surface,  of  the  altered  and 
altering  position  of  the  sun  as  viewed 
from  any  given  point  on  our  planet,  and 


Present  phase 
of  the  planetary 
oscillation. 


]  HE    MOON  —  A.N    EXPIRED    PLANET 


of  the  attendant  phenomena  of  the  sea- 
sons. Presumably  he  is  able  to  appre- 
hend that  these  phenomena  go  back  for 
their  causes  to  the  inclination  of  the  axis 
of  the  earth  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  and 
to  the  eccentricity  of  that  orbit ;  that  is, 
its  deviation  from  the  circle. 

It  may  not  be  known,  however,  that 
the  phase  of  our  orbital  career  through 
which  we  are  now  passing  is  that  of  con- 


traction, or  approach  to  the  circle.  The 
major  axis  of  the  earth's  orbit  is  diminish- 
ing, and  the  minor  axis  in- 
creasing in  measurement. 
The  eccentricity  of  the 
orbit  is  slowly  but  surely  diminishing 
toward  zero.  This  signifies  that  the 
difference  between  the  perihelion,  or 
nearest  approach  of  the  earth  to  the  sun, 
and  its  aphelion,  or 
greatest  distance,  is 
becoming  less  and 
less  with  each  revo- 
lution. The  proc- 
ess will  continue 
until  the  difference 
shall  be  reduced  to 
a  minimum ;  but 
immediately  there- 
after the  reversal  of 
conditions  cause  the 
major  axis  to  elon- 
gate and  the  minor 
to  shorten,  and  will 
throw  the  aphelion 
and  perihelion  of 
the  orbit  into  posi- 
tions different  from 
those  which  they 
now  occupy  in 
space. 

Modern  astrono- 
my has  made  very 
careful  and  critical 
estimates  of  all 
these  variations, 
and  more  recently  has  ventured  to  apply 
to  them  the  measurement  of  time.  The 
eccentricity  of  the  earth's  . . 

■^  Limits  of  eccen- 

orbit  was  determined  with  tricityinthe 

,    1         ,  ,  ,       earth's  orbit. 

tolerable  accuracy  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Leverrier;  but  since  the 
days  of  that  astronomer  the  calculations 
have  been  perfected,  and  the  elements 
of  our  orbit  more  accurately  determined. 
According  to  these  tables,   the    highest 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL  ARGUMENT. 


63 


eccentricity  ever  attained  by  our  orbit 
was,  decimally  expressed,  0.0747.  The 
minimum  eccentricity  is  about  0.0102. 
Between  these  two  extremes  the  orbit 
oscillates  with  ever-changing  conditions 
of  climatic  phenomena. 

We  may  here  discover  the  fundamen- 
tals of  that  equation  of  heat  to  which  we 
have    referred.     It  is  well 

Perihelion  and 

aphelion  deter-     known  that  in  the  present 

minativeof heat.  t.-  r  i  •. 

condition     or      our     orbit, 
the  earth,  in  its  annual  revolution,  ajo- 
proaches  and  recedes  from  the  sun,  thus 
fixing  a  point  of  nearest  approach  called 
the  perihelion,  and  another  point  of  great- 
est distance  called  the  aphelion.    At  the 
present  time  the  difference  in  the  dis- 
tances of  the  earth  from  the  sun  at  these 
two  crises  in  the  annual  revolution  is,  in 
round  numbers,  three  million  miles — a 
distance  sufficient,  as  we  shall  see,  to 
make  a  very  perceptible  difference  in  the 
heat  conditions  of  the  earth.     It  must  be 
noted  with  care  that  our  perihelion  lies 
near  to  the  winter  solstice,  and  that  our 
aphelion  approximates  the  summer  sol- 
stice. This  is  to  say  that  when,  owing  to 
the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic,  the  sun  has  receded 
far  to  the  south  in  midwinter — when  the 
daj-s  thereby  have  been  reduced  to  a  min- 
imum for  the  northern  hemisj^hcre  and 
the  nights  lengthened  to  a  maximum — we 
are  about  three  million   miles  nearer  to 
the    sun    than    we   are    in    midsummer, 
when  he  has  come  by  gradual  approaches 
northward   across  the   tropic   and  looks 
down  almost  vertically  upon  the  temper- 
ate zone. 

The  amount  of  sun  heat  received  on 
the  surface  of  our  earth  depends  upon 
Conditions  on  two  Simple  conditions :  the 
ThelunTeTrl!'  angularity  of  the  rays  as 
ceived  depends,  they  enter  our  atmosphere ; 
and,  secondly,  the  distance  from  the 
solar  luminarv.     The  more  directlv  the 


rays  fall  upon  the  earth,  the  greater  the 
heat ;  the  more  obliquely,  the  less  the 
heat.  The  nearer  the  approach  of  the 
earth  to  the  sun,  thp  greater  the  heat; 
this,  being  in  a  ratio  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance  between  the  two 
globes.  We  are  thus  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  (fortunately  we  may  say) 
brought  into  perceptible  nearness  to  the 
solar  luminary  in  midwinter,  while  in 
summer  we  are  remote.  This  is  to  say 
that  in  all  our  parts  of  the  earth  the  cold 
of  winter  is  abated,  as  is  also  the  heat  of 
the  summer,  by  the  circumstance  that 
the  perihelion  and  aphelion  of  our  globe 


>lean  Velncity. 


-■^fean  Velocity. 
VAKYl.SG    \  tLOCITY   OF    PLANETARY    MOTION. 

fall  respectively  in  the  seasons  mentioned. 
If  the  conditions  were  reversed,  so  that 
our  aphelion  should  fall  in  midwinter 
and  our  perihelion  in  midsummer,  it  is 
easy  to  see  how  greatly  the  seasons 
would  be  intensified.  Instead  of  being 
tempered,  as  they  are  at  present,  by  the 
relations  of  the  earth  and  sun,  the  cold 
of  winter  would  be  aggravated  by  the 
removal  of  that  luminary  to  a  greater 
distance  in  space,  and  on  the  other  hand 
the  heat  conditions  of  summer  would  be 
intensified. 

Astronomers  have  estimated  with  care 
the  variation  in  climate  produced  by  the 
circumstances  here  referred  to.  It  has 
been  demonstrated  that  the  cold  of 
winter   in   the    northern    hemisphere    is 


Orbits  of  Mars  (  %  \  tkj  Earth  ( ®  1, 
l^enus  {  ?  ),  and  Mercury  (  C  ). 

Nodes  ft  ?5.  Nearer  Apses  M.  E.  F.  i«. 


7%tf  rfio/j  round  the  orhtts  show 
'hepositii>n  o/thepla  nets  at 
inter~>als  of  ten   days. 


The  symbols  i  |  indicate  the  greatest  dis 
tance  0/  an   orbit  north   and  south 
it/"    the    plane    0/    the    Ecliptic. 


head  on  each  orbit  sh(ym$ 
•oiution,  aiso  the  piace 
'a?i.  1st,  /iS/j,  at  nootu 


Qtifotl^ 


The    Sun  Z^-' 


Scaie  /iTe  tJiousand  times  that  oj"  Orbits, 
{The  Earthy  Mars^  and  the  Sun  are  shown  in  their  true  axial  position^ 


Scale  Ji/ty  times  that  0/  Orbzls. 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM  DISPLAS'ED— SHOWING  ECCENTRICITY  OF  ORBITS  INSIDE  OF  MARS. 
Drawn  by  Richard  A.  Proctor,  F.  R.  A.  S. 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL   ARGUMENT.        65 


less  severe  by  about  one  fifteenth  than  it 
would  be  if  the  relations  of  perihelion 
Favorable  re-       and     aphelion     were     inter- 

sulta  of  present 

position  of  peri-    changed.       In    like    manner 

hellon  and  ,         ,  . 

aphelion.  the    heats    or    our    summer 

time  are  less  torrid  by  one  fifteenth  than 
they  would  be  if  the  earth  were  at  its 
nearest  approach  to  the  sun  at  that  season 
of  the  year.  Or  to  take  the  problem 
altogether,  the  distribution  of  heat  has 
been  tempered  and  moderated  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  by  an  aggregate 
of  about  two  fifteenths  of  the  whole  in- 
crement. 

As  has  been  said,  there  was  a  time  in 
the  astronomical  past  when,  by  the  flue- 
Former  unfavor-  tuations  of  the  earth's  orbit 
cKmon  S*"  above  described,  our  planet 
our  planet.  ^^^^   actually  thrown   into 

the  unfavorable  relation  of  a  perihelion 
in  summer  and  an  aphelion  in  winter 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  moreover 
that  the  present  eccentricity  of  the 
earth's  orbit  is  greatly  less  than  it  was 
at  the  period  of  greatest  elongation.  At 
that  date  in  the  remote  past  the  earth  in 
perihelion  approached  within  eighty-five 
million  miles  of  the  sun,  and  at  its  aphel- 
ion receded  to  a  distance  of  more  than 
ninety-nine  million  miles.  This  variation 
amounting  to  more  than  fourteen  million 
miles,  between  the  nearest  approach  and 
the  farthest  remove  of  our  planet  from 
the  sun,  would  necessarily  produce  a 
corresponding  difference  in  the  amount 
of  heat  and  light  received  in  the  two 
positions.  This  difference  has  been  cal- 
culated to  be  for  the  period  of  greatest 
elongation  about  one  fifth  of  the  whole, 
or,  to  be  more  exact,  as  nineteen  is  to 
twenty-six.  Since,  at  the  present  time, 
by  the  reduced  eccentricity  of  our  orbit, 
the  difference  in  the  sun's  influence  upon 
us  by  his  approach  and  recession  from 
the  earth  has  been  reduced  to  one  fif- 
teenth,   we    are    able    by    comparison    to 


appreciate  the  vast  difference  between  our 
present  climatic  fluctuations  and  those 
which  prevailed  at  the  period  of  greatest 
eccentricity. 

We  are  here  noting  the  condition  of 
affairs  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  It 
is  from  this  point  of  view  that  all  the 
nhenomena  of  man-life  on  the  globe  are 


COMPAR.-iTIVE  SIZE  OF  EARTH   AND  SUN. 

to  be   considered.      At  that  period  in  the 
remote  past  when  our  orbit  was  extended 

to     its     greatest     elongation.     Antecedent  con- 

the  earth  being  in  alphel-  ^^^^^"nl.rtiif' 
ion  at  the  winter  solstice,  em  hemisphere, 
the  cold  was  increased  to  a  very  marked 
degree  over  that  which  now  prevails  at 
the  corresponding  season  of  the  year.  It 
was  a  time  when  the  conditions  of  all 
kinds  of  life  in  our  hemisphere  were 
very  unfavorable.  At  that  time  in  the 
history  of  our  globe  the  major  axis  of 
the  earth's  orbit  was  greatly  extended 
;  and  the  minor  was  correspondingly 
shortened.  This  would  throw  the 
elongation  of  the  orbit  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  that  which  it  now  occupies. 
The  result  would  be  that  during  that 
period  of  our  planetary-  career  the  earth 
would  suffer  a  great  depression  of 
temperature    while    passing    through    its 


66 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


annual  aphelion.  Thus  the  cold  through- 
out the  northern  hemisphere,  which  is 
still  sufficient  to  produce  and  maintain 
great  areas  of  ice,  would  be  much  inten- 
sified, and  although  the  heat  of  the 
shortened  summer  would  for  the  time  be 
greater  than  at  present,  it  could  not 
prevail  against  the  glacial  condition 
which  would  obtain  in  all  the  northern 
parts  of  the  earth.'  In  the  southern 
hemisphere  the  case  would  be  different. 
There  the  short  and  intense  winter 
could  not  prevail  against  the  long- 
continued  high  heats  of  summer,  and 
the  ice  world  would  melt  down  and  flow 
into  the  sea. 

We  are  able  in  a  measure  to  judge  of 
what  has  been  in  the  past,  under  these 
Thetwohemi-  general  laws,  by  a  present 
spheres  with  re-  j^^rvev  of  the  condition  of 

spect  to  develop- 
ment of  man -life,   our  climate.      The  northern 

hemisphere   is   the   principal   abode   of 

man.     It  is  tempered  and  modified  as  if 

in  adaptation  to  man-life  and  the  varied 

activities  in   which   that    life    expresses 

itself  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.     But 

in  the  southern  hemisphere  the  case  is 

'During  the  perihelion  of  a  planet,  its  motion  in 
the  orbit  is  greatly  accelerated,  and  as  a  result  the 
season  of  perihelion,  whatever  that  ma\'  be,  is  short- 
ened. Oh  the  contrary,  the  motion  of  a  planet  in 
aphelion  is  retarded,  and  the  season  lengthened  in 
proportion.  When  the  perihelion  falls  in  winter,  as 
it  does  in  the  case  of  our  world  at  the  present  time, 
the  season  of  rigor  is  abbreviated  by  the  increased 
velocity  of  the  planet.  On  the  other  hand,  our  sum- 
mer is  protracted  by  the  slow  movement  of  our 
globe  during  the  period  of  aphelion  in  June  and 
July.  With  the  reversal  of  these  conditions  the 
winter  would  be  not  only  intensified  by  the  greater 
distance  of  the  sun,  but  also  prolonged  by  the  re- 
tarded movement  of  the  earth,  and  vice  versa  the 
summer,  though  intensified  by  the  nearer  approach 
of  the  sun,  would  be  quickly  over  by  the  rapid 
motion  of  the  planet  in  that  part  of  its  orbit.  The 
aggregate  effect  would  be  to  give  us  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  a  climate  more  severe  as  to  the  phenom- 
ena of  cold  by  an  increment  of  about  two  fifths — 
a  change  sufficient  to  produce  the  north  polar  ice-cap 
of  the  glacial  period.— See  diagram,  p.  63. 


reversed.  There  the  ice  mountain  around 
the  pole  spreads  far  and  wide  as  an 
everlasting  desolation.  Life  is  kept  at 
bay  not  only  by  the  absence  of  land  in 
the  antarctic  continent,  but  rather  by  the 
excessive  rigors  of  perpetual  winter 
The  favorable  one  fifteenth  of  moderat- 
ing heat  which  we  receive  in  winter 
works  in  the  southern  hemisphere  by 
contraries.  So  that,  on  the  whole,  the 
conditions  of  life — the  astronomical  con- 
ditions— in  the  north  temperate  zone  are 
at  present  more  favorable  by  two  fif- 
teenths than  they  are  in  the  antarctic 
continents — if  such  there  were. 

The  reader  may  now  retrace  the  course 
of  our  globe  to  the  time  when  the 
greatest  elongation  of  the  -winter  aphelion 
earth's  orbit  was  coincident  -;,?„rp'r'^,tcts 
with  winter;  when  the  polar  ice  caps, 
ice  mountain  surrounded  the  northern 
instead  of  the  southern  pole  of  the  earth  ; 
when  the  vast  fields  of  ice  extending 
from  the  north  pole  southward  in  all 
directions  covered  the  earth  as  if  with  a 
shining  husk  far  down  into  what  is  now 
the  temperate  zone.  At  the  same  time 
he  will  perceive  at  that  remote  period 
the  freedom  and  openness  of  the  south 
polar  region ;  because  at  that  epoch  the 
earth  was  in  perihelion  in  summer  and 
aphelion  in  winter;  that  is,  as  measured 
by  an  imaginary  calendar  for  the  north- 
ern hemisphere.  Possibly  at  that  epoch 
the  antarctic  continents  were  exposed, 
while  many  parts  of  the  islands  and 
shores  of  the  northern  hemisphere  would 
be  submerged  under  the  overwhelming, 
waters.  It  is  easy,  in  a  word,  to  recog-i 
nize,  in  the  conditions  here  established 
from  the  standpoint  of  astronomy,  the 
existence  and  the  causes  of  that  wonderful 
epoch  in  world  history  to  which  geology 
gives  the  name  of  the  Glacial  Period. 
That  period  had  its  origin  in  the  axial 
fluctuations  of  the  earth's  orbit.      The 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL  ARGUMENT. 


67 


northern  hemisphere  became  the  hemi- 
sphere of  ice  at  the  epoch  when  the  major 
axis  of  the  earth's  orbit  lay  transversely 
to  the  position  -which  it  now  occupies, 
■and  at  the  time  when  the  greatest 
elongation  of  the  orbit  was  attained. 
The  result  was  that  our  globe,  our 
northern  globe,  would  be  in  aphelion  in 
winter  and  perihelion  in  summer,  and 
the  effect  of  this  would  be  the  intensi- 
fication of  the  seasons,  resulting  in  the 
heaping  up  around  the  north  pole  of 
a  prodigious  ice  mountain,  extending 
down  in  all  directions  like  a  cap  over 
the  northern  hemisphere,  until  its  south- 
em  edges  would  be  melted  away  by  the 
solar  heat. 

We  have  thus  established  the  primor- 
dial conditions  of  the  glacial  period   in 
geolog\'.     We  are  able   to 

Fixing  the  place 

of  our  planetary    See  clearly  how  it  was  that 

January.  r  .'  ■      ^ 

from  astronomical  causes 
the  larger  part  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere was  formerly  enveloped  with 
heavy  masses  of  ice  and  snow.  We  may 
also  perceive  with  equal  distinctness  the 
operation  of  the  causes  which  would 
bring  this  period  of  desolation — certainly 
anterior  to  the  appearance  of  man-life 
on  the  earth — to  an  end.  These  causes 
existed  fundamentall)-  in  the  fluctuations 
of  the  earth's  orbit.  The  climax  of  the 
glacial  period  would  be  theoretically  co- 
incident with  the  greatest  elongation  of  | 
the  earth's  orbit  at  a  time  when,  owing 
to  the  relative  position  of  the  major  and 
minor  axes,  the  aphelion  of  the  planet 
would  fall  in  winter.  This  is  the  key 
to  the  whole  argument.  This  astronom- 
ical condition  was  the  efficient  cause 
of  the  creation  of  the  ice  mountain  and 
envelop  extending  from  the  north  pole 
far  southward  in  all  directions  toward 
the  equator.  Practically,  however,  the 
crisis  of  this  era  of  maximum  rigor  in 
our  world   history  would    fall  sonu-what 


beyond  the  time  when  the  greatest  elon- 
gation of  the  orbit  was  attained  coin- 
cidently  with  the  falling  of  the  aphelion 
in  midwinter.  Just  as  the  crisis  of  our 
present  winter  is  carried  by  climatic  con- 
ditions considerably  beyond  the  winter 
solstice  and  thrown  perhaps  to  the  mid- 
dle of  January,  so  the  crisis  of  the  glacial 
period  was  carried  by  the  astronomical 
conditions  above  described  considerably 
beyond  what  may  be  called  the  mid- 
winter of  our  world-life  and  thrown  into 
our  planetary  January. 

None  the  less,  for  practical  purposes, 
we  may  consider  the  glacial  period,  or 
our  world  winter,  to  have  been  coincident 
with  the  time  when  the  Epoch  of  moder- 
earth  was  in  aphelion  at  the  t^^^^S^ 
winter  solstice  and  when  glacial  rivers, 
the  orbit  had  attained  its  greatest  trans- 
verse elongation.  From  that  time  forth 
the  epoch  of  moderation  began  to  ensue. 
The  major  axis  of  the  orbit  began  to 
contract,  the  minor  to  expand.  The 
aphelion  began  to  depart  from  the  winter 
solstice,  and  as  a  consequence  the  sun 
with  each  cycle  occupied  a  more  favor- 
able and  favoring  position  with  respect 
to  the  ice  cap  which  covered  the  north- 
ern hemisphere.  Gradually  and  with 
long  lapses  of  time  the  lower  parts,  that 
is,  the  southern  parts,  or  spurSj  of  the 
ice  mountain  began  to  melt  away.  Some- 
times great  masses,  inconceivably  huge 
in  dimensions,  were  broken  off,  as  we 
now  see  in  smaller  example  in  the  break- 
ing away  of  the  feet  of  the  Alpine  ava- 
lanches. More  and  more  the  favoring 
conditions  came  into  existence,  and  more 
and  more  the  sun's  heat  carried  away  and 
poured  down  intd  ever-swelling  rivers  the 
southern  edges  of  the  glacial  deposits. 

We  have  here  the  beginnings  of  our 
present  world  order.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  the  general  form  and  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  different  countries   of   the 


68 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


northern  hemisphere  were  determined. 
Now  it  was,  as  time  rolled  on  and  as  the 
glacial  period  came  to  a  close,  that  the 
great  valleys  were  formed  and  defined 
in  the  bottoms  of  which  to  the  present 
day  the  descendent  streams  of  the  ancient 
flood-rivers  creep  along  on  their  way  to 
the  seas.  In  all  the  continents  and 
countries  of  the  northern  hemisphere  it 
is  notable  that  the  river  valleys  are  out 
of  all  p'-<«!TVt'"n  larg'cr  than  the  streams 


the  earth's  surface  by  the  crushing  and 
plunging  plow.shares  of  the  glaciers. 

The  circumstances  and  conditions  hero 
referred  to  are  a  part  of  geological  in- 
quiry; but  the  reader  will  Man-ufe  begins 
have  obser\-ed  that  the  line  "he'glacH*  °*^ 
of  definition  between  astro-  floods, 
nomical  antecedents  and  geological  ef- 
fects is  quite  difficult  to  draw.     What 
we  are  here  to  consider  is  this,  that  the 
appearance  of  man  on  the  earth  is  a  fact 


iKMATHjN    'iF   I.I    \LIAI.    KIVEK.- llr.,un    ly    k 


of  water  which  they  have  respectively 
borne  at  any  time  within  the  historical 
period.  An  examination  of  these  valleys 
will  show,  moreover,  unmistakabh'  that 
they  were  once  occupied  with  vast  rolling 
rivers,  extending  from  hill  to  hill,  many 
times  miles  in  width,  and  bearing  down- 
ward under  pressure  of  the  prodigious 
floods  all  manner  of  flotsam  and  jetsam 
from  the  previous  geological  age,  mixed 
with  the  detritus  rubbed  or  scoured  from 


lying  tliis  side  of  the  glacial  epoch.  Tha 
present  state  of  inquiry  points  distinctly 
to  the  era  of  the  subsidence  of  the  gla- 
cial rivers — that  is,  the  great  volumes  of 
water  produced  by  the  melting  away  of 
the  ice  cap  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
— into  the  channels,  still  large  and  swol- 
len, but  approximately  the  same  which 
are  now  occupied  by  the  great  streams 
of  our  continents,  as  the  time  when  man- 
life  began  on  the  surface  of  our  planet. 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.—ASTRONOMICAL   ARGUMENT. 


69 


It  is  not  needed,  in  this  connection,  to 
enumerate  the  evidences  by  which  the 
appearance  of  the  human  race  on  the 
earth  is  associated  with  the  period  of  the 
subsidence  of  the  glacial  floods.  These 
evidences  will  hereafter  be  presented 
when  we  come  to  consider  the  geological 
testimony  bearing  on  the  question  of  the 
antiquity  of  man.  The  particular  inquiry 
with  which  we  are  here  concerned  is  to 
find,  if  we  may,  a  measurement  of  years, 
and  adjust  the  scale  to  the  changing 
planetary  conditions  which  we  have 
above  described,  determining  thereby, 
with  some  fair  approximation,  the  date 
of  that  epoch  which  may  be  taken  as  the 
maximum  for  the  appearance  of  man  on 
the  earth. 

It  were  unreasonable  in  the  last  de- 
gree to  expect  exactitude  in  such  an 
Allowance  to  be  inquirj'.  In  considering 
"tftldJl^ra-st  astronomical  epochs  and 
calculations.  geological  agcs  the  small 
calendars  devised  by  man  for  days  and 
seasons  are  lost  in  the  vastness.  We 
must  content  ourselves  to  consider 
large  numbers  as  units.  In  attempting 
to  measure  planetary  changes  the  thou- 
sand or  the  million  must  be  taken  for 
one.  Employing  such  large  measure- 
ment, much  incidental  and  minor  in- 
accuracy must  fall  in  the  result,  to  be 
eliminated  by  the  further  application  of 
science  to  the  problems  of  nature. 

Fortunately,  physical  science  is  now 
in  such  a  stage  of  proficiency  and  ad- 
Attempts  to  fix  vancement  as  to  enable  us 
:rpea™;f^'  to  complete  the  study  with 
™^°-  a  tolerable  approach  to  ac- 

curacy. Since  the  times  of  the  younger 
Herschel  inquirj-  has  been  steadily  pro- 
gressing with  respect  to  the  fluctuations 
of  the  earth's  orbit  and  the  changing 
climatic  conditions  dependent  thereon. 
After  Herschel  the  study  was  taken  up 
by  Arago,  Humboldt,   and  other  geolo- 


gists belonging  to  the  first  half  of  the 
present  century.  More  recently,  and 
within  the  eighth  decade,  the  distin- 
guished Dr.  James  Croll  has  carried  for- 
ward the  investigation  with  greater  suc- 
cess than  any  or  all  of  his  predecessors. 
In  the  following  table,  prepared  by  Dr. 
Croll,  we  have  a  calendar  of  more  than 
a  million  of  years  arranged  in  periods  of 
ten  thousand  years  each,  from  the  max- 
imum of  1,100,000  B.  C.  down  to  the 
middle  of  the  present  century.  This 
part  of  the  table  occupies  the  first  col- 
umn ;  the  second  column  is  made  up 
of  the  decimals  expressing  the  eccen« 
tricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  for  each  cor- 
responding period  in  column  one ;  the 
third  column  contains,  in  degrees  and 
minutes,  the  longitude  of  perihelion  for 
the  successive  periods;  the  fourth  gives 
the  difference  of  distance  of  the  earth 
in  perihelion  and  aphelion  measured  in 
millions  of  miles ;  and  the  fifth  the  ex- 
cess of  winter  days  over  summer  days 
for  the  corresponding  periods. 

It  will  be  noted  that  from  several 
circumstances  with  which  the  astronomer 
is  familiar  the  decimals  Maxima  and 
expressing  the  eccentricity  ^™,°„^,\1 
do  not  increase  and  our  orbit, 
diminish  with  perfect  regularity,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  the  degree 
marks  expressing  the  longitude  of 
perihelion.  But  the  reader  will  not 
fail  to  note  that  in  a  general  ivay  the 
figures  in  all  the  columns  rise  and  fall 
according  to  a  definite  law.  He  will 
note,  for  instance,  that  the  lowest 
decimal  of  eccentricity  given  anywhere 
is  0.0102,  and  that  the  highest  of  all  is 
0.0747.  He  will  also  observe  that  the 
lowest  measurement  of  the  longitude  of 
perihelion  is  4°  8',  the  highest  being 
358°  2'.  In  the  third  place,  it  will  be 
noted  that  a  relation,  not  perfectly  con- 
stant, but  nevertheless  clear  and  unmis- 


70 


GREAT  RACES    OE  MANKIND. 


takable,  exists  between  the  maxima  and 
the  minima  in  the  several  cohimns  under 
consideration.  The  table  is  as  follows, 
the  periods  of  greatest  elongation  being 
set  in  antique  figures : 


From  the  accompanying  table  we  may 
note  with  ease  the  periods  when  the 
earth's  orbit  in  the  past  has  attained  its 
greatest  elongations.  The  first  of  these 
corresponds  in  round  numbers  with  the 


CROLL'S   tables   of   rLANET.VRV    FLUCTUATIONS. 


Year  B.  C. 

Eccentritily 

of  earth's 

orbit. 

Longitude  of 
Perihelion. 

Difference 
of  distance 
in  millions 
of  miles. 

Number  of 

winter  days 

in  excess. 

Year  B.  C. 

Eccentricity 

of  earth's 

orbit. 

Longitude  of 
Perihelion. 

Difference 

of  distance 

in  millions 

of  miles. 

Number  of 

winter  days 

in  excess. 

Deg.  Min. 

Deg.    MIn. 

1,100.000 

0.0303 

54    12 

550,000 

0  0166 

251     50 

3 

8 

1,050,000 

0.0326 

4     8 

500,000 

0.0388 

192  56 

7 

18.8 

1,000,000 

O.OI5I 

248    22 

2-75 

7^3 

450,000 

0.0308 

35b    52 

5-5 

15 

990,000 

0.0224 

313    50 

400,000 

0  0170 

290      7 

3 

8.2 

980,000 

0.0329 

358      2 

.... 

i         350,000 

0.0195 

182    50 

3-5 

9-1 

970,000 

0.0441 

32    40 

300,000 

0.0424 

23  29 

7-75 

20.6 

960,000 

0.0491 

66  49 

250,000 

0.0258 

59  39 

4-5 

12.5 

950,000 

0.0517 

97  51 

925 

25.1 

240,000 

0.0374 

74  58 

.... 

940,000 

0.0495 

127  42 

230,000 

0.0477 

102  49 

930,000 

0.0423 

156  II 

220,000 

0.0497 

■24  33 

.... 

920,000 

0.0305 

181  40 



210,000 

00575 

144  55 

10. 5 

27.8 

910,000 

0.0156 

'94  «5 

.... 

200,000 

0.0569 

168  18 

10.25 

27.7 

900.000 

0.0102 

"35     2 

4.9 

190,000 

0.0532 

190    4 

890,000 

0.0285 

127     1 

180,000 

0   0476 

209  22 

.... 

.... 

880,000 

0.0456 

"52  33 

.... 

170,000 

0.0437 

228    7 

.... 

870,000 

0.0607 

180  23 

.... 

160,000 

0 . 0364 

236  38 

860,000 

0.0708 

209  41 

.... 

1  50,000 

0.0332 

242  56 

6 

16. 1 

850,000 

0.0747 

239  28 

13.2 

36.4 

140,000 

0.0346 

246  29 



840,000 

o.o6y8 

269  14 

130,000 

0.0384 

259  34 

.... 

830,000 

0.0623 

298  28 

.... 

120,000 

0.0431 

274  47 

.... 

820,000 

0.0476 

326    4 

.... 

1  10,000 

0.0460 

29548 

810,000 

0.0296 

348  30 

100,000 

0.0473 

316  18 

s-s' 

23 

800,000 

0.0132 

343  49 

2.2s 

'6:4 

90.000 

0.0452 

340     2 

.... 

790,000 

0.0171 

293   '9 

80,000 

0  0398 

4  13 

.... 

780,01)0 

0.0325 

303  37 

.... 

70,000 

0.0316 

27  22 

.... 

770,000 

0.0455 

32838 

60.000 

0   0218 

48    8 

760,000 

0.0540 

357  12 

50,000 

0.0131 

So    3 

2.25 

6.3 

750,000 

00575 

27  18 

10.5 

27:8 

40,000 

0.0109 

28  36 

740.000 

0.0561 

58  30 

30,000 

O.OI5I 

5  50 

.... 

730,000 

0.0507 

90  55 

20,000 

0.0188 

44    0 

.... 

720.000 

0.0422 

125  14 

10,000 

0.0187 

78  28 

.... 

.... 

710.000 

0.0307 

177  26 

0 

0.0168 

99  30 

3 

8.1 

700,000 

0  0220 

208  13 

4 

10.2 

Year  A.  D. 

650,000 

0.0226 

141  29 

4 

II 

600,000 

0.0417 

32  34 

75 

20.3 

1850 

0.0168 

100  22 

.... 

.... 

To  these  we  may  append  CroH's  spe- 
cial calculation  for  the  maximum  ec- 
centricity between  851,000  B.  C.  and 
849,000  B.  C. 


Year  B.  C. 

Eccentncity 

of  earth's 

orbit. 

Longitude  of 
Penhelion. 

Difference 

of  distance 

in  millions 

of  miles. 

Number  of 
winter  days 
in  e.\ccss. 

851,000 
850,000 
849,500 
849,000 

0.07454 
0 . 074664 
0.07466 
0.07456 

.... 

.... 

year  950,000  B.  C. ;  the  next,  with 
850,000  B.  C. :  the  third,  with  750,000 
B.  C;  the  fourth  reaches  periods  of  great- 
forward  a  little  from  the  Z.tZf::TL^ 
century  mark  thus  far  crou's  tables, 
maintained  to  about  600,000  B.  C.  The 
next  epoch  is  500,000  B.  C.  It  is  clear 
from  the  table  that  the  next  lies  between 
350,000  and  300,000.  The  .sixth  corre- 
sponds with  the  year  210,000  B.  C.  The 
seventh  and  last  falls  approximately  on 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL  ARGUMENT. 


71 


the  year  100,000  B.  C.  Or  to  general- 
ize, we  see  that  during  the  last  million 
of  years  the  fluctuations  of  our  orbit 
from  one  period  of  greatest  elongation 
to  the  next  occupy  approximately  a  span 
of  a  thousand  centuries  each.  The  move- 
ment is  sufficiently  regular  to  warrant 
us  in  accepting  this  period  as  the  ap- 
proximate unit  of  the  oscillation. 

Neglecting  all  the  preceding   epochs 

of  greatest  elongation  down  to  the  last, 

we   note    that     the     same 

Fixing  of  date 

ofour  last  plan-    corresponds  approximately 

etary  winter.      -..  ,-,  -n  /-^ 

With  the  year  100,000  B.  C. 
This  may  be  taken  as  our  critical  date 
for  the  present  inquiry.  This  epoch 
corresponds  not  only  with  the  last  period 
of  our  orbit's  greatest  elongation,  but 
also  with  the  time  when  the  earth  was 
in  aphelion  in  winter.  The  date,  there- 
fore, marks  the  last  crisis  when  our  globe 
passed  through  what  we  have  called 
above  our  planetary  winter ;  that  is,  the 
crisis  of  greatest  cold — the  time  when 
the  conditions  were  all  favorable  for  the 
production  of  the  ice  mountain  around 
the  north  pole,  and  its  extension  in  a 
glaring  cap  far  down  in  all  directions 
toward  the  equator.  In  was,  in  other 
words,  the  glacial  period  of  geology. 

As  we  have  intimated,  it  is  doubtless 
true  that  the  crisis  of  the  epoch  of  rigor 
Crisis  of  rigor  on  lay  further  ou  somewhat; 
pinod'of  ^  °^       that  is,  this  side  of  the  date 

elongation.  of        100,000      B.      C.        We 

might  in  a  rough  and  conjectural  way 
deduct  five  thousand  or  ten  thousand 
years  from  the  date  of  the  crisis  as  an 
approximation  to  the  date  of  greatest 
rigor.  From  that  time  onward  there 
would  begin  to  be  an  abatement  of  those 
conditions  antecedent  to  the  glacial  ac- 
cumulations; that  is,  the  planet  would 
begin  to  come  into  more  favorable  and 
favoring  relations  with  the  sun,  and  at 
length  the  preponderance  of  cosmic  forces 


would  balance  the  other  way,  and  the 
glacial  mass  would  begin,  on  its  south- 
ern edges,  to  melt  down  into  our  north- 
em  oceans. 

We  thus  arrive  at  length  to  the  same 
condition  which  we  have  formerly  de- 
scribed, namely,  a  condition  of  flood  and 
river  deluge  in  the  northern  Epoch  of  the 
hemisphere.  In  the  present  ^^^^^^^ 
instance,  however,  we  are  hemisphere 
working  not  abstractly,  but  with  a  scale 
of  years  determined  by  astronomical  cal- 
culations. In  other  words,  we  see  that 
somewhat  less  than  a  hundred  thousand 
years  ago  the  crisis  of  our  glacial  period 
was  reached,  and  that  subsequently,  at 
a  considerable  span  from  that  crisis,  the 
ice  mountains  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere began  to  give  away  under  the  re- 
turning conditions  of  heat.  How  long  a 
period  was  required  for  these  changed 
conditions  to  become  operative  in  the 
liquefaction  of  the  lower  parts  of  the 
glaciers  we  are  left  somewhat  to  con- 
jecture, but  no  doubt  it  required  a  con- 
siderable period  for  the  returning  ap- 
proximation of  the  sun  to  begin  to  affect 
materially  the  glacial  cap  of  the  north- 
ern continents. 

It  may  be  assumed  as  a  fact  scientific- 
ally determined  that  the  whole  of  man- 
life  lies  this  side  of  the  gla- 

Era  of  man-life 

cial  period.     Indeed,  from  on  this  side  of 

1      .  ,  r   ii  the  diluvial  age. 

what  we  know  of  the  con- 
ditions  present  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere during  that  period  it  would  be 
impossible  for  the  human  race  to  main- 
tain an  existence  upon  the  earth,  even  il 
the  race  had  existed  before.  We  are, 
therefore,  to  conclude  that  the  being 
called  Man  made  his  appearance  at  a 
subsequent  date,  when  the  globe  had 
been  made  habitable  by  the  melting 
away  of  the  glaciers,  the  subsidence  of 
the  rivers,  and  the  definition  of  the  con- 
tinents in  the  forms  which  they  now  hold. 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL  ARGUMENT.        73 


It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  we 
might  pass  over  at  once  from  the  work 
of  astronomical  laws  to  the  geological 
conditions  which  ensued  in  and  after  the 
diluvian  period,  with  a  view  to  ascertain- 
ing more  definitely  at  what  time  man 
and  his  works  are  first  discoverable  on 
the  earth.  This  we  shall  presently  at- 
tempt to  do ;  but  before  passing  to  the 
geological  inquiry  respecting  the  an- 
tiquity of  our  race,  it  will  be  well  to 
revert  to  one  or  two  additional  facts 
deducible  from  the  laws  of  astronomy. 

One  of  these  is  that  next  to  the  last 

period    of    greatest    elongation    ii)    the 

earth's  orbit,   falling  as  it 

Place  of  the  last  ° 

thermal  epoch      did  about  a  thousand  cen- 

for  the  earth.  ,       .  i      /■  ii.ii. 

tunes  before  the  last,  oc- 
curred under  such  conditions  as  to  pro- 
duce an  epoch  of  heat  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  That  is,  about  the  year 
210,000  B.  C,  when  the  greatest  elonga- 
tion just  referred  to  was  attained,  the 
sun  was  at  or  near  perihelion  in  winter, 
the  result  being  a  great  increment  of 
heat  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  with 
corresponding  climatic  and  vital  phe- 
nomena. This  supposition  we  find  to 
be  confirmed  by  geological  inquirj'.  It 
is  evident,  indeed  well  known,  that  a 
period  of  heat  preceded  the  glacial 
epoch.  There  was  a  time  anterior  to 
the  great  accumulation  of  ice  and  snow 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  when  almost 
tropical  conditions  prevailed  throughout 
what  is  now  our  temperate  zone  and  far 
up  toward  the  polar  regions. 

A  thing  of  great  importance  to  be 
observed  in  connection  with  this  warm 
ReUcs  of  ther-  epoch  is  that  the  remains  of 
^^hTos^^f-'^  animal  and  vegetable  life 
ciai  remains.  which  have  survived  there- 
from, passing,  so  to  speak,  under  the 
glacial  epoch  and  reappearing  in  the 
diluvian  period,  are  so  mixed  and  blend- 
ed with  the  remains  of  animal  and  vege- 
M.— Vol.  1—6 


table  life  belonging  to  the  period  subse- 
quent to  the  prevalence  of  the  glacial 
age,  that  the  casual  observer  and  student 
is  likely  to  confound  the  two  classes  of 
relics  as  belonging  to  the  same  epoch. 
For  instance,  the  specimens  of  woolly 
elephant  which  were  caught,  so  to  speak, 
by  the  glacial  age,  frozen  up  far  to  the 
north,  and  thus  preserved  to  the  diluvian 
period,  may  easily  be  referred  by  the 
uncritical  inquirer  to  the  same  geological 
period  which  produced  the  mammoth, 
the  reindeer,  and  the  cave  bear. 

The  significance  of  this  circumstance 
is  the  great  depth  of  the  perspective,  and  the 
large  allowance  of  time  which  must  be 
made  from  the  close  of  Depth  of  time 
the  diluvian  period  to  the  PemTelkTe  o?" 
present.  If  the  span  be-  ^^'^ 
tween  the  preceding  age  of  heat  and 
the  succeeding  age  of  cold  is,  as  it  ap- 
pears to  be,  measured  by  a  thousand  cen- 
turies — if  the  distance  from  the  woolly 
elephant  to  the  mammoth  is  so  great — 
we  may  be  sure  that  under  the  slow  and 
regular  processes  of  the  natural  world 
the  distance  from  the  close  of  the  glacial 
epoch  to  the  present  time  is  almost 
equally  immense.  Without  the  ability 
to  lay  a  measuring  rod  upon  these  vast 
spaces  of  time,  and  limited  as  we  are  to 
estimates,  the  mind  is  necessarily  embar- 
rassed with  uncertainty;  but  the  condi- 
tions of  the  inquiry,  its  metes  and 
bounds  being  determined  from  scientific 
data,  Ave  are  enabled  to  rest  securely 
upon  the  general  knowledge  of  the  great 
duration  of  the  astronomical  and  geolog- 
ical epochs  which  we  are  considering, 
and  to  accept  with  confidence  a  belief  in 
the  remote  date  of  man's  appearance  on 
the  globe. 

A  summary  of  the  leading  facts  gath- 
ered in  this  inquiry  may^serve  to  bring 
before  the  reader  with  conciseness  the 
data  from  which   the  deduction  of   the 


CONniTION  OF  EXTREME  COLD,  ILLUSTRATED  KKO.M  ARCTIC  LANDSCAPE.— Drawn  by  Kioii 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL   ARGUMENT. 


Ih 


high  antiquity  of  man  is  made.  These 
Summary  of  de-  data,  reduced  to  their 
fsTronomlcr      briefest      expression,      are 

.aws  and  data.       aboUt  aS  follows  : 

1.  The  last  period  of  greatest  elonga- 
tion of  the  earth's  orbit  fell  about  a  thou- 
sand centuries  before  the  Christian  era. 

2.  This  epoch  of  greatest  eccentricity- 
was  coincident  with  the  aphelion  of  the 
earth  in  winter. 

3.  These  two  conditions  acting  togeth- 
er produced,  so  far  as  the  climate  of  the 
northern  hemisphere  was  concerned,  an 
epoch  of  extreme  cold,  corresponding 
with  that  period  in  geology  known  as 
the  glacial  age. 

4.  The  crisis  of  the  glacial  period  lay 
somewhat  this  side  in  time  of  the  coinci- 
dence defined  in  paragraphs  first  and 
second  of  this  summary. 

5.  Our  planet  ever  since  the  crisis  of 
the  glacial  age  has,  by  favoring  astro- 
nomical changes,  been  coming  more  and 
more  into  an  epoch  of  climatic  modera- 
tion suitable  for  the  exis?tence  and  activ- 
ities of  the  human  race. 

6.  The  time  at  which  the  conditions  in 
the  northern  hemisphere  became  suffi- 
ciently amended  to  admit  and  favor  the 
appearance  of  man  was  coincident  with 
the  epoch  of  the  subsidence  into  their 
beds  and  proper  channels  of  the  glacial 
floods,  produced  by  the  melting  down  of 
the  accumulations  of  the  age  of  ice,  as 
above  described. 

7.  As  an  approximation  to  a  measure- 
ment by  time,  it  is  safe  to  allow  one 
fourth  of  the  whole  period,  or  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  centuries,  for  the  period 
extending  from  the  crisis  of  the  glacial 
epoch  to  the  time  of  the  subsidence  of 
the  floods  produced  by  the  melting  away 
of  the  mountains  of  accumulated  ice  and 
snow. 

8.  This  would  give  us  by  approxima- 
tion a  maximum  of  seventy-five  thousand 


years  as  the  date  at  which  the  habitabil- 
ity  of  the  northern  hemisphere  was  suf- 
ficiently established  to  admit  of  the  com- 
ing and  preservation  of  man-life  in  our 
continents ;   but 

9.  The  estimate  just  given  must  be 
taken  as  a  superior  limit  beyond  which 
astronomical,  geological,  archaeological, 
and  ethnical  inquiry  need  not  reach  in 
expectation  of  finding  the  evidences  or 
remains  of  human  activity  on  our  globe. 

10.  In  cases  where  a  maximum  and 
minimum  date  are  established  as  the  lim- 
its within  which  an  event  has  occurred, 
the  principle  of  averages  points  to  the 
middle  part  of  the  whole  period  consid- 
ered as  the  .safest  and  most  certain  ap- 
proximation to  the  time  sought  for. 

1 1.  This  would  indicate  that,  from  as- 
tronomical considerations  and  conditions 
determinative  of  the  character  and  fluc- 
tuations of  the  earth's  orbit,  the  probable 
epoch  of  the  appearance  of  man  on  the 
globe  was  from  thirtv  thousand  to  fortv 
thousand  years  before  the  beginning  of 
our  era. 

12.  Such  approximations  and  proba- 
bilities are,  in  the  nature  of  the  ca.se, 
tentative,  and  are  subject  to  modification 
and  displacement  by  the  result  of  inqui- 
ries bearing  on  the  same  subject,  but 
conducted  from  the  standpoint  of  other 
sciences. 

If  the  foregoing  study  has  clearly  im- 
pressed the  mind  of  the  reader  with  any 
one  fact,  it  is  the  slow  rate  of  ehange  by 
which  our  earth  has  pas.sed,  siow  progress  oi 
and  is  still  passing,  from  Z?^''^:^::, 
stage  to  .stage  in  its  his-  concept, 
tory.  This  is  said  not  only  of  the  planet 
considered  as  an  orb  in  space,  but  of  all 
its  attendant  phenomena  and  attributes 
of  life  and  organization.  Great,  almost 
inconceivable,  lapses  of  time  are  neces- 
.sary  to  any  appreciable  change  in  the 
constitution,  aspects,  and  vital  conditions 


76 


GREAT  RACES    OF  MANKIND. 


of  the  world.  The  concept  of  this  slow 
and  orderly  progress  of  planetary  growth 
and  development  is  as  sublime  as  that 
which  contemplates  the  magnitude  and 
endlessness  of  the  material  universe. 
Certain  it  is  that  nature  hurries  not. 
Certain  it  is  that  her  progress  does  not 
consist  of  catastrophes,  phenomenal  cat- 
aclysms, and  astounding  revivals.  The 
rate  of  formation  for  our  world,  for  all 
worlds,  has  been  so  gradual  as  almost  to 
preclude  the  record  of  its  growth  by 
other  than  immortal  or  infinite  beings. 
It  is  easy  to  refer  the  successive  cycles 
of  world  history  to  the  measurement  of 
time  by  hundreds  or  thousands  or  mil- 
lions of  years ;  but  a  clear  apprehension 
of  the  immense  periods  of  duration  nec- 
essary to  the  fact  of  worldhood  is  unat- 
tainable by  the  human  mind  with  its 
present  capacities  and  powers.  The 
slow  progress  of  world  history  and  life 
history  is,  therefore,  a  fundamental  con- 
cept in  the  work  of  determining  the  ap- 
proximate time  at  which  a  rational  form 
of  being  began  its  manifestations  on  our 
globe. 

Still  another  consideration  here   sug- 
gested is  the  date — again  approximate — 
at  which  we  have  now  ar- 

Question  of  our 

present  place  ill    rived  in    the  epoch  of  life 

tlie  epoch  of  life.  .  •■  j        •.  i  .     , 

considered  with  respect  to 
our  Avorld  history.  Are  we  but  entering 
that  epoch?  Are  we  journeying  on  to- 
ward its  middle?  Are  we  in  the  after 
part  of  the  stately  progress?  Or  are  we 
nearing  its  close?  In  what  part  of  the 
History  of  Life,  considered  as  a  whole, 
do  we  find  ourselves  as  a  race  of  intel- 
ligent beings? 

It  may  be  assumed  that  our  race  ca- 
reer on  the  earth  is  a  long  one.  It  stands 
to  neither  fact  nor  reason  that  the  be- 
ginning and  the  end  of  human  life  on  our 
globe  lie  near  together.  Everything 
that  we  know  and  observe  points  clearly 


to  an  extended,  long-continued  epoch  for 
our  race.     As  we  have  said,  the  scale  of 
man -life  is  not  as  great  as  Reasons  for  as- 
that    of      the     planet-life.  ^^^^^ 
But  so  far  as  our  globe  has  career. 
a  purpose,  that  purpose  has  respect  un- 
doubtedly to  the  human  beings  that  in- 
habit it ;  and  we  are  at  liberty  to  presup- 
pose that  the  time  during  which  our  race 
holds  and  dominates   the  planet  is  far- 
reaching,    both  in  the    past  and  in   the 
future.      The    conditions  of  reason   are 
such  as  to  lead  us  to   believe  that   the 
period  of  our  ethnic  career  extends  al- 
most infinitely  in  both  directions. 

The  particular  point  which  we  are 
here  to  consider  is  the  place  of  the 
shorter  scale  of  man-life  on  conditions  on 
the  longer  scale  of  planet  ^.^utty' cl  S!!;- 
life,  and  the  approximate  ufe  depends, 
position  now  occupied  by  our  race  in  the 
shorter  scale  of  existence.  In  determin- 
ing the  answer  to  this  question,  we  have 
again  to  consider  that  fundamental  con- 
dition upon  which  man-life  on  our  globe 
depends,  namely,  heat.  The  existence 
and  perpetuation  of  human  beings  upon 
our  globe  has  from  the  first  and  will  to 
the  last  depend  upon  the  vitalizing  power 
of  heat  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
There  was  a  time  when  this  heat  was  in 
excess  of  the  demands  of  life,  and  there 
will  be  a  time  when  the  deficiency  of 
heat  will  lead  to  the  certain  extinction  of 
all  vital  phenomena  on  our  planet.  Our 
globe,  once  superheated  and  afterward, 
as  we  have  seen,  subjected  to  the  rigors 
of  the  glacial  period,  has  by  its  endless 
elliptical  journey  through  space  parted 
with  a  great  portion  of  its  residual  heat ; 
and  the  process  is  still  going  on.  As 
the  earth  speeds  on  in  its  orbit,  its  heat, 
like  that  of  a  vital  body  passing  through 
a  region  colder  than  itself,  streams  off 
behind  it ;  so  that  there  is  a  constant  loss 
of    the    vitalizing    power   of  the    globe. 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL   ARGUMENT. 


77 


This  loss,  however,  is  in  great  measure 
resupplied  from  two  sources.  That  is, 
the  superficial  heat  of  the  earth's  surface 
is  replenished  from  two  fountains :  first, 
the  interior  caldron,  or  reservoir,  oc- 
cupying the  larger  part  of  the  planet  and 
held  in  place  by  the  outer  crust  of  rock ; 
and  secondly,  the  constant  contribution 
of  the  sun. 

The  human  race  continues  its  exist- 
ence on  the  planet  by  economizing  the 
vital  energies  of  heat  from  the  two 
Most  favorable  sources  just  named.  The 
^^nfi"Tt''n^  .f    best  condition  of  all  for  the 

conservation  of 

vital  energy.  existence  and  power  of 
man-life  on  the  earth  is  that  planetary 
stage  at  which  the  loss  and  the  gain  of 
heat  on  the  surface  are  equal.  The 
middle,  and  we  may  say  the  maximum, 
epoch  of  man-life  is  coincident  with  that 
time  in  planet  history  when  the  wasting 
expenditure  of  heat  into  the  surround- 
ing spaces  of  our  orbit  is  exactly  counter- 
balanced by  the  radiation  to  the  surface 
from  the  internal  fires  of  the  globe,  plus 
the  constant  gift  of  the  sun.  "When  this 
condition  is  present,  the  state  of  the 
globe  is  most  favorable  for  the  propaga- 
tion, the  maintenance,  and  the  longevity 
of  human  life.  It  is  at  this  stage  that 
the  epoch  of  life-equilibrium  is  at- 
tained; and  if  the  equipoise  could  be 
preserved  there  is  no  discoverable  rea- 
son why  the  human  race  might  not  con- 
tinue forever.  Before  this  condition  of 
highest  equilibrium  is  reached  all  the 
warm-blooded  animals,  including  man, 
are  at  a  disadvantage  with  respect  to 
their  environment,  because  of  the  su- 
perfluity of  heat  at  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  with  the  thousand  concomitant 
circumstances  of  that  superfluity,  tending 
as  they  do  to  hasty  growth,  premature 
development,  overexcitability  of  the  ner- 
vous system,  enervation,  and  all  the 
physical  vices  which  we  observe  to  the 


present  time   in   the   tropical  and  semi 
tropical  parts  of  the  globe. 

After  the  favorable  condition  has 
been  passed — as  it  will  be  in  the  history 

of  our  planet the  struggle    Nature  of  the 

of  life  and  for  life  takes  Sf and^^er 
another  form.  The  incre-  the  crisis, 
ment  of  heat  constantly  received  at  the 
surface  becoming  less  than  the  expendi- 
ture leaves  man  and  his  fellow-animals 
at  a  disadvantage  of  a  different  kind. 
The  struggle  to  exist  takes  the  form  of 
an  effort  to  maintain  the  vital  fire 
against  the  draught  of  nature.  A  large 
part  of  human  exertion  must  needs  be 
wasted  in  such  a  state  in  trying  to  pre- 
serve the  proper  envelop  of  heat,  wast- 
ing ever  and  but  feebly  resupplied.  The 
after  history  of  the  human  race  must  in- 
deed take  this  form  of  contention  wnth 
the  efflux  of  the  natural  world,  and  must 
recount  the  struggle  of  man,  becoming 
ever  more  arduous,  to  maintain  himself 
and  his  kind  upon  the  surface  of  a  globe 
sinking  into  the  rigors  of  an  endless 
winter.  From  the  middle  epoch,  most 
favorable  to  the  production  and  longev- 
ity of  man  as  an  animal  to  the  end  of 
his  career,  he  will  be  put  at  a  disadvan- 
tage, and  will  cease  to  develop  under  the 
laws  of  his  environment.  Up  to  that 
time — the  crisis — when  the  accretion  and 
the  expenditure  of  heat  are  equal,  our 
race  development  will  continue.  The 
physical,  intellectual,  and  let  us  hope 
the  moral,  powers  of  man  will  continue 
to  expand  and  develop.  But  after  the 
crisis  we  may  expect  to  wane — slowly 
we  may  believe ;  but  the  cosmic  law 
must  doubtless  be  obeyed. 

Philosophy  and  astronomy  have  com- 
bined their  resources  in  the  attempt  to 
determine  the  present  condition  of  our 
heat  equation  and  the  relations  of  man- 
life  thereto.  The  best  scientific  opinion 
has  been  brought  to  bear  on  the  ques- 


CIJXUITION'  OF  EXTREME  HEAT,  ILLUSTRATED  FROM   AFRICAN'   FOREST.— Drawn  by  Alexamlre  dc  Bar. 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGIXXING.— ASTRONOMICAL   ARGi'MEXT. 


79 


tion,  and  the  decision  is  that  our  planet 
has  not  readied,  by  a  considerable  span, 
Condition  of  the  maximum  of  its  vital- 
withtespeTto  ity,  considered  as  the  arena 
man-hfe.  of  our  race  activities.    This 

is  to  say  that  the  world  is  still  receiving 
at  the  surface  an  increment  of  heat  more 
than  equal  to  the  constant  waste  in  its 
progress  through  space.  The  excess  is 
not  by  any  ineans  so  great  as  it  was  in  the 
previous  history  of  the  planet ;  but  as  we 
approach  the  ci'isis — our  epoch  of  equi- 
librium between  the  heat  given  and  re- 
ceived— the  approach  thereto  is  retarded 
by  many  favoring  circumstances,  thus 
prolonging  the  period  of  human  develop- 
ment. While  the  amount  of  heat  re- 
ceived from  the  sun  may  be  regarded  as 
nearly  constant,  the  quantity  given  off 
from  the  earth  into  .space  diminishes  by 
an  ever-decreasing  ratio.  The  earth  as 
a  reservoir  of  heat  is  at  present  better 
fitted  than  ever  before  to  preserve  it. 
The  adamantine  walls  round  about  our 
vast  store  of  internal  caloric  are  thicker 
and  more  substantial  with  each  succeed- 
ing geologic  age,  and  the  loss  of  our  liv- 
ing energy  is  less  and  less  rapid  as  we 
journey  on. 

We  are  thus  on  the  favorable  and  fa- 
voring side  of  our  cosmic  life.  It  is  easy 
The  human  race  to  demonstrate  with  proofs 
fendinS'of  "^her  than  those  here  sug- 
vitality.  gested      that      the      epoch 

most  favorable  for  the  production  and 
maintenance  of  man-life  on  the  earth  has 
not  yet  been  attained.  Whatever  con- 
clusions we  may  reach  b)-  following  the 
astronomical  suggestions  above  given, 
there  is  a  substantial  agreement  among 
the  most  competent  and  scholarly  think- 
ers of  our  times  that  we  still  have  on  the 
surface  of  our  earth  an  annual  gift  of 
heat  from  internal  and  external  stores 
in  excess  of  our  waste  into  space. 

It  follows  that  the   conditions  for  the 


further  development  of  man-life  on  our 
globe  are  still  present,  and  that  we  may 
comfort  ourselves  with  the  our  rate  ot  prog 
belief  and  knowledge  that  crisis crn"'^ *"* 
we  have  not  as  yet  by  a  con-  sidered. 
siderable  stage  in  our  ethnic  life  reached 
the  highest  or  middle  point  in  our  race 
career — the  period  of  greatest  longevity 
and  intellectual  and  bodily  power.  Our 
rate  of  progress  toward  that  approaching 
crisis  we  are  able  to  judge  b}-  the  brief 
knowledge  which  we  possess  historically 
of  the  previous  histor}'  of  mankind. 
That  is,  we  are  able  to  estimate  our  rate 
of  progress  toward  that  epoch  which 
shall  be  most  favorable  for  the  mainte- 
nance and  duration  of  human  life  in  the 
earth.  We  know  from  historical  data 
that  our  march  toward  the  crisis  in  our 
ethnic  life  is  extremely  slow — so  slow 
indeed  as  to  have  left  much  confusion  in 
the  human  mind  respecting  its  own 
direction  and  tendencies.  There  have 
been  historical  periods  within  the  limits 
of  recorded  annals  in  which  man-life 
seemed  to  move  not  at  all,  but  rather 
to  remain  stationary,  or  at  best  to  move 
only  on  a  level.  At  other  times  progress 
has  seemed  to  be  actually  retrogres.sive. 
This  is  said  of  the  physical  life  of  man, 
of  his  intellectual  life,  and  of  his  moral 
capacities  and  characteristics. 

From  a  wider  point  of  observation, 
however,  we  can  but  perceive  the  slow 
but  unmistakable  progress  siow movement 
of  mankind  from  lower  to  ^o'^^dt^^her 
higher  forms  of  activity,  development, 
to  greater  length  of  life,  to  superior  wis- 
dom— particularly  in  the  knowledge  of 
nature  and  of  the  means  of  subduing  and 
utilizing  her  magnificent  energies — to 
nobler  aspirations  and  worthier  achieve- 
ments, to  higher  purposes  and  to  grand- 
er concepts  of  the  universe. 

Here  again  the  slow  rate  of  progress 
which  the  human  race  has  made  in  its 


80 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JlfAXKLXn. 


of  our  present 
stage  in  race 
career. 


course  during  the  brief  period  of  recorded 
history  gives  us  a  distinct  hint  of  the 
long  prehistoric  extent  of  man-life  on 
the  earth.  It  is  easy  for  the  geometri- 
cian from  a  small  arc  to  determine  the 
extent  and  character  of  the  whole  circle. 
The  indications  to  which  we  have  just 
referred  may  serve  a  like  purpose  to  the 
ethnologist  and  philosopher  in  estimating 
the  extent  and  variety  of  our  race  career 
before  our  coming  into  the  epoch  of  con- 
scious history. 

We  have  a  traditional  and  historical 
knowledge  of  mankind  extending  over 
several  thousand  years.  The  knowledge 
Historical  hints  thus  derived  is  sufficient- 
ly clear  and  authentic  as 
to  the  character,  activities, 
and  duration  of  human  life  in  remote 
antiquity.  In  some  particulars  the  prog- 
ress since  the  earliest  date  of  recorded 
annals  has  not  been  great.  In  intellect, 
pure  and  simple,  the  races  of  to-day 
hardly  surpass,  if  indeed  they  equal, 
some  of  the  favored  peoples  of  the  ancient 
world ;  but  in  most  respects  progress  can 
be  discovered  in  every  particular  of  the 
life  and  career  of  man.  One  of  the  most 
marked  of  these  improvements  is  the 
matter  of  longevity.  Notwithstanding 
the  temporary  wreck  and  devastation  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  it  can  not  be  doubted 
that  human  life  is  on  the  average  more 
stable  and  enduring  than  it  was  four 
thousand  years  ago.  The  average  period 
of  human  existence  is  greater  than  it 
was  at  the  Renaissance ;  greater  than  in 
the  age  of  the  Antonines ;  greater  than 
at  the  date  of  the  Trojan  War;  greater 
than  when  the  Vedic  hymns  were  sung 
by  the  Brahmanic  shepherds. 

More  remarkable  by  far  has  been  the 
gain  in  the  means  of  subsistence — the 
methods  of  taking  from  earth  and  sea 
the  materials  on  which  the  support  of 
human  life  is  founded.     The   capacities 


of  the  earth  have  been  discovered  and 
utilized.  The  mother  of  all  has  beeiv 
made  to  bring  forth  her  Gains  of  man- 
gifts  in  their  season,  and  f^^^^^^^H 
the  ability  of  maintaining  ment,. 
life  has  been  given  to  a  greater  number 
and  in  larger  measure  than  ever  before. 
As  to  the  increase  and  accumulatiojj  of 
knowledge,  the  gain  has  been  most 
marked  of  all.  The  race  has  been  made 
acquainted  with  the  laws  and  phenomena 
of  its  environment,  and  nature  has  been 
converted  from  a  foe  into  a  friend  and 
servant  of  man.  The  elements  so  long 
considered  hostile  have  become  propi- 
tious under  the  dominion  of  scientific 
knowledge,  and  the  miaintenance  of  life 
has  become  easy  and  universal. 

All  of  these  facts,  merely  touched 
upon  in  this  connection,  agree  substan- 
tially with  the  theory  of  the   Facts  indicating 

impro^•ing  habitability  of  lra?m?lftfe' 
the  earth.  The  scientific  earth. 
concept  that  the  planet  is  still  improving 
as  a  world  suitable  for  the  habitation  of 
rational  intelligences  is  borne  out  by  the 
facts  of  the  improved  and  ever  improv- 
ing conditions  of  human  life.  The 
great  cosmic  law  is  exemplified  in  that 
small  segment  of  human  experience 
which  goes  by  the  name  of  history ;  but 
the  whole  significance  of  the  argument 
lies  in  this,  that  the  rate  of  improvement 
in  the  human  race,  the  increase  in  lon- 
gevity, the  multiplication  of  the  means  of 
subsistence,  and  the  permanent  incre- 
ment of  knowledge,  have  been  so  slow 
in  movement  and  so  small  in  the  aggre- 
gate since  the  beginnings  of  recorded 
time  as  to  convince  us  that  the  whole 
circle  of  man-life  is  a  circumference  of 
vast  extent.  Every  fact  and  circum- 
stance within  the  range  of  our  informa- 
tion points  clearly  to  the  long-extended 
duration  of  the  human  period,  and  every 
condition   under  which  we  live   on  the 


TIME   OF   THE   BEGINNING.— ASTRONOMICAL   ARGUMENT. 


81 


earth,  and  have  lived  in  the  past,  opposes 
itself  with  persistency  to  the  supposition 
that  we  are  at  the  present  time  near 
either  the  beginning-  or  the  end  of  our 
race  career.  The  phenomena  of  life,  that 
is,  of  human  life,  are  all  so  intimately 
related  and  correlated  with  the  phenom- 
ena of  planet  life  as  to  convince  us  that, 
though  the  planet  life  has  a  wider  sweep 
of  duration  than  the  race-life  of  mankind 
— though  there  were  antecedent  ages  of 
preparation  for  the  appearance  of  man, 
as  there  will  doubtless  be  succeeding 
ages  to  his  disappearance  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  globe — the  date  of  the  be- 
ginning of  rational  being  on  the  planet 
was  remote  from  the  present  by  multi- 
plied thousands  of  years,  as  the  date  of 
the  disappearance  will  be  remote  by 
multiplied  thousands  to  come. 

We  may  here  with  propriety  add  a 
few  paragrajDhs  drawn  from  the  concep- 
tion of  design  in  the  universe.  It  is  not 
Concept  of  de-  intended  in  this  connec- 
IxTe^ded  rac?"  tion  to  place  SO  great  stress 
career.  upon  a  plan  and  purpose  in 

universal  nature  as  was  done  by  the 
natural  theologians  of  the  last  century. 
Much  less  is  it  intended  to  intimate  the 
absence  of  purpose  and  design  in  that 
vast  and  magnificent  system  of  worlds 
of  which  our  own  is  but  an  insignificant 
example.  That  the  universe  is  orderly 
can  no  more  be  denied  than  that  it  is 
grand  and  magnificent  in  extent  and 
variety.  If  the  thing  for  which  the  old 
mythologists  invented  the  name  of 
Chaos  ever  existed,  it  exists  no  longer, 
at  least  not  in  those  tremendous  fields  of 
space  which  have  been  penetrated  by  the 
great  telescopes  of  modern  times.  So 
far  as  our  solar  system  is  concerned,  the 
chaotic  element,  if  ever  present,  has 
wholly  disappeared.  The  belt  of  the 
asteroids  may,  indeed,  represent  the 
path    and   the   fragments   of   a    former 


world ;  but  even  in  this  region  of  space 
the  reign  of  law  holds  all  things  in  its 
beneficent  grasp.  In  all  other  parts  of 
our  system  regularity  in  worldhood  ap- 
pears to  right  and  left.  Adaptation  is 
discoverable.  Reason  seems  to  prevail. 
The  universe  appears  to  be  the  habitation 
of  intelligence  and  purpose. 

Without  following,  beyond  the  sugges- 
tion of  a  just  rationalism,  the  hints  of 
design,  of  regularity  and  Long  duration 
plan,  in  the  universe,  and  ^^t^VpCof 
in  our  own  world  in  par-  •worldhood. 
ticular,  we  may  well  accept  the  belief  of 
an  adaptation  of  the  planetary  spheres 
to  the  abode  of  rational  intelligences 
like  ourselves.  Thus  much  being  grant- 
ed, it  is  but  a  step  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  principle  of  duration  might  be  ex- 
pected as  a  part  of  the  plan  of  world- 
hood. Given  the  habitability  of  a  planet 
as  a  part  of  its  purpose  and  plan,  and  the 
concept  of  permanence,  or  at  least  great 
duration,  follows  as  a  necessary  infer- 
ence. Why,  indeed,  should  a  world  be 
habitable  for  the  highest  order  of  beings 
only  for  a  brief  season  ?  What  possible 
reason  could  be  assigned  for  the  late  ap- 
pearance and  early  extinction  of  the 
highest  and  best  form  of  intelligent  ex- 
istence? If  our  own  earth,  for  instance, 
had  in  it  from  the  first  the  condition 
and  prophecy  of  habitability,  as  it  un- 
doubtedly did  have,  and  as  we  are  at  lib- 
erty to  infer  all  other  planets  have,  then 
why  should  there  be  a  period  of  prepa- 
ration almost  infinite  in  extent  to  be  fol- 
lowed only  by  a  brief  and  quickly  van- 
ishing residence  of  the  noblest  of  all  the 
creatures?  Every  condition  of  right 
thinking  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  ap- 
pearance of  man  on  the  planet  would 
occur  at  the  earliest  practicable  moment 
(so  to  speak),  and  that  mankind  would 
continue  to  flourish  to  the  latest  practi- 
cable date.     It  is  one  of  the  novel  con- 


82 


GREAT  RACES    OF  MANKIND. 


tradictions  in  the  philosophy  of  a  certain 
school  of  thinkers  that  they  would  have 
us  believe  that  the  earth,  fitted  up  as  it 
were  for  the  dwelling  place  of  man,  lay 
green  and  virgin,  waiting  for  his  ap- 
pearance through  eons  of  useless  time — 
all  this  for  no  better  reason  than  to  sat- 
isfy the  preconceptions  of  some  impossi- 
ble system  of  chronology. 

Such    short-sighted    views   of   nature  i 


consistent  with  the  astronomical  and 
geological  preparation  of  the  globe. 
Reason  and  fact  alike  require  us  to  ac- 
cept as  early  a  date  for  the  appearance 
of  man  as  the  design  of  the  world  and 
its  conditions  of  habitability  will  admit. 
The  results  of  reason  must  be  accepted 
in  a  world  governed  by  law.  That  the 
date  of  man's  appearance  was  coinci- 
dent,   or    nearly    coincident,    with    the 


LANDSCAPE  OF  THE  LOWER  OOLITE  (BEFORE  THE  AGE  OF  MAX).— Drawn  by  Riou. 


and  of  man  Ave  may  at  once  dismiss  as 
belonging  to  the  ignorance  and  blindness 
Right  reason  de-  of  a  former  age.  While 
?,?AL^^^^^I'7v     the  demands  of  right  reason 

aate  lor  appear-  t> 

anceofman.  (Jq  not  call  for  a  limltlcss 
extension  of  inan-life  into  the  past,  and 
while  such  a  view  is  contradicted  by  sci- 
entific data  which  may  not  be  doubted, 
a  rational  concept  of  the  liLiman  race  in 
relation  with  the  planetary  life  upon 
which  it  is  maintained  does  call  for  as 
wide   and   far-reaching   an    arena   as   is 


astronomical  changes  in  the  charactei 
of  the  earth!s  orbit  heretofore  described, 
can  not  well  be  doubted  by  any  one 
whose  mind  has  been  freed  from  nar- 
row preconceptions  on  the  subject. 
That  our  race  career,  measuring  back- 
ward through  the  brief  historical  and 
traditional  periods  of  our  ethnic  life,  has 
extended  far  enough  into  the  past  to 
cover  a  considerable  part  of  the  planet 
life  with  which  it  is  associated,  is  a  con- 
clusion warranted  by  every  condition  of 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM  GEOLOGY 


83 


right  thinking.  That  the  design  of  the 
world  and  of  our  solar  system  points  to  a 
long-continued  career  for  the  highest 
form  of  living  intelligences  on  its  surface 
can  hardly  be  doubted  by  him  ■\vho  be- 
lieves the  universe  to  be  underlaid  with 


'  plan  and  purpose.  Finally,  that  our  own 
race,  by  its  slow  rate  of  progress,  has  not 
yet  attained  the  maximum  of  its  power, 
longevity,  and  rational  activities,  is  a  fact 
which  we  may  accept  at  the  hands  of  sci- 
ence as  demonstrable  from  exi.sting  data. 


Chapter  III.— Argujviexx  from  Geology. 


URNIXG  then  from  the 
astronomical  to  the 
geological  argument 
respecting  the  antiq- 
uity of  man,  we  shall 
reach  the  same  general 
views,  the  same  con- 
clusions as  above.  We  are  not  to  enter 
here  into  the  broader  discussion   of  the 


able  for  the  human  race.     The  science  of 
geology  belongs  virtually  to  the  present 
century.     Hitherto  any    truly  scientific 
concept   of    the    formation  Geoicicai  sci- 
and  character  of  our  globe  ^rth:Vr°ese"nt 
was  wanting.     All  the  for-  century, 
merachievements  of  mankind  in  geologi- 
cal inquiry  were  not  equal  in  extent  and 
variety  to  those  which  have  been  made 


PALitOZOlC  .AGE  OF  THE  EARTH.— Laxdscape  of  the  Eocen-e. -Drawn  by  Riou. 

geological  age  of  our  planet,  but  only  to  i  by  the  geologists  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
note  the  epoch  in  whicli  it  became  habit-  I  tury.     The  result  has  been  a  tolerably 


84 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


complete  investigation  of  the  clianicter 
of  the  earth's  crust  and  of  the  order  of 
world  formation.  A  summar}^  of  these 
results  may  here  be  presented  with  a 
view  to  showing  the  epoch  of  man. 

In  the  bottom  of  the  world  we  have 

the  azoic,  or  lifeless,  age.     Above  this, 

and  next  in  order  of  succes- 

Outline  of  the 

order  of  the         sion,  we  have  the  palaeozoic 

geological  ages.      ^^^  .  ^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^nc^^tnt  life 

period  of  world  formation.     Above    this 


the  Carboniferous,  and  the  Pemian  .strata 
of  the  earth's  crust.  The  secondary 
rocks  of  the  neozoic  age  include  the 
Triassic,  the  Juras.sic,  and  the  Cretaceous, 
or  chalk,  formations.  The  tertiary,  or 
caenozo'ic,  rocks  are  divided  into  whaf. 
are  called  the  eocene,  the  miocene,  and 
the  pliocene,  and  above  these  we  have 
the  superficial  formations  known  as  the 
post-tertiary,  quaternary,  pleistocene,  or 
inost  recent  deposits  of  all.    This  .sketch 


PAL,tljZ<.)ic  AGE  OF  THE  EARTH.— Cambro-Silukia.n  I.ANDbCAPE.— Drawn  by  Rluu. 


and  succeeding  it  we  have  the  neozoic, 
or  new-life,  age,  reaching  to  the  surface 
and  including  the  present  life-forms  of 
the  world.  For  convenience,  the  neozoic 
age  has  been  divided  into  a  lower,  called 
the  secondary,  or  mesozoic,  period ;  and 
an  upper,  called  the  tertiary  epoch.  The 
palaeozoic  age,  if  we  begin  at  the  bottom, 
next  to  the  azoic  rocks,  includes  the 
Cambrian,  the   vSilurian,   the  Devonian, 


includes  what  are  known  as  the  fossil- 
iferous  strata  of  the  world,  reaching 
downward  from  the  present  fauna  and 
flora  of  the  surface  to  the  lifeless  bed  of 
the  azoic  rocks. 

It  is  needless  to  urge  upon  the  atten- 
tion of  any  intelligent  reader  the  great 
periods  of  time  which  are  indicated  in 
the  geological  formation  of  the  earth. 
How  great  these  periods  are  has  never 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM  GEOLOGY 


85 


been  determined,  and  it  is  possible  that 
their  duration  may  remain  indeterminate 
Exact  time  to  the  end  of  time.      But 

noTr:<ireTin  approximations  can  be 
■world  history.  made  which  are  highly  use- 
ful, and  many  scientific  data  exist  by 
which  previous  calculations  may  be  rec- 
tified. Ever}'  decade  witnesses  an  in- 
crement of  knowledge  to  the  subject  be- 
fore us,  and  wider  and  more  accurate 
generalizations  are  gradually  building  up 


tions  are  conducted.  In  the  first  place, 
the  rate  of  geological  change  now  going 
on  in  the  earth  is  a  matter  of  observa- 
tion and  scientific  measurement.  The 
slow  but  steady  transformation  of  the 
earth's  surface,  the  reduction  of  its  in- 
equalities, its  tendency  toward  the  level, 
its  failing  adaptations  to  certain  forms 
of  vegetable  and  animal  life,  and  many 
other  of  our  superficial  terrene  phe- 
nomena are  well-known  facts,  and  have 


PALEOZOIC  AGE  OF  THE  EARTH.— Devonian  Landscape.— Drawn  by  Riou. 


an  accepted  theory'  of  the  geological  age 
of  our  planet. 

The  question  may  well  arise  by  what 
possible  means  the  inquirer  can  arrive 
at  any  practical  conclusions  relative  to 
Principle  of  de-    the  lapse  of  time  in  former 

;:wgfoiog-  P<^"o^^ :  that  is,  in  the  pre- 
icai  changes.  historic  ages  of  our  World. 
It  may  be  appropriate,  in^view  of  this 
just  skepticism,  to  cite  a  few  of  the  facts 
and  principles  by  which  such  investiga- 


been  obser\-ed  in  their  processes  for  a 
sufficient  period  to  warrant  scientific  de- 
duction as  to  both  the  future  and  the 
past. 

To  this  we  must  add  the  accepted  law 
of     the    uniformity    of     nature,    upon 
which,  indeed,  all  science  Acceptance  of 
rests  as  upon   an   immov-  ^^Jflf;^°yoY 
able  foundation.     We  may  nature, 
safel}'  assume  that  the  processes  of  the 
natural  world  which  we  observe  around 


86 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKLXD. 


us  are  the  same  processes  which  have 
been  giving  form  and  feature  to  the 
surface  of  our  planet  through  eons  of 
past  time.  True,  we  may  not  assume 
that  the  rate  of  change  has  been  uni- 
form for  successive  geological  ages.  On 
the  contrary,  experience  and  ob.serva- 
tion  within  the  historical  period  have 
shown  that  the  rate  of  change  is  not  by 
any  means  invariable.  At  some  epochs 
transformation  goes  forward  more  rap- 
idly than  at  others ;  but  on  the  whole, 
not  only  the  process  of  change,  but  the 


LANDSCAPE    OF   THE   CAKBONIFEKOUS    rERIOD. 


rate  of  change  may  be  depended  on  as 
scientific  factors  in  determining  the  past 
conditions  and  periods  of  duration  in 
geological  history. 

It  may  be  well  in  this  connection  to 
illustrate  with  a  few  specific  examples 
Suggestion  for-    the  general  laws  of  change 

rtestion'of '  tO  which    We    have    just    re- 

Niagara  FaUs.  ferred.  We  have  in  the 
United  vStates  an  example  of  the  action 
of  the  elements  which  may  well  convince 
the  most  skeptical  of  the  value  of  geolog- 
ical physics  in  determining  the  lapse  of 
tim&.    This  example  is  furnished  by  the 


chasm  and  recession  of  the  Niagara 
river.  It  is  easy  to  trace  the  course  of 
the  great  falls  backwards  from  lake  On- 
tario, or  at  least  from  Lewiston,  to  the 
present  position  of  the  cataract ;  and  it 
is  easy  to  foresee  the  inevitable  recession 
of  the  chasm  back  from  the  present  fall 
to  lake  Erie.  We  may  already  contem- 
plate (at  a  date  how  remote!)  the  wear- 
ing away  of  the  channel  until  the  Niag- 
ara river  shall  lie  in  the  bottom  of  the 
chasm  all  the  way  from  Ontario  to  the 
exhausted  bed  of  Erie.     The  rate  of  the 

recession  o  f 
the  falls  is  a 
thing  of  obser- 
vation  and 
measurement 
It  has  been 
placed  as  low 
as  eight  feet  in 
a  century. 
Other  esti- 
mates have 
been  higher ; 
but  fast  or 
slow,  the  proc- 
ess of  wear- 
ing away  goes 
steadily  on,  as 
it  has  done  in 
the  past,  and 
nothing  is  required  but  scientific  obser- 
vation to  determine  approximately  the 
length  of  time  which  has  been  required 
to  wear  out  the  channel  from  Ontario  to 
the  present  falls. 

Of  a  certainty  several   circumstances 
must  be  kept  in  mind  and  admitted  into 
the  calculation  which  mav  Argument  not 
modify      the      deductions.   ^feSfofL- 
The  stone  in  some  parts  of  certainty. 
the  river  platform  may  be  harder  and  in 
others  softer.     There  may  be  occasional 
rents  and  fissures  which,  under  pressure 
of  the  floods,  will  permit  large  masses  oi 


TIME    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM  GEOLOGY. 


87 


the  supporting  ledge  to  break  away  and 
be  carried  down  at  once.  But  these  cir- 
cumstances are  only  modifying  elements 
in  the  problem,  for  which  indeed  allow- 
ance must  be  made,  but  which  should 
not  be  permitted  by  the  uncertainty 
which  they  introduce  to  destroy  the  sci- 
entific character  of  the  investigation. 
There  is  not  wanting  a  certain  kind  of 
mind  filled  with  reactions  and  preju- 
dices, and  for  that  reason  ever  disposed 
to  resist  the  progress  of  scientific  truth, 
which  is  prone  by  its  constitution  and 
habit  to  seize  upon  any  element  of  un- 
certainty which  may  exist  in  an  investi- 
gation of  this  kind,  and  to  use  that  mod- 
icum of  uncertainty  as  a  reason  for 
rejecting  the  whole  inquiry,  and  for  fall- 
ing back  into  the  easy  nest  of  mediaeval 
preconceptions  and  ignorance. 

Another  instance  of  geological  change 
which  may  be  used  as  a  measure  of  time 
Rateofdeposi-  i^  that  of  the  rise  of  the 
IX^VtSs  valley  of  the  Lower  Nile, 
a  scale.  \yy  the  deposition  of  matter 

from  the  annual  overflow.  It  is  popu- 
larly supposed  that  qt:ite  a  deposit  is  left 
each  year  in  the  Nile  valley  as  a  sedi- 
ment from  the  swollen  waters.  If  it 
were  suggested,  for  instance,  that 
the  annual  depo.sition  amounted  to  a 
fourth  of  an  inch,  it  would  not  seem  an 
astonishing  proposition  ;  and  yet  a  little 
reflection  will  show  that  at  such  a  rate 
the  Nile  valley  would  long  since  have 
disappeared  and  the  river  would  have 
been  turned  back  upon  its  fountains  in 
the  Sudan !  A  fourth  of  an  inch  an- 
nually would  amount  to  more  than  two 
feet  for  each  century ;  a  little  more  than 
twenty  feet  for  a  thousand  years ;  about 
forty-two  feet  since  the  times  of  Caesar ; 
and  much  more  than  a  hundred  feet 
since  the  age  of  Ramses !  As  matter  of 
fact,  the  elevation  of  the  lower  valley  by 
the  annual   deposit  has  not  been  more 


than  about  five  or  six  feet,  as  measured 
at  Rosetta  or  Damietta,  within  the 
historical  period ;  from  which  fact  we 
may  .scientifically  determine  the  thick- 
ness of  the  annual  deposit  as  little  greater 
than  that  of  a  sheet  of  paper.  This 
.slight  increment,  however,  when  once  it 
has  been  scientifically  measured,  is  good 
for  the  past,  the  present,  and  the  future, 
serving  as  a  measure  not  only  of  histori- 
cal but  of  geological  time,  and  furnishing 
incidentally  a  striking  example  of  the 
slowness  and  orderly  progress  of  those 
physical  changes  by  which  the  surface 
of  the  earth  and  its  distinctive  features 
have  been  determined. 

Still  a  third  example  of  time  meas- 
urement by  means  of  physical  conditions 
mav  be  appropriatelv  cited .  spheroidal  form 
The    time    was   when    the  f.^^rforu^e 

mass      of      the      earth      was   measurement. 

fluid  throtigh  its  whole  extent.  If, 
while  the  globe  was  in  such  condition, 
the  rate  of  rotation  on  the  axis  had  been 
rapid,  the  equatorial  distention  would 
have  been  correspondingly  greater  than 
it  is.  With  a  very  rapid  rate  of  rotation 
the  earth  would  have  become  a  thin 
wheel  or  circular  plate.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  rate  of  revolution  on  the 
axis  had  been  as  slow  as  that  of  our  own 
secondary,  the  moon,  the  equatorial 
protuberance  would  scarcely  have  been 
discoverable.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
elevation  around  the  equator  is  some- 
what greater  than  it  would  be  with  our 
present  rate  of  planetary  revolution. 
This  is  to  say  that  when  the  earth  was 
still  in  a  fluid  or  semifluid  condition,  and 
its  general  form  was  determined  by  the 
rate  of  axial  revolution,  the  motion  was 
more  rapid  than  at  present.  With  the 
hardening  of  the  crust,  the  globe  was 
able  to  maintain  its  oblate  spheroida! 
form  even  when  the  rate  of  revolution 
was  considerably  slackened. 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Astronomical  science  is  now  able  to 
determine  the  rate  at  which  our  axial 
Approximate  revolution  lias  diminished, 
date  at  which  ^         ^      ^j^^g  Calculate 

our  earth  took  -' 

Its  present  form,  backwards     to     the      time 
when  the  globe  was 
fixed   in   its    present 
form.     We   are  thus 
able  to  reach  by  ap- 
proximate time  meas- 
urement   the    date  at 
which  the  crust  of  the 
earth  became  sufficiently 
firm  and  thick  to  preserve 
the  form  which  the  globe 
had  taken  under  physical 
law  while  still  in  a  state 
of   fluidity,       vSir    William 
Thomson,     following     the 
theory  of   Fourier,   showed 
by   an   elaborate   argi:ment, 
published    in     the      Transac- 
iioiii  of  the   Royal   Society  for 
1S62,   that  the  lower  limit  or 
minimum   date   at    which   ou 
globe,  under  the  action  of  phys^ 
leal  laws,  could  have  taken  its 
present  form  and  become  super- 
ficially   consolidated,    could    not 
have  been  less  remote  from  the 
present   than    twenty   millions   of 
years.   His  calculations  were  mathe- 
matical, and  were  based  upon   the 
established  laws  of  physical  science, 
While  we  may  not  accept  his  conclu- 
sions with  such  certainty  as  might  be 
had  in  the  case  of  computations  rest- 
ing on  known  and  invariable  data,  wc 
may,     nevertheless,        diagram  showint,  rf.lativk  thickness  of 

11        i       i   1-       1  ear-ih's  ckust  and  depth  of 

conclude,  tentatively,  internal  caldron. 

that  the  form  of  our  globe — 
its  solidification  at  the  surface  and  its 
assumption  of  the  oblate  spheroid  as  its 
permanent  figure — occurred  at  a  date 
fully  as  remote  as  that  declared  by  Sir 
William  Thomson. 


The  eartia  had  become  the  arena  of 
vegetable  and  animal  life  before  the 
fixation  of  its  form.     Long  Life  began  be- 

fore  fixation  of 


before    the    instability    of  g°obercroU'! 
the  surface    of   the    globe  estimates. 

had    given   place   to 
permanence,  the  rudi- 
mentary forms  of  life 
had  appeared  and  be- 
gun to  flourish.     This 
is  to  say  that  the  epoch 
of  life  considered  from 
the  standpoint  of  geology 
reaches  back  for  its  be- 
ginnings  at   the  close  of 
the  azoic  age  to  a  period 
much    more   remote    than 
that  assigned  for  the  final 
fixation  of  the  figure  of  our 
planet.   Geologists  have  been 
bu.sy   in    like    manner    with 
computations    for   the    entire 
period  since  the  beginning  of 
vital  phenomena  on  the  earth. 
If  the  successive  strata  consti- 
tuting  the   superficial   parts   of 
the  planet  have  been  formed  at 
the    rate  of  change  which    now 
prevails,  and  has  prevailed  since 
the  beginning  of  recorded  observa- 
tion, then  the   entire  epoch  of  life 
is,  perhaps,  from  three  to  five  times 
as  extensive  as  the  period  which  lies 
this  side   of  the  final  fixation  of  the 
form  of  the  globe.     Dr.   James  CroU 
has,    with    his    usual   skill,  calculated 
the  whole  period  since  the  beginning 
of  vital  phenomena  on  tlie  surface  and 
in   the  waters  of  the 
earth  at  a  period  not 
less,    and    probably   greater, 
than  .sixty  millions  of  yea-rs.     Other  emi- 
nent geologists,  reasoning  from  like  data, 
have  been    disposed  to  increase  rather 
than  diminish  this  estimate.     Sir  Wil- 
liam Thomson  has  suggested  a  period  of  a 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM  GEOLOGY. 


89 


hundred  million  years  as  an  approximate 
inferior  limit  of  the  date  when  the  first 
forms  of  life  appeared  on  the  earth.    • 

There  is,  however,  a  full  concurrence 
of  opinion  that  man-life  occupies  but  a 
relatively  small  part  of  the  whole  scale  of 
Only  a  small  part  vital  existence.  We  have 
occupied  by"''^  already  shown  that  accord- 
•nan.  ing   to  the  best  data   and 

most  approved  deductions  the  human  be- 
ing was  one  of  the  latest  to   make   its 


True  it  is,  as  is  constantly  shown  by 
experience  and  observation,  that  human 
remains  proper  easily  perish  and  are 
resolved  into  the  elements.  It  requires 
no  great  period  of  time,  when  the  human 
body  is  exposed  to  the  free  action  of 
nature's  forces,  for  it  to  be  completely 
transformed  into  its  elementary  gases  and 
mere  dust.  Only  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  can  the  skeleton  of  man 
be  preser\^ed  from  one  geological  epoch 


FORMS  OF  LIFE  IN  CRETACEOUS  PERIOD  (PRECEDING  THE  AGE  OF  MAN).-Drawn  by  Riou. 


appearance.  It  is  only  in  the  tertiary, 
the  post-tertiary,  pleistocene,  or  so-called 
recent  deposits  of  the  earth's  crust,  or 
at  furthest  in  the  miocene,  that  the 
remains  of  man  and  of  his  activities  are 
found.  True,  we  may  not  reason  posi- 
tively to  the  nonexistence  of  human  be- 
ings before  the  diluvian  age.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  such  creatures  as  ourselves 
had  existence  on  the  earth  in  the  pre- 
glacial  epoch  ;  but  there  is  no  probabil- 
ity of  the  truth  of  such  a  hypothesis. 
M.— Vol    t-  > 


to  another.  When  these  favorable  con- 
ditions do  exist,  as  we  shall  see  here- 
after, the  actual  relics  of  our  species  are 
preserved  from  age  to  age  with  scarcely 
a  perceptible  mark  of  change. 

The  analogy  between  animal  and 
.vegetable  bodies  is  in  this  respect  com- 
plete. With  exposure  grains  of  wheat 
and  seeds  of  various  plants  and  grasses 
are  quickly  resolved  into  their  constitu- 
ents ;  but  wheat  grains,  still  preserving 
their  vital  germs  and  capable  of  growth 


90 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


and  reproduction,  have  been  taken  in 
recent  times  from  the  Egyptian  sar- 
Possibiiity  of  cophagi  where  they  were 
long  preserva-      deposited  as  much  as  three 

tion  of  organic  -r 

remains.  thousand    ycars    ago.       A 

single  find  and  demonstration  of  this 
kind  is  sufficient  to  establisli  tlie  law  of 
vegetable  and  animal  preservation  under 
favorable  conditions.  The  absence  of 
such  discoveries  does  not  positively  dis- 
prove the  existence  of  given    forms  of 


SKETCH    MAP   SHOWING  (iN   DARK   LINES)  THE   PART   OF   EUROPE    UNDER   ICE  COVER 

IN    GLACIAL   PERIOD.' 

life  in  past  geological  ages ;  but  the  fact 
that  no  single  example  of  human  re- 
mains belonging  to  the  pre-glacial  period 
in  geology  has  been  found,  while  not 
conclusive  of  the  nonexistence  of  our 
race  in  a  period  so  remote,  is  sufficient 
to  destroy  the  probability. 

It  is,  then,  in  the  post-glacial,  or  dilu- 
vian,  age,  and  in  the  earlier  parts  there- 

'The  darkest  portions  of  the  map  show  the  pres- 
ent areas  of  the  ice  fields. 


of,  that  we  are  warranted  by  geological 
evidence  in  placing  the  apparition  of 
man  on  the  earth.  In  order  to  make 
clear  the  conditions  under  which  such 
remains  have  been  discovered,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  revert  again  to  several  situa- 
tions which  are  peculiar  to  the  recent 
period  in  geological  history. 

One  of  the  places  or  conditions  most 
favorable  for  the  deposit  and  preser- 
vation of  the  relics  of  man-life  is  the  loam 

in   the   bottom   of 
caverns ;    that    is, 
in  caverns  having 
a   certain  relation 
to    rivers.        A 
second     favorable 
position  is  that  of 
river  alluvia  prop- 
er,    namely,     the 
masses  of  accumu- 
lated   gravel    and 
detritus    borne 
along  by  running 
streams     and    de- 
posited   in    the 
bends  or  eddies,  or 
more    particularly 
spread     out     in 
broad,  deep  layers 
near    the     debou- 
chure of  the  rivers 
with     the     larger 
bodies     of     water 
into     which    they 
fall.       A  third  place  favorable  for   the 
preservation    of    animal   and   vegetable 
remains  is  the   bottom  of  situations 
lakes.     A  fourth  is  the  col- 
lection  of   peat  mosses  in 
the  countries  where  such  formations  ex- 
ist.    A  fifth  is  the  sand  dunes  heaped  up 
in  certain  localities  by  the  action  of  the 
winds  or  thrown  into  place  by  the  joint 
action  of  the  winds  and  sea. 

Of  all   these   situations,  perhaps   the 


most  favorable 
for  preserving 
human  relics. 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM  GEOLOGY 


91 


first  is  most  favorable  for  the  prolonged 
preservation  of  human  relics.  The  great 
Formation  and  majority  of  Subterranean 
peculiarities  of     ^averns  have  been  formed 

man-caverns 

and  grottoes.  by  the  action  of  water. 
Underground  streams  frequently  carry 
away  the  softer  parts  of  the  rock  or  for- 


n,.iiiu„jiiJi,(,,D|||,i,utu- 
SECTION   OF   CHALK   CAVERN    WITH    HUMAN    REMAINS 

mation  through  which  they  pass,  leaving 
chambers  and  cavities  of  large  extent. 
After  these  nether  vaults  have  once  been 
formed  the  streams  may  disappear  or 
dwindle  to  a  trickling  branch  in  the  bot- 
tom. Frequently  the  caverns  so  formed 
are  left  entirely  dr}-.  In  many  parts  of 
the  European  countries  the  rivers  flow 
through  districts  where  the  chalk  forma- 
tions are  abundant  and  are 
favorably  situated  for  the 
production  of  caverns  and 
grottoes.  In  former  ages, 
while  the  glacial  rivers  were 
still  of  great  width  and  vol- 
ume, the  beds  lay  at  a  much 
higher  level  than  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  In  such  countries 
the  formation  of  underground 
tunnels  by  the  action  and 
pressure  of  the  waters  was 
a  common  phenomenon  along 
the  river  shores. 

In  course  of  time  the  rivers 
of  the  diluvian  period,  as  we  have  said 
above,  receded  and  sank  with  diminished 
volume  into  the  lower  parts  of  the  val- 
leys.    The  beds  were  cut  to  greater  and 


still  greater  depths,  until  at  the  present 
day  it  is  a  common  circumstance,  both  in 
Europe  and  America,  to  find  the  water 
surface  of  running  streams  as  much  as 
a  hundred  feet  or  more  below  the  level 
formerly  occupied  by  the  river.  Almost 
every  considerable  stream  presents  on 
either  side  a  secondary  terrace  of 
drift  which,  at  a  former  age,  marked 
the  level  of  the  bed.  With  the  reces- 
sion of  the  waters  to  the  present 
channels,  the  caverns  formed  in  the 
old  diluvial  banks,  especially  those 
in  calcareous  regions,  have  been  left 
dr}'.  The  mouths  of  such  alluvial 
grottoes  open  on  the  hillsides,  facing 
the  rivers,  and  it  was  into  these 
caverns  that  the  animals,  including 
primeval  man,  made  their  way  as  places 
of  natural  resort  in  the  earlier  ages  of 
the  postglacial  epoch. 

In  the  bottoms  of  nearly  all  of  the 
caverns  are  found  a  certain  residual  of 
loam,  or  cave-earth,  swept 

'•       Date  of  remains 

in  as  sediment  by  the  de-  indicated  from 
1  geological  data, 

parting  waters;    and  over 

this  loam  there  is  usually  a  solid  layer  of 


lOKMAl  ION. 


Whatever  organic  remains 


stalagmite, 
were  left  in  the  caverns  in  the  age  ot 
the  deposit  were,  as  a  rule,  mixed  with  the 
loam,  and  afterwards  covered  and,  as  we 


92 


GREAT  RACES    OF  AF AN  KIND. 


might  say,  hermetically  sealed,  with  stal- 
agmitic  material.  It  is  easy  to  perceive 
that  a  study  of  the  rate  of  diminution 
and  sinking  away  of  the  rivers  from  their 
former  elevation  into  their  present  beds 
would  furnish  a  measuremenf  of  time 
for  estimating  the  date  of  the  deposit 
of  the  human  relics  referred  to.  In  so 
far,  therefore,  as  geology  is  able  to  de- 
termine the  time  at  which  the  alluvial 
caverns  were  formed  and  at  which  the 
receding  waters  left  them  subject  to  hab- 
itation, she  is  able  to  suggest  an  ap- 
proximate date  for  the  appearance  of 
man-life  on  the  earth. 

The  facts  here   referred  to,  which  in 


EXAMPLE   OF   STALACTITE. 

the  nature  of  the  inquiry  must  be  men- 
tioned in  many  parts  hereafter,  are  now 
Slow  process  of  brought  forward  solely  to 
[uvTafriv"ef  ""■  illustrate  the  possibility  of 
ijeds.  time   measurement  in  the 

prehistoric  ages.  This  fact  must  be 
borne  in  mind  by  the  reader.  The  same 
should  be  said  respecting  the  alluvial  de- 
posits of  gravel  and  other  detritus  contain- 
ing the  relics  of  animals  and  men.  The 
gravel  beds  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  have 
been  gradually  formed  through  immense 
periods  of  duration.  The  slow  rate  of 
such  accumulations  is  a  fact  noted  and 
emphasized  by  all  candid  and  capable 
observers.     The  course  of  rivers  on  their 


way  to  the  sea  is,  as  a  rule,  not  rapid, 
and  in  those  portions  where  rapids  exist 
we  find  almost  invariably  that  the  waters 
are  supported  by  the  hardest  and  most 
enduring  ledges  of  rock.  The  action  of 
water  courses  is  therefore  slow.  To  erode 
such  channels  as  we  find  to  have  been 
formed  for  the  passage  of  rivers  must 
have  required  almost  immeasurable  peri- 
ods of  time — periods  in  which  centuries 
rather  than  months  and  years  miist  be 
the  units  of  measurement. 

It  is  by  the  erosion  of  their  beds  that 
rivers  gain  the  material  in  the  forms  of 
sand  and  gravel  which  they  deliver  in 
certain  parts  of  their  course  and  more 
particularly  at  their  mouths. 
One  must  needs  note  the  vast 
accumulation  of  gravel  and 
other  detritus  brought  down 
from  distant  regions  and 
spread  out  in  beds  of  miles  in 
extent,  if  he  would  gain  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  length 
of  time  which  has  been  re- 
quired to  furnish  such  accu- 
mulations of  matter.  The 
most  eminent  geologists  have 
given  close  study  to  the  sub- 
ject of  the  rate  of  formation 
for  the  alluvial  deposits,  and  though 
they  have  not  agreed  with  any  near 
approximations  in  the  re-  vast  reach  of 
suits  at  which  they  have  ^rpLTsrot*" 
arrived,  in  one  thing  there  formations, 
has  been  concurrence  among  them  all, 
and  that  is  the  vast  lapse  of  time  req- 
uisite to  produce  the  given  results,  and 
the  consequent  remote  date  which  must 
be  assigned  to  the  remains  found  in  the 
alluvial  sti;ata  at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

An  examination  of  the  sediment  ac- 
cumulated in  the  beds  of  lakes  has  led  to 
the  discovery  of  many  traces  of  organic 
life  belonging  to  the  prehistoric  age. 
In  such  situations  the  remains  of  human 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM  GEOLOGY. 


93 


beings  have  been  found,  as  we  shall 
hereafter  note  with  more  particularity, 
Less  certain  re-  associated  with  the  bones 
fnauonrra^r-  ^^  animals  long  extinct, 
bottoms.  In.  this  case,  however,  the 

attempt  to  detemiine  the  time  of  the 
deposits  has  been  less  successful  from 
the  peculiar  character  of  the  data  than 
in  the  case  of  caverns  and  river  beds. 
The  rate  at  which  the  sediment  has  been 
deposited  in  the  bottoms  of  lakes  is  a 
very  uncertain  factor,  and  though  the 
position  and  depth,  below  the  surface, 


vegetation  prevalent  at  the  time  when 
the  peat  mosses  were  laid,  and  when 
they  received  their  relics  of  human  life, 
may  be  easily  referred  to  certain  geo- 
logical periods,  the  date  of  which  may 
be  approximately  known.  Certain  kinds 
of  forests,  long  since  extinct  and  sup- 
planted by  other  kinds  belonging  to  a 
later  cycle,  are  thus  known  to  have  pre- 
vailed at  a  time  when  primeval  man  was 
in  the  earth ;  and  by  estimates  made  on 
scientific  grounds  for  the  date  of  the 
given  forest,  an  approximation  may  be 


LANDSCAPE  OF  THE  PEAT  UDGS. 


of  the  sediment  led  to  the  conclusion  of 
a  great  antiquity,  geologists  have  not 
succeeded  in  measuring  the  intervening 
time  between  the  deposition  of  the  lake 
fos.sils  and  the  present. 

In  the  case  of  the  peat  mosses  better 
success  has  been  attained,  and  the  same 
result  reach-ed  as  from  other  sources  of 
Peat  bogs  fur-  iuquirv.  The  peat  bogs 
blSfti^^e  '-ire  found  in  peculiar  local- 
estimates.  ities,  and  the  superincum- 

bent earth  has  accumulated  by  regular 
accretions  of  growth  and  decay  which 
may  well  furnish  the  proper  data  of  time 
measurement.       The     character   of   the 


reached  for  the  time  of  the  appearance 
of  the  human  race. 

Of  the  sand  dunes  which  are  found  in 
certain  localities,   holding   the  relics  of 
primitive  men,  the  same  may  be  said  as 
of  the  lake  bottoms,  name-  uncertainty  of 
ly,   that  the  measurement  Tedfto^m'sanJ 
of  time  applied  thereto  is  dunes. 
difficult,  if  not  impossible.     The  forces 
which  produce  the  sand  dunes,  whether 
terraqueous  or   acqueous,  are  compara- 
tively  irregular.     It  is   easj'  to  under- 
stand how  a  sudden  cyclone  might  by 
torsion  heap  up  the  sand  of  seashores  or 
desert  places  into  the   forms  which  we 


94 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


now  discover,  though  in  other  instances 
it  might  require  ages  for  such  accumula- 
tions to  be  made. 

In  some  instances,  however,  the  dunes 
are  clearly  the  result  of  human  agency, 
being  composed  of  the  debris  of  primi- 
tive dwelling  places  scattered  about  the 
homes  of  the  first  men  until  heaps 
amounting  to  considerable  mounds  were 
found.  In  such  cases  we  may  well  allow 
long  periods  of  time  for  the  formation 
of  the  dunes.  It  is  a  fact  of  observation 
that  it  requires  many  centuries  in  thickly 
populated  localities  to  raise  the  surface 


instructive  results.     Sir  Charles   Lyell, 
one   of   the   greatest  of   geologists  and 
conservative  thinkers,  has  Time  required 
in     his    work.     Travels    in 


for  deposition  of 
the  Mississippi 


North  America,  undertaken  delta. 
to  estimate  the  rate  of  formation  in  the 
delta  of  the  Mississippi  river.  That 
low-lying  terrace  of  alluvium  has  an  area 
of  about  thirteen  thousand  six  hundred 
square  miles.  Sir  Charles  by,  investi- 
gation discovered  that  the  thickness  of 
the  deposit  is  of  an  average  of  about 
five  hundred  and  twenty-eight  feet. 
From  these  data  he  was  able  to  compute 


SA^D  DUNES  OF  EL-FKVANE,  ARABIA.— Drawn  by  D.   Grunet. 


but  a  few  feet  above  its  former  level ; 
this,  too,  where  the  agencies  of  civiliza- 
tion have  been  actively  operative  in 
leaving  a  residue.  The  Appian  Way 
of  Rome,  after  more  than  two  thousand 
years,  is  no  more  than  two  or  three  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  coun- 
try. It  is,  therefore,  safe  to  conclude 
that  the  primitive  dunes  left  around  the 
dwelling  places  of  the  first  men  were 
slowly  formed  through  many  centuries 
of  time. 

If  we  take  up  the  actual  estimates 
which  the  best  geologists  have  given  for 
some  of  the  dates  suggested  in  this  in- 
quiry, we  have  the   same  tangible  and 


approximately  the  whole  quantity  of 
matter  brought  down  by  the  Mississippi 
since  the  establishment  of  the  river  in 
his  present  bed.  The  next  class  of  ex- 
periments related  to  the  amount  of  solid 
matter  in  each  cubical  foot  of  the  Missis- 
sippi waters.  It  was  found  that  about 
one  three-thousandth  part  in  volume  of 
the  water  discharged  into  the  gulf  is 
composed  of  mud,  sand,  and  other 
detritus.  The  percentage  in  weight  of 
solid  material  is  about  one  part  in  twelve 
hundred  and  forty-five.  Pursuing  the 
line  of  reasoning  and  computation  here 
suggested,  and  assuming  the  law  of  uni- 
formity. Sir  Charles  Lyell  came  to  the 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM   GEOLOGY. 


95 


conclusion  that  at  the  rate  of  three  thou- 
sand seven  hundred  and  two  millions  of 
cubic  feet  annually  it  would  require 
sixty-seven  thousand  years  for  the  build- 
ing up  of  the  Mississippi  delta  in  the 
form  in  which  we  now  find  it. 

In  this  computation  there  are  one  or 
two  serious  questions  to  be  raised.  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  undoubtedly  true 
Allowance  made  that  in  the  earlier  periods  cf 
S^cmS?/  thediluvian  age,  when  such 
problem.  rivers   as    the    Mississippi 

were  greatly  swollen  and  much  more 
perturbed  than  at  present,  the  quantity 
of  solid  matter 
annually  brought 
down  by  the 
floods  was  much 
greater  than  at 
the  present  time. 
It  is  easy  to  con- 
ceive of  a  condi- 
tion in  which  the 
percentage  of 
mud  and  gravel 
in  river  water 
should  be  many 
times  greater 
than  at  the  pres- 
ent. W  e  need 
go  no  further 
than  the  spring 
rains  of  each  year 
in  our  present 
climatic  condition  to  note 
quantities  of  solid  matter  that  are  carried 
down  into  our  river  currents.  Doubtless, 
in  the  times  of  the  formation  of  river 
beds,  when  the  overwhelming  waters, 
new  melted  from  the  glacial  spurs,  were 
rushing  along  the  surface  of  valley  lands 
to  seek  a  permanent  channel,  the 
amount  of  solid  material  cut  away,  mixed 
with  the  waters  and  borne  onward  in  a 
volume  of  slush  to  the  sea,  was  vastly 
in    excess    of    anything   of   like    kind 


which  now  falls  under  our  observation. 
Even  to  the  present  day  there  are  large 
rivers  whose  sloppy  floods  bear  down  a 
quantity  of  solid  matter  so  great  as  to 
build  up  large  sand  bars  and  gravel 
banks  in  a  comparatively  short  space  of 
time. 

It  is,  therefore,  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  in  the  early  age  of  the  ^lississippi 
the  annual  deposits  at  the  influence  of  the 
delta  were  much  more  ex-  Srv^r^"' 
tensive  than  they  have  rivers, 
been  Avithin  the  historical  period.  On 
the   other    hand,    however,    a   counter- 


DELTA   OF   THE   MISSISSIPPI. 


the   large 


vailing  circumstance  must  be  noted 
which  has  tended  strongly  to  prolong 
the  period  of  formation  in  alluvial 
deposits.  This  is  the  fact  that  when  the 
primitive  rivers  were  still  swollen  and 
much  mixed  with  solid  materials  the 
current  was  so  heavy  as  to  bear  those 
materials  far  out  to  sea.  The  strong 
probability  is  that  in  the  case  of  the 
Mississippi  the  earlier  and  heavier 
masses  of  solid  matter  were  borne  out 
by  the  immense  floods  and  deposited  in 


96 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


the  bottom  of  the  gulf,  so  that  it  may 
well  be  doubted  whether  the  larger  con- 
tribution of  solids  in  the  earlier  ages  was 
not  actually  unfavorable  rather  than 
favorable  to  the  rapid  building  up  of 
the  delta. 

Two  additional  facts  should  be  noted 
in  connection  with  this  particular  sub- 
other  estimates  ject.  The  first  is  that 
"ZlZ^sT"'  investigations  subsequent 
Lyeii.  to  those  made  by  Sir  Charles 

Lyell  and  by  geologists  of  the  highest 
reputation  have  in  general  terms  cor- 
roborated his  estimates.  Sir  John  Lub- 
bock, traversing  the  same  ground,  has 
arrived  at  virtually  the  same  conclusions 
with  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  and  the  latter  at 
a  later  period  of  his  life,  reviewing  the 
whole  subject  in  his  work  on  the  An- 
tiquity of  Man,  is  more  disposed  to  in- 
crease than  diminish  his  estimates  for 
the  lapse  of  time  requisite  in  the  forma- 
tion of  alluvial  deposits. 

The  second  fact  referred  to  is  the  ap- 
proximately coincident  results  reached 
by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  and  those  deducible 
from  the  astronomical  tables  of  Croll  re- 
specting the  date  of  the  formation  of 
the  post-glacial  rivers  with  the  attend- 
ant phenomena.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  last  epoch  of  planetary  winter, 
coinciding  doubtless  with  the  glacial 
age,  was  about  a  thousand  centuries  ago. 
Making  allowance  for  a  considerable 
period  thereafter  to  cover  the  time 
when  under  more  favorable  conditions 
the  ice  cupola  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere should  melt  away  with  suf- 
ficient rapidity  to  feed  the  glacial  rivers, 
we  arrive  at  a  date  comparatively  the 
same  as  that  which  geology  assigns  for 
the  beginning  of  the  delta  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. 

We  have  referred  on  a  preceding  page 
to  the  deposits  of  the  Nile  valley  as  a 
time    measurement   for   geological    and 


human  history.  To  this  subject  much 
patient  effort  has  been  given.  Professor 
Leonard  Horner,  of  Edin-  inquiries  into 
burgh,  a  noted  geologist  of  L\\LTo"/the" 
the  first  half  of  the  present  NUe  vaiiey. 
century,  was  sent  out  in  1851  by  the 
Jloyal  Society  of  Great  Britain  to  inves- 
tigate the  antiquity  of  Egypt  as  deter- 
mined by  the  rate  of  alluvial  deposit.  In 
the  time  of  Herodotus  it  was  believed 
and  taught  by  the  Egyptian  priests  that 
their  country  of  Lower  Egypt  had  in 
former  ages  been  an  arm  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, reaching  far  up  toward  the 
site  of  Thebes.  It  was  from  this  con- 
sideration and  the  belief  that  the  sea 
had  been  driven  out  by  the  impact  of 
the  river  and  the  deposition  of  sediment 
that  the  priests  Avere  wont  to  declare 
that  their  country  was  the  gift  of  Father 
Nile — a  form  of  speech  which,  though 
mythological  in  appearance,  is  scientific 
in  its  subject-matter.  For  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  that  Egypt,  which  was 
perhaps  the  first  abode  and  arena  of  a 
civilized  life  of  man,  was  literally  the 
gift,  that  is,  the  product,  of  the  Nile. 

Before  the  visit  of  Horner  to  Egypt 
the  savants  who  accompanied  Napoleon 
on  his  Egyptian  campaign  Deductions  of 
had  undertaken  the  like  ^^^^.^ff^er-s 
problem  of  determining  investigations, 
the  geological  age  of  the  country  by  es- 
timating the  rate  of  annual  deposit  from 
the  inundation  of  the  Nile.  The  esti- 
mate made  by  these  philosophers  was 
five  inches  of  elevation  in  a  century.  It 
w«is  found,  however,  that  the  rate  of  ac- 
cumulation was  more  pronounced  in 
some  parts  of  the  valley  than  in  others; 
and  Professor  Horner  determined  to 
conduct  his  experiments  on  the  sites  of 
two  ancient  cities,  Heliopolis  and  Mem- 
phis. In  the  first  of  these  stood  the  fa- 
mous obelisk,  and  in  the  other  the  statue 
of  Ramses  II.     The  date  of  the  building 


TIME    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM  GEOLOGY. 


97 


of  these  two  celebrated  monuments  is 
known  with  approximate  certainty.  The 
obelisk  was  erected  about  two  thousand 
three  hundred  years  B.  C,  and  the 
reign  of  Ramses,  according  to  the  chro- 
nology of  Lepsius,  occupied  the  larger 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century  B.  C. 

It  was  the  theory  of  Homer  that,  hav- 
ing laid  bare  the  foundations  of  these 
Principal  data  mouumcnts  and  discovered 
cuiaf^^stfHt-  the  level  of  the  plateaus 
ner  were  made,  on  wliicli  they  Were  built, 
he  might  easily  compute  the  rate  of  ac- 
cretion from  the  overflow  of  the  Nile. 
The  explorer  found  that  there 
had  been  deposited  around  the 
obeli.sk  during  the  four  thousand 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of 
its  existence  eleven  feet  of  sedi- 
ment, which  by  an  easy  calcula- 
tion gave  the  result  of  three  and 
eighteen  hundredths  inches  to 
the  century. 

In  the  case  of  the  statue  of 
Ramses  it  was  found  that  the 
surface  had  risen  by  a  little 
more  than  ten  and  a  half  feet 
above  the  platform  on  which  the 
statue  rested.  But  he  was  led 
to  believe  that  this  platform  was 
fourteen  or  fifteen  inches  below  the  .sur- 
face at  the  time  of  the  building  of  the 
colossus.  Making  the  proper  reduction 
and  accepting  the  antiquity  of  three 
thou.sand  two  hundred  and  fifteen  years 
for  the  statue,  it  was  found  that  the  rate 
of  accretion  has  been  at  Memphis  about 
three  and  a  half  inches  to  the  century. 

These  data  furnished  Professor  Hor- 
ner the  scale  of  measurement  by  which 
Resulting  esti-  various  cxcavations  were 
«°/of'^ran  made  in  different  parts 
In  Egypt.  of     the     valley,    in     some 

places  to  the  bottom  of  the  alluvial  for- 
mation. In  one  instance  a  piece  of  pot- 
tery was  found,  near  the  base  of  a  statue, 


at  the  depth  of  about  thirty-nine  feet, 
which  according  to  the  established  scale 
would  prove  the  existence  of  man  and 
his  workmanship  in  that  locality  at  a 
date  remote  from  the  present  by  the 
span  of  thirteen  thousand  years.  Even 
this  long  period  does  not  exhaust  the 
possible  habitability  of  the  valley;  for 
the  depth  at  which  the  relics  were  found 
was  greatly  above  the  beginning  of  the 
alluvial  deposits ! 

In  other  parts  of  the  world  besides  the 
deltas  of  the  two  great  rivers  to  which 
we  have  referred  above,  similar  investi- 


JinJos 


DELTA   OF   THE   NILE. 


gations  have  been  carried  forward  with 
almost    identical    results.      Sir   Charles 
Lyell  transferred  his  obser-  LyeU's  investi- 
vations  to  the  river  Somme,  f^ie^^j^the^ 
in  France,   and,  after   ex-  Somme. 
amining  the  valley  and  debouchure  of 
that  river,  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
in  that  part  of  the  world  akso  the  hu- 
man period  extends  into  the  prehistoric 
ages  many  thousands  of  years. 

The  argument  with  respect  to  the  age 
of  the  caverns,  in  the  bottoms  of  which 
the  relics  of  man-life  have  been  found, 
is  perfectly  correlative  with  that  which 
we  have  followed  respecting  the  time 
required  to  erode  the  river  valleys  and 


98 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


form  their  deltas  and  gravel  banks.  It 
was  only  when  the  rivers  began  their 
Approximate  Subsidence  from  the  gla- 
c^StaLrg'^hu.  cial  epoch  that  the  definite 
man  remains.  arrangement  Or  plan  of  the 
present  alluvial  deposits  along  their 
banks  and  at  their  mouths  was  deter- 
mined ;  and  it  was  at  this  very  time  that 
the  caverns  of  the  calcareous  regions 
were  by  the  recession  of  the  waters  left 
first  open  and  then  dry  for  the  occu- 
pancy of  men  and  animals.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the 
conclusion  of  a  deposit  of  human  re- 
mains in  such  situations  inmicdiatcly 
after  the  river  floods  had  ceased  to  flow  in 
would  be  unwarranted  by  the  facts,  and 
there  is,  therefore,  a  likelihood  from  this 
point  of  view  of  attributing  an  exag- 
gerated antiquity  to  the  relics  of  life 
discoverable  in  the  caverns.  In  other 
respects  the  argument  in  favor  of  the 
antiquity,  that  is,  of  a  coincident  antiq- 
uity, between  the  human  relics  found  in 
the  caverns  and  those  discovered  in  the 
alluvial  deposits  of  rivers,  holds  good. 

Attempts  have  been  made  in  accord- 
ance with  geological  science  to  discover 
the  approximate  age  of  the 

Estimates  of  the  ^^  ,       ,    ,       , 

age  of  the  Swiss  relics  found  m  the  lake  bot- 

lake  villages.  .  r     t:- 

toms  or  burope,  particu- 
larly those  of  Switzerland.  Careful  in- 
vestigations have  been  made  at  the  Pont 
de  Thiele  between  the  lakes  of  Neuf- 
chatel  and  Bienne.  These  two  bodies 
of  water  are  connected  by  a  stream 
which  was  formerly  an  arm  reaching  from 
the  one  lake  to  the  other.  The  whole 
valley  between  the  Neufchatel  and  the 
Bienne  has  been  gradually  filled  and 
choked  up  with  mud  and  other  deposits 
under  the  action  of  forces  which  are  still 
at  work.  The  di.scovery  of  the  remains 
of  so-called  lake  dwellings  in  this  region 
and  the  knowledge  of  the  rate  of  deposi- 
tion   by    which    they  have  been  buried 


away  furnish  acceptable  data  for  an  esti- 
mate, not  indeed  of  the  first  appearance 
of  men  in  this  region,  but  of  the  time 
when  the  lake  dwellers  were  prevalent. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  old  Abbey 
of  St.  Jean,  built  at  the  close  of  the 
eleventh  century,  has  by  Data  from  which 
the  filling  up  around  the  f„t,TonwaT'- 
margin  of  the  lake  receded,  made, 
as  it  were,  from  its  original  situation  at 
the  edge  of  the  water  by  the  space  of 
four  hundred  and  six  yards.  Professor 
Gillieron,  of  the  College  of  Neuveville, 
has  applied  the  ratio  thus  established  to 
the  larger  question  of  the  date  of  the 
lake  dwellings  which  at  this  point  have 
receded  from  the  shore  a  distance  of 
three  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty 
yards,  and  has  thereby  determined  the 
minimum  antiquity  of  the  ancient  lake- 
shore  establishments  to  be  about  six 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  years. 
The  reader  in  considering  this  calcula- 
tion must  bear  in  mind  the  peculiar 
character  of  life  in  the  lake  dwellings 
under  consideration,  and  remember  that 
the  lake  habitations,  while  they  were  of 
a  prehistorical  character,  should  not  be 
regarded  as  the  work  of  the  primitive 
inhabitants  of  Europe. 

Another  example  of  geographical  evi- 
dence may  be  taken  from  a  similar  situ- 
ation to  that  last  described.    Evidence  gath- 

Where  the  small  and  rapid  'X^':,Z:^l, 
river  Tinniere  falls  into  theTinniere. 
lake  Geneva,  a  large  accumulation  of 
.sand  and  gravel  has  been  made,  extend- 
ing back  to  prehistoric  ages.  The  de- 
posit is  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  which  has 
been  opened  with  a  railroad  cut  and  ex- 
posed for  examination  for  a  distance  of 
about  a  thousand  feet  and  of  more  than 
thirty  feet  in  depth.  The  rate  of  forma- 
tion in  this  remarkable  body  of  materials 
has  been  determined  with  what  is  be- 
lieved   to  be  tolerable  accuracy.      The 


Illlllll 


100 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


remains  of  man  and  his  workmanship 
have  been  found  at  a  depth  of  as  much 
as  nineteen  feet  from  the  surface,  and 
careful  calculations  conducted  by  the 
French  geologist,  M.  Morlot,  have  shown 
that  the  period  required  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  whole  bed  has  been  between 
seven  thousand  four  hundred  and  eleven 
thousand  years.  The  facts  and  the  argu- 
ment have  been  reviewed  by  Sir  John 
Lubbock,  who  agrees  in  general  with  the 
deductions  of  M.  Morlot. 

Another  fact  which  already  comes  to 
view  in  considering  these  subjects,  and 
which  will  persist  in  obtruding  itself  in 
Deduction  from  many  parts  of  the  present 
^^ttnToT/rt-  ^vork,  is  the  wide-apart  sit- 
itive  races.  uations   which   have   been 

submitted  to  geological  science,  and  the 
consequent  wide  diffusion  of  the  human 
race  in  remote  prehistoric  limes.  We 
are  here  only  concerned  directly  with 
the  geological  evidences  of  the  antiquity 
of  man  ;  but  among  these  evidences  we 
may  not  forget  or  neglect  the  tmques- 
tionable  indications  of  the  wide  distri- 
bution of  man  in  the  epochs  soon 
succeeding  the  glacial  age.  This  wide 
distribution  is  itself  one  of  the  conclusive 
evidences  of  great  antiquity,  and  though 
it  does  not  properly  belong  to  geologi- 


cal testimony,  it  is  .so  closely  connected 
therewith  as  to  justify  a  reference  to  it 
in  this  connection. 

On  any  theory  of  a  common  local 
origin  for  mankind  the  immense  periods 
of  time  necessary  for  the  Great  period  re- - 
multiplication  and  diffusion  ^"ffutfo^"'^^^ 
of  the  race  into  continents  mankind, 
far  distant  from  one  another,  and  in 
some  instances  separated  by  wide  oceans, 
must  be  granted  at  the  very  beginning. 
When  we  see  the  evidences  of  common 
forms  of  life,  including  the  life  of  man 
in  common  stages  of  development,  in 
regions  remote  from  each  other  by  the 
breadth  of  continents  and  seas,  and  al- 
most inaccessible  on  account  of  physical 
barriers  interposing  themselves  to  the 
movements  of  the  first  tribes  of  men, 
we  must  be  profoundly  impressed  with 
the  great  depth  of  the  chronological  per- 
spective, and  might  well  conclude  that 
the  lapse  of  time  requisite  for  the  distri- 
bution of  the  first  men,  whoever  they 
were,  from  any  common  point  of  origin 
to  the  respective  localities  where  we  find 
the  first  evidences  of  man-life  in  the 
matrix  of  geology,  would  be  as  great 
as  all  that  vast  geological  period  which 
lies  between  such  earliest  evidences  of 
human  activity  and  the  present  time. 


Chapter   IV.— Archaeological    and    F»alv5EOnto= 

LOGICA.L  Argument. 


HE  relations  of  a r- 
chasology  to  geology 
have  already  been  in- 
dicated in  the  first 
chapter  of  this  work. 
It  remains  for  us  in 
this  connection  to  point 
out  with  more  care  and  elaboration  the 
bearings  of  archaeological  science  on  the 


question  of  the  date  of  the  appearance 
of  mankind  on  the  earth.  Archaeology 
may  be  properly  defined — though  with 
seeming  paradox  of  language — as  pre- 
historic history.  At  first  glance  the  in- 
ference might  well  be  drawn  that  the 
study  of  archaeology,  leading  us  back- 
ward as  it  does  along  the  positive  traces 
of  the  human  race,  would  furnish  more 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING— ARCH^OLOGICAL   PROOFS. 


101 


satisfactory  data  relative  to  the  Age  of 
Man  than  might  possibly  be  derived  from 
Nature  of  the  the  astronomical  or  geolog- 
deril™d"ftom^*'  ical  side  of  the  question, 
archaeology.  Such,  however,  is  not  the 
fact.  While  it  is  true  that  much  more 
satisfactory  and  direct  evidence 
may  be  gained  from  archaeolog- 
ical sources  with  respect  to  the 
mode  and  limitations  of  the 
primitive  life  of  man  than  can 
be  deduced  from  geological,  or 
indeed  from  any  other  form  of 
inquiry,  it  is  also  true  that  the 
chronological  value  of  archccology 
rests  upon  the  geological  data 
with  which  it  is  associated.  As 
it  respects  the  question  of  time, 
therefore,  archaeology  helps  and 
corroborates  the  estimates  and 
time  measiirements  of  the  pre- 
historic ages  without  furnishing 
much  original  and  independent 
testimony  thereto. 

These  observations,  however, 
should  not  lead  to  the  conclusion 
Proofs  from  this  that  archaeology — 
r«h7h/frn^       though     long     im- 

hsh  the  prog-  &  & 

ress  of  the  race,  peded  in  its  prog- 
ress by  preconceived  opinions — 
is  less  scientific  in  its  methods 
and  results  than  is  geology. 
An  examination  of  the  traces 
and  remains  of  the  human  race 
in  the  long  ages  before  the  be- 
ginnings of  national  conscious- 
ness furnish  excellent  materials  in  proof 
of  the  progress,  and  to  some  extent  the 
rate  of  the  progress,  by  which  the  human 
race  has  advanced  from  its  primeval  to 
its  present  condition ;  but  the  proper  time 
measurement  comes  from  the  connection 
which  the  facts  of  this  science  bear  to 
the  facts  of  geology. 

We  shall  here  refer  at  once  and  in  an 
introductory   way    to    the    material  and 


subject-matter  of  archaeological  inquiry. 
In  the  upper  parts  of  the  earth's  surface 
the    remains    of    primitive 

'■  .  Subject-matter 

men  are  found  associated  of  archeeoiogicaJ 
with  the  products  of  the  ""i^"^^- 
post-diluvian  age  in  geology.  Human 
bones,  especially  the  harder 
portions,  such  as  the  skulls 
and  teeth,  have  been  laid 
away  by  accident  or  design 
in  localities 
especially 
favorable  to 


Primitive  commin  of  the  Stone  Age. 

ARCH,«OLOGICAL   PROOFS  OF  THE   EXISTENCE  OF 

PREHISTORIC  MAN. 

their  preservation.  Such  remains  are 
associated  with  roclcs  and  other  geolog- 
ical products  of  known  epochs,  and  are 
also  mixed  with  the  bones  of  extinct 
animals,  the  place  of  which  is  known  in 
prehistoric  zoology.  Not  only  this,  but 
the  works  of  the  first  men  and  the  sec- 
ondary races,  namely,  their  implements 
and  utensils,  made  in  many  instances  of 
imperishable   materials,   are  plentifully 


102 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


found  in  association  witli  the  bony  re- 
mains of  the  people  by  whom  such  im- 
plements and  tools  were  devised  and 
used.  The  materials  which  primitive 
men  first  employed  in  their  rude  way  in 
the  fabrication  of  such  utensils  as  their 
low  existence  and  manner  of  life  called 
for  have  remained  in  the  forms  origi- 
nally devised,  and  indicate  most  clearly 
the  customs  and  inartistic  methods  of 
the  age. 

Nature  led  the  way  as  to  the  substance 
and  design  of  primeval  implements. 
Materials  em-  Stone  was  clioscu  first,  with 
?L7manY/:r.r  Httlc  modification  in  the 
ing  implements,  natural  or  accidental  form. 
At  length  the  evidences  of  selection  of 
materials  appear.  The  better  qualities 
of  stone  are  chosen.  Obsidian  and  fiint 
become  favorable  articles  of  primeval 
factory.  Bone  also  is  used,  and  the 
horns  of  animals  in  the  making  of  uten- 
sils and  weapons.  At  length,  with  the 
increase  of  intelligence  and  the  gift  of 
experience,  the  metals  begin  to  be  taken 
and  employed  in  the  primitive  arts. 
Copper  and  bi-onze  more  and  more  take 
the  place  of  the  stone  utensils  and  tools 
which  had  hitherto  been  employed. 
Bronze  is  succeeded  b}'  iron,  and  the  age 
of  war  and  nationality — the  daydawn  of 
the  historical  epoch — is  ushered  in. 

It  is  thus  comparatively  easy  to  deter- 
mine the  sequence  of  races  and  times  in 
the  prehistoric  ages ;  but  this  establish- 
Time  order  es-  mciit  of  an  Order  docs  not 
tfve  but  not tb-  ^^y  'iny  means  give  us  an  ab- 
solute dates.  solute  date  for  the  various 
periods  of  early  man  history  on  the 
earth.  The  stages  through  which  the 
race  has  passed  in  the  evolution  of  the 
civilized  life  from  the  very  lowest  and 
most  ancient  epoch  to  times  within  the 
limits  of  authentic  history  are  easily  dis- 
covered and  established  by  quite  indubi- 
table   testimou}-.      But    at  this  stage  of 


the  inquiry  the  chronological  scale  falls 
into  confusion  and  doubt.  The  great 
patent  fact  is  that  some  races  have  out- 
stripped others  in  their  rate  of  progress, 
so  that  even  to  the  present  day  a  section 
of  world  history  presents  contemporane- 
ously all  stages  of  development.  There 
are  still  existent  in  the  world  many 
tribes  similar  in  nearly  all  respects,  ex- 
cept with  respect  to  strength  and 
aggressiveness,  to  those  primeval  races 
which  passed  away  during  the  formation 
of  the  tertiary  deposits  of  the  earth's 
crust. 

We  have  only  to  look  abroad  into 
different  parts  of  the  Avorld  to  dis- 
cover  the  first  men  still  Existing  sav- 
pursuing  methods  of  life  ^fr/^eSrt^^ 
that  were  prevalent  in  the  state  of  man. 
times  almost  immediately  succeeding  the 
glacial  age.  The  native  inhabitants  of 
Australia,  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand, 
the  aboriginal  races  of  other  Polynesian 
islands,  the  natives  of  the  Greater  and 
Lesser  Antilles — such  as  they  were  at 
the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America — 
and  the  Red  races  distributed  through 
the  New  World  from  Patagonia  to  the 
lands  of  the  Esquimaux,  were  all,  at 
least  until  a  recent  date — as  many  of  them 
still  are — unacquainted  with  the  use 
of  metals  in  any  form.  They  therefore 
belong  to  the  age  of  stone  as  much  as 
did  the  barbarians  of  prehistoric  times. 
It  thus  becomes  impossible,  without 
collateral  evidence,  to  fix  the  dates  of 
archaeological  phenomena  other  than 
relatively.  The  relation  of  such  facts 
may  be  fixed,  but  not  the  time.  It  is 
easy  to  say  that  certain  facts  precede 
others,  and  to  prove  that  the  rate  of 
progress  from  one  stage  of  development 
to  the  next  is  slow;  but  it  is  difficult,  if 
not  impracticable,  to  prove  from  the  ex- 
isting materials  of  archaeological  inquiry 
Junv  ancient  or  lioiv  modern  they  may  be. 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ARCH JiOLOGICAL   PROOFS. 


103 


BIGHT  PROGRESSIVK  STAGES  OF  HUMAN'  nr.VEI.OPMENT,  ILLUSTRATED  IN  FABRICATION  AND  MATERIAI-3 

Of  IMPLEMENTS. 


(l)  Pala:ulitliic  awL 

To  this  rule,  however, 
there  are  certain  excep- 
tions, principally  among 
the  osseous  remains  of  an- 
cient peoples.  There  are 
certain  types  of  structure 
unmistakably  belonging  to 
remote  antiquity.  The 
surviving  barbarous  races 
do  not  possess  those  strong- 
ly marked  animal  char- 
acteristics by  which  the 
aggressive  barbarians  of 
Differences  be-  remote  antiquit  V  were  char- 
T.T:J^T'^^  acteri^ed.  It  would  appear 
barbarians.  t;hat  the  more  peaceable, less 

warlike, less  ad  venturous,  less  progressive 
tribes  and  races  of  the  ancient  world  have 
in  one  sense  outlived  the  stronger  and 
more  ferocious  of  the  primitive  peoples. 
The  latter  seem  to  have  survived  in  a  civ- 
ilized posterity,  while  the  fcnnner  have 
preserved  their  ancient  proclivities  with 
little  evolution  or  change.  It  is  for  these 
reasons  that  certain  kinds  of  human  re- 
mains may  be  judged  from  their  own  na- 


ture to  have  be- 
longed to  far-re- 
mote primitive 
races;  but  the 
general  fact  re- 
mains that  those 
implements  and  weapons,  b}-  which  the 
Age  of  Stone  is  easily  discriminated  from 
the  Age  of  Bronze,  and  the  latter  from 


(.7)  Bronze-handled 
iron  dagger. 


(S)  Iron 

sword. 


104 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


the  Age  of  Iron,  are  comparatively  use- 
less in  determining  the  absolute  dates  of 
prehistoric  times. 

Another  flaw — but  of  opposite  import 
— in  the  argument  for  the  antiquity  of 


SKULL    OF   CAVli    1 


man  from  archaeological  remains  is  found 
Mistaken  de-  in  the  reliance,  sometimes 
sp^e'^c'ting  ::;oci-  too  implicitly  placed,  on  the 
ation  of  remains,  association  of  humau  bones 
and  implements  with  the  remains  of  ex- 
tinct animals.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  present  distribution  of  animals 
over  the  earth,  particularly  of  the  car- 
nivora,  has  been  largely  effected  and 
limited  by  the  agency  of  man  himself. 
The  lion,  the  tiger,  the  hyena,  ct  id 
oiiine  genus,  can  not  coexist  in  the  same 
country  with  civilization.  Xot  indeed, 
as  is  generally  supposed,  on  account  of 
the  climate,  but  specifically  because 
when  the  man  and  the  tiger  are  in  the 
same  arena  the  one  or  the  other  must 
go  to  the  wall.  It  has  been  generally 
assumed  that  the  great  extinct  cave 
bear,  the  cave  lion,  and  the  cave 
hyena,  whose  remains  are  foi:nd  asso- 
ciated with  those  of  primitive  men, 
must  have  belonged  to  a  period  very 
remote  from  the  glacial  age  in  Europe 
— either  before  or  after — since  the 
climate  of  that  epoch,  when  the  ice- 
cover  of  the  European  countries  generally 
abutted  southward  against  the  Alps  and 
the  Pyrenees,  would  be  too  rigorous  for 
the  existence  of  animals  now  confined  to 
Africa  and  the  Asiatic  jungles. 


This  conclusion,  however,  is  to  forget 
that  the  tiger,  the  bear,  the  hyena,  and 
even   the  lion  are,   to  the 

Ferocious  beasts 

present  time,  fully  capable  notwhoUyof 

r  .     •     ■  T  J-   tropical  habitat. 

or  sustaining  a  degree  of 

cold  approaching  that  of  the 
arctic  circle,  and  that  these  crea- 
tures have  receded  into  their  pres- 
ent habitat,  not  because  of  its 
tropical  character,  but  for  the 
reason  that  civilization  has  driven 
them  back  into  those  fastnesses 
where  an  abundance  of  vegetable- 
eating  animals  furnish  subsistence 
for  the  carnivora.  In  prehistoric 
Europe,  therefore,  there  was  no  reason 
for  the  nonexistence  of  these  savage 
beasts  close  along  the  line  of  the  re- 
ceding glaciers.  At  the  present  time 
the  Indian  tiger,  where  the  wall  of  civil- 
ization is  not  around  him,  breaks  freely 
from  his  jungle,  pursuing  the  antelope 
and  the  deer  up  the  slopes  of  the  Him- 
alayas to  the  line  of  perpetual  snow ; 
while  the  leopard,  the  panther,  and  the 
cheetah  stop  not  even  for  the  snow,  but 
follow  their  prey  into  the  fastnesses  of 
Siberia. 

For  these  reasons  we  may  perceive 
clearly  the  fallacy  in   the  argument  of 


SKDLL   OF  CAVE   HYENA. 


those  who  would  reduce  the  date  of  the 
first  men  by  claiming  that  the  associa- 
tion of  their  bones,  even  in  the  most 
primitive  localities,  is  with  the  relics  of 
animals    which,    though    extinct,    must 


TIME    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— ARCHAEOLOGICAL   PROOFS. 


105 


have  existed  at  a  period  long  subsequent 
to  the  glacial  age. 

There  are,  however,  some  direct  evi- 
dences of  the  antiquity  of  archaeological 
remains;  that  is,  evidences  in  the  re- 
Direct  evidence  mains  themselves.  Bycom- 
arl'a^o^^gf^r  mon  consent  the  stone  age 
data.  marks   the    first    stage    in 

the  human  evolution.  Now  stone,  when 
it  is  worked  by  the  human  hand,  or 
when  broken  or  abraded  by  accident, 
presents  a  new  surface  to  the  action  of 
the  elements,  and  this  surface  bears  wit- 
ness ever  afterwards  to  the  antiquity  or 
the  recency  of  the  fracture.  All  kinds 
of  stone,  even  the  hardest  and  most 
carefully  polished,  show  after  the  lapse 
of  years  that  the  surface  so  exposed  is 
growing  old.  The  granite  shafts  pre- 
served from  ancient  Egypt  proclaim 
even  to  the  unscholarly  observer  their 
manifest  and  indubitable  antiquity.  The 
glint  of  all  varieties  of  broken  or  pol- 
ished stonework  disappears  at  length, 
and  is  replaced  with  a  dulled  and  hoary 
surface,  the  difference  between  which 
and  any  recently  polished  or  broken  ex- 
posure is  intensified  by  a  microscopic 
examination.  These  facts  hold  whether 
the  specimen  or  monument  in  question 
has  been  exposed  only  to  the  aerial  ele- 
ments or  whether  it  has  been  buried  in 
the  earth. 

To  all  persons  the  difference  between 
an  ancient  and  recently  fabricated  stone 
Stone  impie-  implement  is  apparent, 
ThT^etfS"  but  most  apparent  to  the 
production.  archasologist.  To  his  prac- 
ticed eye  every  stony  surface  tells  the 
story  of  its  antiquity — not,  indeed,  with 
absolute  certainty  as  to  date,  but  ap- 
pro.ximately  as  to  epoch.  It  is  easy  to 
arrange  and  classify  the  palaeolithic  speci- 
mens of  a  collection  by  the  degree  of  the 
secular  erosion  of  their  surfaces,  to  ar- 
range the  most  ancient  in  a  group  by 
M.— Vol.  1—8 


themselves,  and  to  fix  with  some  approx- 
imation to  accuracy  the  age  of  each. 

It  is  by  the  means  here  suggested  that 
archaeologists  have  determined  with  tol- 
erable certainty  what   are  piace  and  char- 
the  most  ancient   remains  ^""f*^'^®,v 

most  ancient  hu- 
of       human       industry      yet   man  remains. 

discovered  in  Europe.  In  a  deposit  near 
Thenay,  in  Central  France,  certain  im- 
plements of  flint  have  been  recovered 
which  are  regarded  as  the  workmanship 
of  the  first  men.  The  specimens  in 
question  are  rather  larger  than  the 
majority  of  .such  finds,  and  were  pro- 
duced by  primar}'  and  secondary'  chip- 
pings.  Competent  geologists  have  as- 
signed to  these  rough  relics  of  primitive 
handicraft  a  date  coincident  with  the 
middle  of  the  tertiary  period.  Of  equal 
age  are  some  relics  which  have  been 
taken  from  the  old  bed  of  the  river  Ta- 
gus,  near  Lisbon.  The  French  archaeol- 
ogists, and  in  particular  M.  Ribeiro, 
who  made  the  discover^',  are  strongly  of 
the  opinion  that  the  relics  in  question 
are  of  the  middle  tertiary,  and  that  noth- 
ing more  ancient  of  the  workmanship 
of  man  has  been  found  anywhere  in  the 
earth's  crust.  Even  in  this  case,  how- 
ever, science  is  constrained  to  fall  back 
upon  the  situation  and  surroundings  in 
making  an  estimate  of  the  true  date  of 
the  implements  referred  to.  Archaeol- 
ogy, pure  and  simple,  is  able  to  say  no 
more  than  this,  that  the  articles  in  ques- 
tion were  made  by  a  tool-using  animal 
acquainted  with  the  use  of  fire;  that 
they  are,  by  the  evidence  of  their  own 
surfaces,  of  a  very  remote  period  in  the 
prehistoric  ages,  and  that  the  coincident 
geological  proof  points  to  the  borders 
of  the  miocene  epoch  as  the  date  of  their 
production. 

It  should  be  understood  by  the  reader 
in  his  effort  to  gra.sp  the  remoteness  of 
the  probable  period  at  which  these  most 


106 


GREAT  RACES    OE  MANKIND. 


aboriginal  implements  were  jiroduced 
that  the  gap  in  time  and  skill  and  prog- 
immense  time-  ress  between  such  finds  and 
fefsi::rchr°-  the  next  in  order  is  very 
oiogicai  ages.  great.  It  would  seem  in- 
deed that  the  period  reaching  from  the 
age  of  these  most  archaic  relics  to  the  age 
of  the  finely  executed  flint  arrowheads  and 
spearheads  which  we  may  see  in  almost 
any  museum  of  natural  history,  was  fully 


anthropoid  apes.  Tlie  latter  have  been 
known  to  break  a  club  from  the  branch 
of  a  tree  and  to  set  the  weapon  in  a  place 
where  it  might  be  found  again  ;  then  to 
use  it  a  second  time — all  this,  hoM^ever, 
without  direct  adaptation  of  the  weapon 
to  the  object  of  its  use.  In  the  case  of 
the  stone  implements  of  the  earliest  age, 
we  find  them,  as  a  rule,  prepared  on 
one  side  only.     The  first  men  seemed  to 


LANDSCAPE  OF  THE  MIOCENE— BORDERLAND  OF  MAN.— Drawn  by  Rioii. 


as  extensive  as  that  reaching  from  the  age 
of  the  arrowpoints  to  the  age  of  iron. 

This  consideration,  indeed,  brings  lis 
again  to  the  use  and  application  of  right 
Intelligence  of  rcason  to  the  problem  be- 
fore us.  The  ancient  im- 
plements which  we  are  here 
considering  mark  the  first  deisarture  of 
human  intelligence  from  that  of  the 
lower  animals.  The  rude  artisanship  of 
the  articles  in  question  advances  but  a 
stage  above  the  skill  and  ciinnino-  of  the 


the  first  men 
compared  -with 
that  of  animals. 


have  sought  such  fragments  of  stone  as 
had  been  partly  shaped  by  the  accident 
of  nature.  This  fact  would  reduce  the 
amount  of  labor  and  skill  which  the 
aborigines  must  employ  in  preparing 
the  other  side  of  the  block.  Perhaps  a 
majority  of  the  most  ancient  forms  are 
characterized  by  human  workmanship 
on  one  side  only,  the  other  remaining  as 
it  was  produced  in  the  more  ancient 
shop  of  nature. 

The  span  from  such  art  as  this  to  that 


TIME    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— ARCHyEOLOGICAL   PROOFS. 


107 


of  asymmetrical  arrowpoint  is  very  great. 
It  is  not,  however,  such  a  stage  of  prog- 
Stride  from  low-  ress  as  might  not  be  rap- 
:Sgr:ra"t1r"  ^^ly  passed  in  an  age  of 
sanship.  progress  and  amelioration. 

Modern  society  very  frequently  sees  such 
transitions  accomplished  in  a  few  dec- 
ades; but  not  so  in  the  primitive  world. 
In  that  it  would  appear  that  the  aborig- 
inal savages  were  imable  to  lift  them- 
selves to  new  methods  of  life  except 
after  great  travail  and  eons  of  time.  "We 
have  only  to  glance  at  a  few  facts  in  or- 
der to  find  indubi- 
table proofs  of  the 
truth  of  this  hypoth- 
esis. 

One  of  the  most 
significant  of  these 
facts  is  the  wide  dis- 
tribution of  imple- 
ments of  the  kind 
referred  to  above.  It 
is  definitely  known 
that  the  race  of  be- 
ings by  which  the>" 
Avere  used  was  not 
at  all  restricted  to 
France  and  England 

— in  which  countries  archaeological  in- 
quiry has  been  prosecuted  with  greatest 
•Wide  distribu-  success.  On  the  Contrary, 
iit°hicimpi?-°'  such  archaic  implements 
™®"*^-  have  been  found  in  regions 

of  the  world  widely  separated  by  moun- 
tains, rivers,  and  seas.  Relics  of  like 
character  have  been  discovered  in  the 
Rhone  gravel  near  Aries,  and  in  the  Po 
and  Vibrata,  and  as  far  south  as  Rome. 
Others  of  identical  character  have  been 
recovered  on  the  banks  of  the  Meuse  and 
the  Scheldt,  and  still  others  in  Central 
GeiTuany.  Farther  abroad,  even  in  the 
sands  of  the  African  rivers,  and  more 
frequently  in  the  river-beds  of  North 
America,  such  relics  have  been  discov- 


ered. Professor  Henry  W.  Haynes,  of 
Boston,  has  taken  implements  of  like 
sort  out  of  the  sands  of  the  Nile.  Such 
specimens  have  been  found  forty  feet 
below  the  surface  in  the  diamond  fields 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  still 
others  in  a  deposit  near  Madras,  India, 
and  still  others  in  Japan. 

We  thus  see  the  unmistakably  wide  dis- 
tribution of  primitive  men  established 
b}-  archaeological  evidences.  But  if  we 
look  closely  at  the  situation  in  which  the 
most    ancient    stone    relics    of    human 


EXAMPLES   OF   OLD   STONE   WORKMANSHIP — ADZES   OF   NEW   ZEALAND. 

workmanship  have  been  found,  we  shall 
see  that  everA-where  the  situation  is 
alike.  The  rivers  were  cho-  common suua- 
sen  as  the  nesting  places  ^^.r^^etris; 
of  the  aborigines;  and  deductions, 
there  they  clung.  No  specimens  of 
ancient  stone  weapons  or  implements  of 
the  most  archaic  type  have  been  found 
in  Switzerland,  or  any  other  countries 
greatly  elevated,  or  in  regions  far  re- 
moved from  river  banks.  This  would 
seem  to  establish  several  facts :  First, 
that  the  date  at  which  the  primeval 
races  here  under  consideration  flourished 
was  as  far  back  as  the  time  when  the 
mountains  and  highlands  were  still 
covered     with     the      glacial      deposits. 


108 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Secondly,  \vc  note  that  the  geological 
condition  was  such  everywhere  as  to  in- 
vite the  gathering  of  the  primitive  sav- 
ages in  the  warmer  spots  near  the  estu- 
aries of  rivers,  on  those  grounds  where 
the  ice  had  melted  away  and  from  which 
the  waters  had  receded.  Thirdly,  we 
infer  that  these  first  races  of  human  be- 


EXA.MPLES  OF  NEW  STONE  WORKMANSHIP — HATCHETS  OK  V 
Drawn  by  Eugene  Meunier. 

ings  were  sedentary ;  that  is,  that  they 
were  locally  fixed  to  their  places  of 
habitation,  from  which  they  wandered 
forth  for  no  purpose  but  to  procure  the 
means  of  subsistence.  Fourthly,  we 
may  justly  deduce  the  conclusion  of  the 
exceedingly  unprogressive  character  of 
the  tribes  referred  to.  They  were  virtu- 
ally without  ideas  or  thought.     In  such 


an  age  and  from  such  a  beginning  the 
human  evolution  proceeds  most  slowly, 
and  it  is  probable — almost  certain — that 
many  thousands  of  years  were  consumed 
in  this  winter  of  the  human  race  before 
it  began  to  grow,  to  break  the  soil  of 
environment,  to  rise  into  the  air  and 
light  of  intelligence  and  progress. 

Still  another  consideration  may 
here  be  properly  adduced,  and 
that  is  the  negative  Negative  proofe 
argument  as  to   the  "J^ '^ri'irttl*'"" 

&  oi  man  m  the 

condition  and  conse-  ow  Stone  Age. 
quent  remote  date  of  the  Old 
Stone  Age.  We  may  learn  from 
the  things  not  found  that  the  epoch 
in  question  was  almost  inconceiv- 
ably remote  from  the  present. 
None  of  the  implements  belong- 
ing thereto  seem  to  have  been 
devised  for  the  purpose  of  skin- 
ning beasts,  preparing  hides,  or 
manufacturing  clothing ;  from 
which  it  is  probable  that  the  arti- 
ficial protection  of  the  body  by 
means  of  garments  had  not  yet 
been  discovered.  It  is  claimed 
that  no  evidences  of  burial  or 
other  reverential  or  superstitious 
care  of  the  dead  bodies  of  the 
people  have  been  found  among  the 
relics  of  this  age.  Nor  has  any 
trace  of  religious  ceremony,  as 
evidenced  by  charm  or  amulet, 
been  discovered  in  association  with 
the  rude  weaponry  of  this  most 
ancient  period  of  human  exist- 
It  is  claimed,  however,  that  cer- 
tain shells  prepared  for  personal  adorn- 
ment have  been  found  associated  with 
implements  of  the  earliest  age ;  from 
which  the  inference  is  drawn  that  the 
earliest  aesthetic  ideas  of  mankind  were 
those  relating  to  the  decoration  and 
adornment  of  the  body — a  hopeful  sign, 
and  most  hopeful  in  the  savages. 


ence. 


TIME    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— PAL^ONTOLOGICAL   PROOFS. 


109 


After  the  Old  Stone  age  a  change  ap- 
pears not  only  in  the  implements  and 
Evidences  of  de-  weapons  of  the  ancestors 
veiopment  fur-       £  mankind,  but,   Avhat   is 

nistied  by  archae-  '  ' 

oiogicai  reucs.  far  more  significant,  in  the 
makers  also.  Ideas  and  thought  appear. 
Talent  begins  to  be.  There  are  evi- 
lences  of  reflection,  studied 
purpose,  and  design. 
Already  in  the  Xew  Stone 
epoch  we  discover  the  begin- 
nings of  progress  and  taste. 
The  implements  of  this  age 
are  polished,  fashioned,  iin- 
ished.  They  have,  at  least 
by  suggestion,  the  rudiments 
of  artistic  form.  The  men 
who  made  them  could  con- 
ceive a  pattern  and  follow  it, 
and — if  that — could  imagine. 
Further  on,  in  the  age  of 
bronze,  the  mental  faculties 
are  displayed  in  still  higher 
activity.  Some  of  the  relics 
of  this  age  are  positively  ele- 
gant. Design  reaches  as  far 
as  ornamentation  and  real  art. 
Actual  genius  is  displayed, 
even  though  it  be  in  the  carv- 
ing of  a  knife-blade  or  the 
decoration  of  a  razor. 

It  is  not  needed  in  this  con- 
nection to  follow  the  lines  of 
progress  downward  from  the 
most  primitive  ages,  since  our 
only  purpose  in  these  chap- 
ters is  to  approximate  the 
date  of  the  beginning  of  the  career  of 
man.  The  testimony  of  archaeolog}* 
Arch^oiogicai  taken  altogether  is  entirely 
r^bor^eTtr;'  corroborative  of  that  drawn 
other  sciences,  from  astronomical  sources 
and  of  the  evidences  gained  by  geolog- 
ical study.  Indeed,  the  whole  web  of 
proof  holds  together,  and  presents  a 
unity   of  structure  which   could    hardly 


have  been  expected  considering  the 
recent  date  of  the  physical  sciences  and 
the  still  imperfect  knowledge  which  men 
have  gained  respecting  the  former  con- 
ditions of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants. 

If  we  turn,  in  the  next  place,  to  pa- 
laeontology-, we  shall  find  the  same  cor- 


Razors  from  Denmark. 


EXAMPLES 


Small  knives  from  Denmark. 
OF   PREHISTORIC   WORKMANSHIP,   FROM    BRONZE   AGE. 

roboration    in    proof,  and  virtualh'  the 
same  examples  in  illustration.     It  is  the 
peculiarity  of  the  study  be-  palaeontology  a 
fore     us    that,    beginning  eh^otgfctl'in. 
from  an  astronomical  basis  v^^- 
and  working  our  way  downward  through 
many  branches  of  investigation  to  com- 
mon tradition  and  history,  the  successive 
subjects  seem  to  anticipate  one  another 


110 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


in  their  results.     Geological  inquiry  in- 
cludes as  one  of  its  departments  archaeol- 


HUSE  ANIMALS    PRECEDING   THE   AGE   OF 
0)  Megatherium,  restored. 

ogy,  and  archaeology  in  like  manner 
embraces  palaeontology.  We  can  not  in- 
vestigate the  evidences  of  man-life  in  the 
earth  by  an  examination 
of  the  implements, 
weapons,  utensils, 
adornments,  primitive 
architecture,  etc.,  with- 
out finding  constantly 
in  the  path  of  the  in- 
quiry the  subject-matter 
of  palaeontology.  But 
without  pursuing  these 
reflections,  let  us  look  at 
once  at  the  testimony 
afforded  in  the  fossilif- 
erous  history  of  the 
earth  relative  to  the  date 
of  man's  appearance. 

A  glance  at  the  present  aspect  of  the 
world  shows  us  as  the  two  most  con- 
spicuous facts  of  the  landscape  the  vege- 


table and  animal  forms  of  life  prevalent 
on  the  surface  or  in  the  air  and  waters. 
A  very  ca,sual  examina- 
tion of  these  flora  and 
fauna  reveals  to  us  the 

fact       that    Transformation 
thpv'Prpin    the  law  of  vege- 

ine>  are  m  ^^^.^^  ^„^ 

a    state    of   animal  forms. 

transformation.  T  h  e 
changes  going  on  in  the 
forms  of  life,  whether 
vegetable  or  animal,  are 
slow  and  orderly;  but 
the  fact  of  change  is  as 
certain  as  the  fact  of 
existence.  There  is  not 
a  vital  phenomenon  of 
any  kind  on  the  face  of 
the  earth  which  does  not 
reveal  under  scrutiny 
this  law  of  transforma- 
tion. The  individuals 
of  a  given  species  come 
and  go  by  the  processes 
growth,  maturity,  de- 
cline, and  death  ;  and  the  species  them- 
selves, to  which    these   individuals  be- 


of   procreation, 


ANIMALS   PRECEDING    THE   AGE  OF   MAN. 
(2)  Dinotherium. 


long,  though  of  far  greater  duration,  are 
in  a  process  of  change  exactly  analo- 
gous to  that  of  the  individual  parts. 


TIME    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— PAL^ONTOLOGICAL   PROOFS.       Ill 


the  residue  of 
extinct  types  of 
being. 


Some  species  of  vegetable  and  animal 
life  are  already  old  ;  others  are  young ; 
Existing  orders  Some  are  middle-aged.  If 
Ave  begin  an  examination 
of  the  most  recent  superfi- 
cial deposits  of  the  earth,  we  find  there- 
in what  may  be  called  the  back  history 
of  many  existing  orders  of  life.  But  we 
do  not  pursue  the  investigation  far  until 
we  arrive  at  unmistakable  evidences  of 
other  forms  of  preexisting  life  that  are 
now  extinct.  Following  these  preexist- 
ing forms  through  their  fossiliferous  his- 
tory downward,  we  are  able  witlj  care  to 
discover  in  the  correlations  of  geology 
the  whole  career  of  these  extinct  orders 
— to  find  their  beginnings,  their  middles, 
and  their  ends. 

But  meanwhile,  as  we  continue  our 
exploration  of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  we 
Older  forms  give  come  to  Still  Other  and  older 
fiL'edoXTf^  varieties  of  life  which  are 
l'*'*^-  no  longer  to  be   found   in 

existing  species,  or  even  in  the  more  su- 
pei-ficial  parts  of  the  earth's  crust.  Still 
onward  and  downward  we  make  our  way, 
with  results  always  analogous  to  those 
discovered  at  the  first.  We  are  soon 
able  to  generalize  and  to  say  that  the 
whole  liistory  of  life  is  a  histor}-  of 
cycles,  succeeding  each  other  from  the 
azoic  ages  of  our  planetary  history  to  the 
present  day.  An  Order  of  Life  is  thus 
established,  consisting  of  many  varieties 
and  forms  through  rising  scales  of  de- 
velopment, the  older  ever  dying  away, 
the  newer  ever  surviving,  through  the 
w'hole  extent  of  world  duration. 

This  order  of  life,  with  its  great  cycles 
and  successions,  when  once  it  has  been 
established,  is  as  invariable  as  the  ge- 
ological epochs  and  transformations  with 
which  it  is  so  intimately  associated.  The 
life  histoiy  of  the  globe  comes  at  length 
to  be  as  well  fixed  and  as  invariable  as 
the  geological  annals  of  the  globe. 


It  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  we 
are  able  to  discover  the  superior  value  of 
palaeontological  inquiry  as  Motions  of  the 
it    bears    on    the    question  !,!°''i"°"rJ 

J-  process  among 

of  the  antiquity  of  man.  living  forms. 
We  have  seen,  in  a  former  part,  that 
archaic  implements  and  other  relics  of 
human  workmanship  surviving  from  pre- 
historic times  do  not  easily  establish  the 
antiquity  of  the  races  by  which  they  were 
produced — this,  for  the  reason  that  we 
have  at  the  present  time  the  age  of 
stone  coexisting  with  the  age  of  iron. 
But  the  e.xtinct  forms  of  life  never  co- 
exist with  the  current  forms.  The  order 
of  living  being,  whether  in  the  vege- 
table or  the  animal  kingdom,  is  absolute. 
The  newer  race,  the  higher  type,  suc- 
ceeds the  older — the  lower ;  from  which 
it  happens  that  the  age  of  a  given  fos- 
sil, having  been  once  determined  by  its 
correlation  with  some  geological  epoch, 
becomes  ever  afterwards  a  means  and 
measure  by  which  the  antiquity  of  asso- 
ciated facts  may  be  determined. 

Thus   we    have    in    prehistoric   chro- 
nology the  Age  of  the  Great  Cave  Bear 

succeeding   the  Age  of   the    order  of  animal 

Mammoth,  the  Age  of  -'^f-^-^^. 
the  ^Mammoth  that  of  the  icai  order. 
Reindeer,  and  the  Age  of  the  Reindeer 
that  of  Domestic  Animals.  This  order 
holding  good  in  Central  Europe,  where 
it  was  first  discovered  as  a  law  of  zoolog- 
ical succession,  may  be  depended  upon 
with  almost  as  much  certainty  as  the 
order  of  the  geological  formations  of  the 
earth's  crust.  We  should  as  little  ex- 
pect to  find  the  remains  of  a  mammoth 
succeeding  the  remains  of  a  reindeer  in 
a  given  country  as  we  should  expect  to 
find  a  pliocene  stratum  under  a  chalk 
bed — unless,  indeed,  there  had  been  in 
the  latter  case  a  physical  cataclysm  to 
produce  the  inversion. 

This  established  order  in  the  animal 


112 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


world  has  been  of  vast  use  in  determin- 
ing the  date  of  human  phenomena  in 
Man-life  closely  the  prehistoric  ages.  ]Man 
hllforofani-"'  l^as  always  been  closely 
mai  species.  associated  Willi  the  other 
forms  of  animal  existence.  Being  to 
some  extent  carnivorous  in  his  habits — 
and  much  more  so  in  the  barbarous  than 
in  the  civilized  condition — he  has  from 


we  have  many  additional  facts  that  are 
of  great  value  and  essential  interest 
drawn  from  the  history  of 

Wild  animals  di- 
the     fauna     of     the     world,    mlmsh  in  size  in 

Or    .1  •      .1        1  /■    successive  eras, 

ne  or  these  is  the  law  oi 

diminishing  size  and  power  which  holds 

generally  of  the  different  species  of  wild 

animals  and  inversely  of  the   dome.stic 

animals.     Many  of  the  beasts  which  in- 


Elephas  p 


(■,ly,.t 

ANIMALS  ASSOCIATED  WITH 


his  most  primitive  condition  relied  to  a 
very  great  degree  upon  the  associated 
orders  of  life  for  his  means  of  subsist- 
ence. We  are  not  here  to  dwell  upon 
these  facts  save  sufficiently  to  show  the 
usefulness  of  animal  remains  in  deter- 
mining the  unknown  dates  of  human 
historj'. 

Besides  the  established  order  of  ani- 
mated nature,  from  the  first  appearance 
of  life  on  the  earth  to  the  present  day, 


PRIMEVAL  MAN— Drawn  by  Rion. 

habited  the  earth  coTncidently  with  the 
first  men  were  of  prodigious  size.  We 
have  already  referred  by  name  to  several 
of  the  huge  carnivora  at  one  time  pre- 
vailing in  Europe  and  America.  One  of 
these  was  the  tremendous  cave  bear,  an- 
other the  cave  lion,  another  the  cave 
hyena.  In  general,  these  creatures  were 
of  the  genus  Felis.  Besides  these  there 
were  vegetable-eating  animals,  also  huge 
and  powerful.     To  this  order  belonged 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGIXXIXG.—PAL^OXTOLOGICAL   PROOFS.      113 


versed  in  the 
case  of  domesti- 
cated animals. 


the  gigantic  Megaceros  Hibernicus,  or 
Irish  Elk.  There  was  also  the  Rhinoce- 
rus  tichorinus,  or  Wall-nosed  rhinoceros, 
with  his  two  horns  and  woolly  body; 
likewise  the  Hippopotamus  major,  vastly 
greater  in  bulk  and  more  savage  in  hab- 
its than  the  descendent  variet)-  still  wal- 
lowing in  the  mud  of  the  Nile. 

All  of  these  animals,  carnivora  and 
other,  were  greatly  larger  and  stronger 
than  any  living  representatives  of  their 
respective  kinds.  The  great  pachyderms. 
The  law  re-  most  prodigious  of  all  the 

warm-blooded  animals  that 
have  inhabited  the  earth, 
declined  in  proportion  as  they  tended 
toward  extinction,  and  the  same  process 
continues  to  the  present  day,  except  in 
those  species  which  have  been  reduced 
to  domestication  by  man.  Wherever  the 
last-named  process  has  been  effected  the 
law  of  bulk  and  power  has  been  reversed. 
The  tremendous  horses  which  we  now 
find  patiently  serving  man  in  all  the 
civilized  countries  are  the  descendants 
of  the  prehistoric  hiparion  elcgans  of  pa- 
laeontology. There  are  to-day  larger 
dogs,  larger  sheep,  and  larger  swine  in 
the  world  than  ever  before ;  and  if  the 
cattle  do  not  surpass  in  size  the  prime- 
val ox,  they  do  exceed  in  weight  and 
strength  any  of  the  varieties  from  which 
they  are  nearly  or  even  mediately  de- 
scended. 

These  two  laws,  the  one  expressing 
the  rate  of  decline  in  the  size  and  capaci- 
ties of  the  wild  animals  of  the  earth',  and 


the  other  the  inverted  law  of  increased 
bulk  and  power  of  animals  under  domes- 
tication, become  the  data  Antiquity  of 
which  the  inquirer  may  ?,rby"e"uenc: 
use  in  generalizing  with  ofspecies. 
respect  to  the  antiquity  of  man.  The 
coexistence  of  the  human  race  with  the 
animals  mentioned  by  name  in  the  above 
paragraphs  is  now  a  fact  so  well  estab- 
lished that  it  is  no  longer  in  controver- 
sy, at  least  among  scientific  men.  The 
question,  therefore,  as  to  the  antiquity 
of  man  resolves  itself  into  the  question 
of  the  antiquity  of  the  prehistoric  ani- 
mals that  were  his  coinhabitants  of  the 
earth  in  prehistoric  ages.  The  question 
of  the  antiquity  of  these  animals  resolves 
itself,  in  turn,  into  the  question  of  the 
age  of  the  world  when  they  were  the 
prevailing  forms ;  that  is,  the  latter  ques- 
tion is  partly  so  resolved.  For,  as  we 
have  seen  above,  there  are  some  princi- 
ples by  which  the  age  of  a  given  form 
of  animal  life  may  be  approximately  de- 
termined even  without  reference  to  the 
geological  conditions  under  which  the 
remains  of  such  animals  are  discovered. 
But  for  the  most  part  the  decision  of  the 
question  goes  back,  as  before,  to  the  date 
of  that  post-glacial  epoch  in  geology  at 
which  the  extinct  animals  referred  to 
and  primeval  man  existed  together.  In 
a  word,  the  geological  date  is  the  deter- 
minative factor  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
inquiry,  while  the  corroborative  elements 
of  the  argument  are  derived  from  ar- 
chaeology' and  palaeontology. 


114 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JIFAXKLVD. 


Chapter   v.— Xhe  Ethnoi.ooicai^  ^^rgunient. 


E  have  thus  by  progres- 
sive stages  ah-eady  im- 
pinged on  the  domain 
of  that  recent  branch 
of  science  called  an- 
thropology. The  scope 
and  limitations  of  this 
department  of  inquiry  have  already  been 
defined  in  the  iirst  chapter  of  this  work. 
The  science  in  question  has  one  division, 
namely,  the  human  division,  of  palaeon- 
tology as  its  first  part,  while  in  its  after 
development  it  divides  naturally  into 
ethnology  and  ethnography.  For  our 
present  purpose  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
Anthropology  authropology  throws  at 
thTan«yo°  ^''^^^  some  reflected  light 
">an.  on  the  question  of  the  antiq- 

uity of  man.  Take,  for  example,  the  lon- 
gevity of  the  individual  of  our  species  as  a 
hint  on  the  longevity  of  the  race  of  beings 
to  which  we  belong.  There  is  undoubted- 
ly a  correlation  between  the  brief  life  of 
ephemeral  and  transient  living  forms 
and  the  rapid  transformation  of  that 
variety  of  life  to  which  they  belong. 
Man  is  without  question  one  of  the  most 
long-lived  animals  inhabiting  the  earth  ; 
and  the  supposition  of  great  duration, 
past,  present,  and  future,  for  the  human 
race,  is  in  accordance  with  right  reason 
and  scientiiic  deductions. 

In   the    anatomical    structure,   in    the 

physiological  offices    of    man  there  are 

evidences  of  the  profound 

Existence  of  .        , 

atrophied  or-       antiquity  of  the  race.     In 

gansinthebody.  .  /•    .1         1 

many  parts  of  the  human 
body  there  remain  from  the  prehistoric 
state  the  rudimentary  forms  and  indica- 
tions of  organs  which,  as  organs,  no 
longer  exist  in  our  species.  These  ru- 
dimentary parts  in  every  case  stand  for 


actual  organs  in  some  other  varieties  of 
animal  life,  thus  indicating  most  posi- 
tively, as  the  evolutionist  believes,  the 
ultimate  kinship  and  succes.sive  differen- 
tiation of  all  forms  of  living  beings  on 
the  earth.  It  is  by  no  means  our  purpose 
in  this  part  of  the  inquiry  to  consider 
the  validity  of  the  hypothesis  of  evolu- 
tion ;  but  it  may  well  be  urged  in  this 
connection  that,  from  whatever  point  of 
view  we  consider  the  descent  of  man, 
the  existence  in  the  human  body  of  rudi- 
mentary parts  points,  as  we  think  un- 
mistakably, to  a  very  high  antiquity  for 
the  human  species. 

Consider  for  a  moment  the  existence 
and  significance  of  rudimentary  organs 
in  the  body.  Under  the  eyelids  of  every 
human  being  are  found  the  outlines,  and 
indeed  the  fact,  of  a  semi- 

Such  organs  sig. 

lunar    fold    corresponding  uify a preexist- 

1       ,      ,1  •    i.-i    i."  ing  mode  of  life. 

precisely  to  the  nictitating 
membrane  in  the  eyes  of  the  domestic 
fowl  or  the  goose.  Here  in  the  human 
anatomy  is  the  potential  representation 
and  simulacrum  of  an  organ  which  must, 
in  the  nature  of  the  case,  answer  to  some 
function  or  use  in  the  present,  the  future, 
or  the  past.  The  semilunar  fold  in  the 
eyelid  has  no  use  in  the  present.  It  is 
against  the  laws  of  right  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  it  will  ever  have  a  use  in  the 
future,  since  the  means  of  protection  to 
the  eye  will  increase  rather  than  dimin- 
ish with  the  further  evolution  of  human 
life ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  dangers 
to  which  the  organ  is  subject  wall  be 
correspondingly  diminished.  We  must 
therefore  conclude  that  the  rudimentary 
part  represents  an  organ  which  once  had 
an  office  to  perform  for  the  benefit  of 
the    organism  as  a   whole.      With   the 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL    ARGUMENT.     115 


gradual  amelioration  of  conditions  and 
with  the  physiological  improvement  of 
the  eyelids  proper,  the  necessity  for  such 
an  organ  as  the  nictitating  membrane 
gradually  ceased,  and  with  disuse  came 
feebleness  of  func- 
tion, reduction  of 
size,  and  final 
atrophy.  This 
would  appear  to 
be  the  only  pos- 
sible explanation 
of  the  presence  of 
such  a  rudimen- 
tary part  as  the 
semilunar  fold  in 
an  animal  such  as 
man. 

The  very  same 
thing  may  be  said 
of  those  other 
structural  ele- 
ments in  the  hu- 
man body  which 
no  longer  serve  a 
purpose.  What 
that  purpose  would 
be  under  certain 
conditions  we  are 
able  to  see  by  a 
glance  at  the  anat- 
omy and  physi- 
ology of  other  ani- 
mals. It  is  no 
longer  useful  to 
human  beings, 
having  as  they  do 
the  free  use  of  the 
arm  and  hand,  to 
possess  a  muscle 
for  moving  the  ears 


instances  the  possessor  is  still  able  by  the 
will  to  move  the  ear  in  a  manner  which 
must  have  been  common  and  convenient 
for  the  species  in  some  remote  prehistoric 
epoch.     The  same  thing  may  be  said  of 


EXAMI'IE   OK    EXIKKME    LONGEVITY — AN    EASTERN    SORCERESS. 
Dr.iwn  by  G.  Vuillier. 


Atrophied  ear- 
muscles  and  ex- 


though  such  a  mus- 
cle in  the  lower  animals  is 
tinct  mammae  in   highly  important  and  bene- 
°'^"-  ficial.       But     the    muscle, 

though  in  an  atrophied  or  semiatrophied 
condition,  still  exists  in  man,  and  in  st)me 


the  appendix  vermiformis  and  of  several 
other  parts  of  the  human  body  for  which 
no  plausible  explanation  has  ever  been 
offered  except  that  they  stand  for  organs 
and  offices  that  were  once  in  full  exercise 
and  development  by  the  ancestors  of  our 


116 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


race,    but    have    fallen   into   desuetude 
through  ages  of  changing  conditions  and 


dog's  head,  showing  muscles  for  moving  the  ear 
which  have  become  atrophied,  through  disuse, 

IN  MAN. 

the  altered  necessities  of  life.  Aye, 
more  than  this,  we  have  in  the  human 
anatomv  certain  parts,  such  as  the  rudi- 


BODILY    FORMS    OF    THF,     rVRAMU)     KUILDLKS,     FORIV- 

THREE  CENTURIES  FROM  THE  PRESENT. 

Drawn  by  B.  Slrassberger,  from  door  of  tomb  at  Gizeh. 

mentarj'  breasts  of  the  male,  which  seem 
to  point  to  a  condition  still  more  primi- 
tive in  the  development  of  our  race — to 


a  time  when  even  the  sexes  had  not 
been  differentiated  the  one  from  the 
other ! 

As  we  said  above,  these  facts,  and  the 


conclusions  toward  which  they  tend  in 
support  of  the  hypothesis  of  evolution, 
are  not  adduced  in  this  connection  as  an 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  that  theory,  but 


TIME   OF   THE   BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL   ARGUMENT.        117 


simply  to  illustrate  the  testimony  which 
anthropology  is  able  to  give  respecting 
Vast  reach  of  the  antiquity  of  man.  For 
^v'!^.1,^^P^n','tnm    ^ow  vast  must  have  been 

produce  anatom- 
ical changes,  the      time       requisite      for 

producing  si:ch  astounding  changes  as 
have  manifestly  taken  place  in  the 
organs  and  functions  of  the  human 
body !  Consider  for  a  moment  the 
backward  look  which  Ave  are  able 
to  give  to  the  condition  of  man- 
kind by  the  single  light  of  history. 
It  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to  re- 
fer to  consecutive  facts  in  the  an- 
nals of  Egypt  as  far  away  as  three 
thousand  years  before  the  Christian 
era;  yet  among  the  most  ancient 
works  of  that  primitive  seat  of  civil- 
ization we  are  able  to  discover  un- 
mistakably the  presence  of  the 
man-form  already  differentiated 
into  ethnic  varieties  and  present 
aspects  of  activity.  We  have  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  rudi- 
mentary organs  of  the  pyramid 
builders  were  any  larger,  more 
vital,  more  active,  than  they  are 
in  the  race  to-day.  This  is  to  say 
that  the  work  of  evolution — or 
whatever  it  was — by  which  the  at- 
I'ophied  condition  of  certain  organs 
which  had  fallen  into  disuse  had 
already  been  completed  five  thou- 
sand years  ago !  What,  therefore, 
shall  we  say  of  the  lapse  of  time 
necessary  to  have  effected  the  trans- 
formation ?  What  shall  'we  say  of 
the  almost  inconceivable  period  in 
human  development  requisite  for 
the  differentiation  of  the  sexes  in 
all  hot-blooded  animals,  the  evi- 
dence of  which  has  been  transmit- 
ted in  rudimentary  organs  still  ex- 
isting in  the  males  in  a  condition  of 
atrophy  after  at  least  five  thousand 
years? 


Anthropology  parts  into  at  least  two 
kinds  of  inquiry  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance. These      are      eth-   Relations  of  eth. 

nography   and    ethnology.  ^^^^l^XT^' 

According   to    Jean    RecluS   other  sciences. 

these  two  departments  of  human  knowl- 


Mi^"' 


/^ojijAT- 


ETHNIC  DIFFERENIIATION.— ^1)  MARIA  OK  COS — EUROPEAN  TYPE. 
Drawn  by  E.  Ronjat«  from  a  photograph. 

edge  "run  up  into  anthropology,  as 
anthropology  does  into  zoolog}^  and 
zoology  into  biology."     It  is  true,  how- 


118 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKTXD. 


ever,  that  the  line  of  demarkation  be- 
tween ethnographic  and  ethnological  in- 
vestigation is  difficult  to  draw,  just  as 
the   division    between    geography    and 


ETHNIC  Dll  1  Ll.LMlAiluN.— (2)  TH1-;  "BLACK  t'LAGb  ' 
SOUTHERN  CHINA — ASIATIC   TYPES. 
Drawn  by  Barbotin,  from  a  photograph. 

geology  is  faint  and  in  some  parts  un- 
discoverable.  In  fact,  ethnography,  eth- 
nology, and  anthropology  hold  fast  in 
their   subject-matter    and     methods    to 


philology,    jurisprudence,     archaeology, 
geography,   and   even    to   tradition   and 
history. 

The  present  work,   devoted  to  a  his^- 
tory  of  the  great  races  of  mankind, 

must,  in  the  nature  of   Ethnology  here 

the  case,  be  essen-  "^^^^^ 
tially  ethnographic  tiquity  of  man. 
and  ethnological  in  its  subjects  and 
manner  of  treatment;  but  we  are 
not  by  any  means  at  this  juncture 
to  branch  out  into  the  treatise  at 
large.  Our  present  purpose  is  no 
more  than  to  note  in  a  general  way 
the  light  and  testimony  of  eth- 
nology and  ethnography  respecting 
the  question  of  the  antiquity  of 
man. 

Let  us  mark  then,  first  of  all, 
the  dispersion  of  the  human  race 
into  tribes  and  kindreds.  The 
traveler  abroad,  going  from  coun- 
try to  country,  visiting  one  people 
after  another,  is  perhaps  more  im- 
pressed with  their  differences  in 
ethnic  characteristics,  in  manners 
and  customs  and  language  and  law, 
than  he  is  with  their  identities. 
The  distribution  of  mankind  is 
literall}-  from  the  rivers  to  the  ends 
of  the  earth,  and  their  differences 
range  through  a  wide  scale  of  de- 
parture covering  almost  all  possible 
\-ariations  in  physical,  intellectual, 
aid  moral  character. 

When — at  what  time  in  the  past 
— did  these  ethnic  peculiarities  ap- 
pear?     As  a   prelinii-    Ethnic  differ- 

^    nary  to  answering  this  ^^l^^^lt^^^ 
.,F         question  we  may  con-  in  the  dawn. 

fidently  as.sert  that  they  did  not  ap- 
pear all  at  onee;  that  is,  the  eth- 
nic marks  and  peculiarities  by  which 
the  various  tribes  and  kindreds  of  man- 
kind are  so  strongly  discriminated,  did 
not    appear    jDlienomenally ;     but    only 


TIME   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL  ARGUMENT.       119 


mediately,  and  by  imperceptible  degrees. 
Of  one  thing-  we  are  historically  certain, 
and  that  is  that  the  distinguishing  traits 
of  the  different  peoples  of  the  earth  were 
already  strongly  and 
deeply  drawn  in  the 
daydawn  of  human  an- 
nals, and  that  since  the 
remotest  epoch  of  tra- 
dition they  have  scarcely 
been  so  much  as  empha- 
sized by  increasing  dif- 
ferentiation. Indeed,  it 
is  unmistakably  true  that 
in  modern  times  at  least 
the  strong,  deep-cutlines 
of  demarkation  by  which 
races  and  peoples  were 
aforetime  distinguished 
the  one  from  the  other 
are,  to  a  considerable 
degree,  effaced  and  ob- 
literated by  the  ebb  and 
flow  of  civilization ;  so 
that  on  the  whole  the 
tribes  and  nations  of 
antiquity — the  most  re- 
mote antiquity  —  were, 
by  much,  more  clearly 
discriminated  than  they 
are  at  the  present  time. 
It  is  trite  to  refer  to 
the  historical  evidence 
which  abounds  respect- 
ing the  truth  of  these 
statements.  The  monu- 
ments of  ancient  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  if  none 
other  existed,  would  of 
themselves  sufhce  to  es- 
tablish the  earlydiff  eren- 

Evidencesofthe    tiation      of 

mankind. 

mer  sculptures  we  find 
positively  delineated  at  least  four  lead- 
ing types  of  men  as  they  exist  to-day ; 


and  the  lines  are  drawn  with  as  much 
distinctness  as  though  they  had  been 
executed  by  an  ethnographer  in  the  last 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century !  Thus 


l;lFFERliMIAriON. — (3)  CHIKI      kn. ..,:.!.„    ...... -. 

CONOO — AFRICAN    TYPES. 
Dr;iwn  by  Nt;idame  Paule  Crampel,  .after  a  sketch  of  Xeboiil. 


early  evolution 
of  race  distinc- 
tions. 


Among  the  for- 


at  the  epoch  of  the  pyramid  builders 
the  races  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
had  already  been  confirmed  for  all  time 
in  their  ethnical  characteristics.- 


120 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


These  facts  established,  as  they  are, 
right  reason  demands  the  acceptance  of 
Several  theories  One  of  Several  possible  in- 
rhedr«-r„u;-  ferences.  The  first  of 
tion  of  the  races,  these  is  that  the  races  of 
men,  as  they  come  into  view  in  the  early 
dawn  of  history,  had  descended  through 
a  remote  prehistoric  past  from  a  com- 
mon origin,  and  that  in  the  long  proc- 
esses of  that  descent  the  ethnic  charac- 
teristics of  each  race  and  people  had  been 
developed  and  established.  Another  sup- 
position possible  in  the  case  is  that  men 
began  from  various  parts  of  the  earth,  un- 
der various  conditions,  and  from  different 
originals.  From  these  the  descending 
lines  of  ethnic  life  were  drawn  under 
the  influences  of  environment,  until  at 
length,  in  the  morning  of  tradition,  the 
various  peoples  emerged  into  view  with 
their  respective  characteristics  fixed  as 
we  find  them  at  the  present  day.  A 
third  view  is  that  which  presupposes 
phenomenal  departures  from  a  common 
type  at  some  period  in  the  prehistoric 
ages.  This  hypothesis  includes  a  sup- 
posed anomalous  divergence ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  a  common  family  in  which  the 
sons,  though  born  of  one  father  and  one 
mother,  should  come  into  the  world  with 
different  ethnic  traits  upon  them,  thus  es- 
tablishing, or  rather  opening,  the  foun- 
tain heads  of  races  and  peoples.  The 
suppositions  may  be  multiplied,  but  the 
foregoing  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the 
possibilities  of  the  case. 

It  is  almost  needless  for  a  writer  of 
the  present  day — strongly  indoctrinated 
Acceptance  of  as  the  age  is  with  the  prin- 
Zr^:^l.oi  ciples  of  science,  a  knowl- 
environment.  edge  of  causation  and  uni- 
versal sequence — to  assert  that  only  one, 
namely,  the  first,  of  the  above  supposi- 
tions is  tenable.  It  is  not  our  purpose 
in  this  place  to  discuss  the  monogenetic 
and  polygenetic  theories  of   the  origin 


of  the  human  race.  From  what  we 
know,  however,  of  the  orderly  evolution 
of  life,  there  is  only  one  rational  and 
thoroughly  consistent  view  of  the  history 
of  the  ethnic  distinctions  existing  among 
mankind,  and  that  is  that  in  a  period 
far  remote,  beyond  the  beginning  of  hu- 
man annals  and  extending  to  a  great 
depth  in  the  prehistoric  ages,  mankind, 
of  a  given  type,  appeared  on  the  earth, 
and  that  in  the  vicissitudes  of  the  ages 
following,  far  below  the  remotest  rim  of 
historical  knowledge,  the  tribes  of  primi- 
tive men  gradually,  almost  impercepti- 
bly, diverged  from  the  common  type, 
taking  new  features  and  new  dispositions 
under  the  conditions  in  which  they  found 
themselves  by  migration,  dispersion,  and 
the  contingency  of  climate.  How  slowly 
these  forces  operate  in  producing  the 
changes  which  have  manifestly  been  ef- 
fected among  the  peoples  of  the  earth  is 
well  known  to  all  who  have  investigated 
the  subject,  and  those  who  have  never 
done  so  may  easily  apprehend  the  almost 
inconceivable  lapses  of  time  necessary  to 
effect  such  changes. 

The  problem  has  in  it  a  sort  of  math- 
ematical   basis — an    ethnic   calctilus  — 

suggestive     at    least   of    the    Deduction  of 

immense  distance  at  which,  To^^:^"^^, 
from  the  ethnological  point  departures, 
of  view,  the  origin  of  the  human  race 
must  be  placed.  As  was  intimated  in 
a  foregoing  paragraph,  we  have  what 
are  no  doubt  exact  representations  of  the 
different  race-types  at  a  period  nearly 
five  thousand  years  ago.  From  these, 
and  by  comparison  with  descendent 
forms,  we  may,  as  it  were,  compute  the 
rate  of  ethnic  change  in  the  human 
species.  It  is  noticeable  in  doing  so 
that  the  rate  is  more  rapid  under  civili- 
zation than  in  barbaristn— a  fact  the 
reverse  of  what  might  have  been  antic- 
ipated.     The    Negro    physiognomy   as 


TIME    OF   THE   BEG IXXIXG. —ETHNOLOGICAL   ARGUMEXT.      121 


depicted  in  the  Egyptian  sculptures  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  to-day ;  but 
thaCopt  of  modern  Egypt,  affected  as 
he  has  been  by  so  many  historical  in- 
fluences, has  diverged  not  a  little  from 
the  parent  Egyptian  type.  The  modern 
Greek  and  the  modern  Italian  are  dis- 
criminable  by  many  ethnic  marks  from 
the  great  Greek  of  the  ancient  world  and 
the  Roman  original ;  but  the  wild  men 
of  the  Asiatic  steppes,  and  no  doubt  the 
aborigines  of   the  American   continent, 


kind  had  been  evolved  and  established 
as  they  have  ever  since  remained,  how 
far  off  must  have  been  the  probabie  esti- 
beginnings  of  the  process!  ratLl/p^e-"" 
If    we   should  say   that   a  historic  ages, 
lapse  of  time    equal    to    five    times    the 
whole   distance    from  the   beginning:  of 
human  annals  to  the  present  day  should 
be  allowed  for  the  ethnic  divergence  of 
the  prehistoric  races,  we  should  certainly 
not  exaggerate  the  probabilities  of  the 
case.     That  many  thousands    of  years 


VALLEY  OF  THE  EUPHRATES-ONE  OF 
Drawn  by  Taylor,  from  a  photi 

have  changed  but  little  in  form  and  fea- 
ture during  several  milleniums.  This 
law  of  the  more  rapid  change  of  ethnic 
characteristics  under  the  civilized  life 
tends  to  lengthen,  rather  than  abbreviate, 
the  duration  of  that  prehistoric  period  in 
which  the  ethnic  peculiarities  of  the  vari- 
ous peoples  were  evolved  and  fixed. 

If,  therefore,  as  much  as  five  thousand 
■years  ago,  when  the  civilized  life  had 
•certainly  and  strongly  asserted  itself  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  and  had  probably 
appeared  in  the  valleys  of  the  Indus  and 

the  Euphrates,  the  ethnic  traits  of  man- 
M. — Vol.  I — 9 


THE  PRIMITIVE  SEATS  OF  MANKIND, 
ograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy, 

were  required  for  such  a  transformation 
of  peoples  and  kindreds  as  had  already 
taken  place  before  tradition  and  history 
began  to  record  the  words  and  deeds  of 
men,  can  hardly  be  doubted  by  any  one 
who  has  taken  an  enlarged  view  of  the 
subject. 

Not  only  has  the  prehistoric  divergence 
in  ethnic  traits  established  the  great  an- 
tiquity of  man,  but  the  testimony  derived 
from  this  source  has  been  corroborated 
by  the  fact  of  the  wide  distribution 
of  the  primitive  peoples  of  the  earth. 
Within  the  historical  period  only  a  few 


122 


GREAT  RACES    OF  MANKIND. 


places,  and  these  for  the  most  part  islands, 
have  been  found  which  were  not  already- 
Time  required  occupied  bv  human  beings 
^°;r'iwa"esthe  ^^  the  tim'c  of  discovery. 
estimate.  Some    of    the    West    India 

islands  were  uninhabited  at  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  The  same  cir- 
cumstance has  been  noted  in  Polynesia. 
But  as  a  general  fact  the  world  has  all 
been  inhabited,  even  from  antiquity. 
More  than  this:  the  first  comers,  even 
thousands  of  years  ago,  invariably  found 
the  countries  into  which  they  made  their 
eruptions  already  peopled  by  an  earlier 
race.  It  may  readily  be  granted  that 
the  old  Aryans  themselves,  before  the 
dawn  of  histor}',  making  their  way  Avest- 
ward,  found  no  uninhabited  regions. 
As  far  back  as  we  are  able  to  reach  by 
historical  record  and  tradition,  we  note 
the  same  condition — the  same  invariable 
circumstance  of  the  universal  occupancy 
of  the  world  by  men. 

The  fact  of  this  early  diffusion  of  the 
human  race  6ver  the  earth  tends  strongly 
Subjective  and  to  establish  the  great  an- 
drfnceslo'^Sf-  tiquity  of  the  race.  This 
fusion  of  races,  view  of  the  situation  in  pre- 
historic times  is  intensified  when  we  take 
into  consideration  the  difficulties  which 
confronted  the  first  men  in  making  their 
way  from  place  to  place.  Great  were 
the  barriers  and  obstacles  which  con- 
stantly interposed  themselves  to  the 
movements  of  primitive  mankind.  The 
common  idea  of  tribal  migration  is  al- 
most wholly  erroneous.  True,  there 
were  times  and  peculiar  conditions  under 
which  primitive  peoples  moved  out  from 
their  old  seats  and  in  a  phenomenal  man- 
ner made  their  way  across  the  prehis- 
toric landscape  into  new  countries,  new 
islands,  and  even  new  continents.  But, 
on  the  whole,  the  distribution  of  mankind 
over  the  earth  has  not  been  effected  by 
Migration,   but  by   diffusion.     The    race 


has  diffused  itself,  like  the  slow  growth 
of  a  vine  creeping  over  the  surface  at  a 
rate  so  small  that  it  can  not  be  detected 
by  the  senses.  Only  after  a  lapse  of 
time  are  we  able  to  see  that  the  vine  has 
taken  a  new  and  advanced  position.  In 
like  manner  the  first  men  spread  over 
the  surface  of  the  earth  by  gradual  dif- 
fusion. Whenever  a  really  favorable 
situation  was  reached  by  the  outlying 
members  of  the  tribe,  then  there  would 
be  a  movement  somewhat  more  rapid  in 
that  direction,  until  the  better  place  so 
discovered  was  peopled  and  dispossessed 
of  its  native  treasures. 

By  right  reason  we  are  able  to  see  the 
spreading  volume  of  the  human  race  in 
the  prehistoric  ages.  The  siowmovement 
advance  of  the  frontier  line  Sl^^^^r^L 
in  every  given  direction  tribution. 
would  be  like  the  current  of  Caesar's 
river,  ' '  so  .slow  that  by  the  natural  eye 
the  direction  of  the  current  could  not  be 
determined."  What  we  are  here  con- 
cerned to  note  is  the  great  period  of  time 
requisite  for  the  distribution  of  the  prim- 
itive peoples  over  the  earth  and  the 
consequent  high  antiquit}^  of  the  race. 
The  process  or  processes,  for  instance, 
by  which  a  population  was  finally  con- 
tributed to  the  i.slands  of  the  Pacific  and 
to  the  American  continents  must  have 
been  so  tedious,  so  much  retarded  by 
the  opposing  conditions  of  the  natural 
world,  so  greatly  heightened  by  the  bar- 
baric .state  of  the  primitive  tribes  by 
which  the  work  was  accomplished,  so 
long  held  back  by  pau.ses  and  retrogres- 
sions as  to  demand  for  the  accomplish- 
ment what  may  well  be  estimated  not  at 
a  hundred  or  a  thousand  years,  but  at 
an  eon  of  time. 

Certain  facts  must  constantly  be  borne 
in  mind  which  by  their  nature  must 
have  long  retarded  the  distribution 
of   the   original   races   over    the   earth. 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL   ARGUMENT.      123 


The  work  was  effected  in  some  way  be- 
fore the  dawn  of  civilization.  This  sig- 
Particuiarob-  nifies  that  men  in  a  state 
staciestobesur-  q£  nature  inhabited  a  nat- 

mounted  in  mi- 
gration of  races,    ural  world,    little   modified 

as  yet  by  the  influence  of  its  inhabitants. 
It  is  almost  impossible  for  men  under 
the  civilized  life  to  realize  the  difficulty 
Vvhicli  a  primeval  people,  a  real  aborigi- 
nal tribe,  would  experience  in  attempt- 
ing so  simple  a  feat  as  crossing  a  river. 
We  may  suppose  that  the  aboriginal  man 
"Dould  swim;  but  the  transportation 
of  children  across  a  broad  and  rapid 
stream  must  have  been  to  the  men  of 
the  first  epoch  an  almost  impossible 
task.  No  doubt  the  introduction  of 
boats  and  rafts  was  an  event  belong- 
ing to  a  very  early  age  in  the  human 
evolution.  Nevertheless,  there  was 
a  time  when  primeval  savages  worked 
their  way  up  slowly,  cautiously,  dis- 
trustfully to  the  concept  of  a  canoe 
with  as  much  difficulty,  aye,  much 
greater  difficulty,  than  the  modern 
man  has  experienced  in  the  idea  and 
construction  of  the  ocean  steamer. 
Indeed,  every  advance  which  marked 
the  slow  progress  of  mankind  in  the 
prehistoric  ages  was  attended  with 
such  labor  and  doubt  and  tedious  ap- 
proaches of  attempt  and  failure  as  must 
have  retarded  for  almost  immemorial 
ages  the  coming  of  primitive  civiliza- 
tion. All  calculations  respecting  the  an- 
tiquity of  man,  which  do  not  include 
among  the  prominent  elements  of  the 
problem  these  facts  respecting  the  dif- 
ficulties interposed  by  nature  to  the  dif- 
fusion of  the  first  races  over  the  earth, 
are  inadequate  and  erroneous  in  their 
bottom  principles. 

In  all  the  primeval  world  there  was 
not  a  single  highway.  Nature  builds 
no  roads,  constructs  no  bridges.  We 
must  remember  in  this  connection  that 


in   all  that  vast  and  warlike  world  re- 
vealed to  us  in  the  history  of  Egypt  and 
India  and  Greece  and  Car-  Absence  of 
thage     and     Rome     there  Z^.ll^ 
was   not   a    single    tunnel,  primeval  ages. 
The  aqueduct,   the  viaduct,   the  sewer, 
even  the  Cloaca  Maxima,   were  known 
at  a  very  early  age;  and  the  building 
abilities  of  the  people  were  able  to  have 
produced  a  tunnel  in  the  proper  sense; 
but  it  remained  not  for  the  age  of  Alex- 
ander or  Caesar  or  the  Antonies,  not  for 


PROGRESS   OK    IKIMEVAL   MAN    BY   WATER. 

the  epoch  of  Justinian  or  the  era  of 
Charlemagne,  not  for  the  Renaissance  or 
the  times  of  Napoleon,  but  for  the  nine- 
teenth century  to  construct  the  first  under- 
ground passageway  for  the  movements 
of  civilization — the  quick  transit  of  men 
and  merchandise. 

We  have  already  referred  more  than 
once  to  the  tremendous  obstacle  of  the 
seas  and  oceans.  With  what  a  sense  of 
impotency  must  the  primitive  man  have 
come  to  the  sea.shore !  Even  after  the 
age  of  boats  and  ships,  how  did  he  cling 
to  the  shores  and  inlets  of  the  seemingly 
infinite  deep !     It  must  be  remembered 


124 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Check  offered  to 
ethnic  progress 
by  seas  and 
oceans. 


that  the  concept  nf  the  impassibility  of 
the  sea  and  even  of  lakes  and  rivers  was 
one  of  those  ideas  which 
in  the  early  ages  of  the 
world  became  fixed  by  the 
law  of  heredity — transmitted  from  gen- 
eration to  generation,  until  it  was  a  part 
of  the  intellectual  and  even  the  reli- 
gious belief  of  the  primitive  peoples.  No 
science  but  history — and  history  not 
well — is  able  to  estimate  at  its  full  value 


the  rate  of  diffusion  by  which  the  earth 
was  peopled  with  the  aboriginal  races; 

the    slowness    of    the    prog-    Rate  of  race  dif- 

ress  by  which  from  valley  L^teSfro':: rb"' 
to  valley,  from  river  to  stacies  thereto, 
river,  through  untrodden  forests,  from 
shore  to  shore,  and  finally  from  conti- 
nent to  continent,  the  aborigines  of  the 
world  at  last  made  their  way  into  its  more 
favorable  and  favoring  parts;  the  vast, 
almost  immeasurable,  periods  of  duration 


THE  AGE  OF  bOATS.— Eakliks     N 


Hic  Epoch. 


the  retarding  and  paralyzing  effect  of 
hereditary  beliefs  upon  even  the  physi- 
cal, to  say  nothing  of  the  intellectual 
and  moral,  progress  of  mankind.  Not 
infrequently  we  find  the  forward  march 
utterly  impeded  and  a  given  people  held 
absolutely  to  their  last  camping  ground 
for  a  thousand  years  by  a  single  hereditary 
thought  driven  down  like  their  tent  pins 
through  the  belief  and  practice  of  that 
kindred. 

The    significance    of   these    facts  and 
principles  is  their  powerful  bearing  on 


that  must  have  elapsed  between  the 
beginning  and  the  end  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  human  race,  and  the  con- 
sequent remoteness  of  the  date  which 
must  be  assigned  for  the  appearance  of 
man  on  the  earth. 

Every  part   of   the  problem  tends  to 
establish  the  same  conclusion.     Perhaps 

the  most  striking    attribute    Division  and  de- 

of   man   is   his   faculty   of  TangS^gTsVe' 
speech.     Language' is  his.   quire  great  time. 
Philology    as    a    science  has  risen,  as  a 
branch    of    anthropological     study,     to 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL  ARGUMENT.      125 

explain  and  interpret  the  significance  of  '  among  the  varieties  of  human  speech, 
linguistic  phenomena.  It  is  not  our  We  desire  to  refer  to  the  subject  only  in 
purpose  in  this  connection  to  review  the  i  corroboration  of  the   conclusions  whicli 


npoc    Oec  C  A  \on     3^ 


OT/T\AYTA6  nA'eeTCK  VlYMeJG 

K  /^e  UJ  C  KM  ^V  XO  I     f^^^if^  ^T^^^rm:  ^^  W^: 


Sanskrit 


u 


i 

Egyptian  Hieratic  ^eleventh  dynasty).  *  I 


i^U 


Egyptian  Hieiaiii;  (Grarco-Riinian  I'enod).  *     *        i »—     '^7 

— ^   At 


i^  ^ 


Arabic.  .^  i 

«ii^a  =niHa=^i1„  7/   Tiif  ^ni  Qh?.  i^   Sr 

^nfliiKi-lK  a  jJ<HlS  n  211^,  Hq  li>l 5.114 

©OQ.   "Hln-  .■\ram.V,c 

Parsee, 


•V' 


DIFFERENTIATION  OF  LANGU.\GES  ILLUSTRATED  IN  ANXIENT  STYLES  OF  WRITINGS. 

history  of   language,   or   to  discuss  the    have  been  already  deduced  from  other 

varieties   of   form   in  which  it  has  ap-    kinds  of  knowledge. 

peared,    and    the   correlations   existing         Each  ethnic  branch  of  the  human  race 


126 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


has  its  own  form  of  language.  Among 
the  peoples  who  compose  a  given  family 
Time  a  condition  of  mankind  there  is  gen- 
ofltTiectsanS  orally  a  common  speech 
languages.  with  dialectical  differences. 

These  differences  sometimes  become  so 
well  marked  and  firmly  fixed  as  to  con- 
stitute independent  languages.  This 
process  of  linguistic  differentiation  re- 
quires time  as  one  of  the  conditions  of 
its  accomplishment.  As  a  rule,  the  rate 
of  change,  even  in  the  alteration  of  an 
accent,  is  slow,  and  the  larger  transfor- 
mations are  even  more  difficult  to  be 
accomplished.  Human  language  passes 
through  changes  and  modifications  under 
the  law  of  evolution  just  as  the  mind 
does,  which  requires  speech  as  one  of 
its  functions.  In  the  case  of  peoples 
intellectually  active,  and  as  yet  not  re- 
stricted by  the  set  forms  of  literary  ex- 
pression, linguistic  mutation  is  more 
rapid ;  but  among  barbarians  and  con- 
servative races  marked  with  little  activity 
of  thought  speech  continues  in  set  forms 
for  long  periods  of  duration. 

The  division  of  mankind  into  families 
and  races  has  been  largely  determined 
Linguistic  dif-  by  means  of  language. 
?nd?n:ra&  Some  of  the  differences  by 
1516.  which   one    family  of  lan- 

guages is  discriminated  from  another 
are  very  deep  and  ineradicable.  The 
forms  of  speech  by  which  the  Semitic 
peoples  are  distinguished  are  fundamen- 
tally different  from  the  forms  employed 
by  the  Aryan  races,  and  these  in  their 
turn  are  radically  of  another  type  from 
those  employed  by  the  Turanians.  The 
very  root-forms  of  the  vSemitic  languages, 
so  called,  are  imknown  in  the  Indo-Eu- 
ropic  tongues.  It  has  been  claimed  by 
philologists  that  not  more  than  ten  com- 
mon radicals  exist  in  the  Aryan  and 
Semitic  vocabularies.  Even  the  few 
cases  of  identity  may  doubtless  be  ex- 


plained by  reasons  other  than  linguistic 
affinity. 

The  same    utter    dissimilarity  exists 
in    the  grammar   of    the   two   families 

of       speech       referred        to.    utter  dissimilar- 

There  are  no  common  ^^^Vlf^r^rn^s 
features  in  the  sentential  of  speech, 
structure  and  composition  of  the  two 
types  of  language.  The  development 
of  the  speech-forms  of  the  two  seems  to 
have  been  by  the  law  of  contraries ;  in- 
somuch that  the  student  of  a  Semitic 
language  must  transpose  his  very  meth- 
ods of  thought  and  abandon  all  of  his 
preconceptions  and  principles  of  analogy 
before  he  can  enter  the  spirit  of  the 
strange  linguistic  structure  before  him. 
The  student  who  has  mastered  Latin 
and  French  may  take  up  Spanish  and 
find  so  much  that  is  common  to  what  he 
has  already  learned,  so  much  that  is  in 
analogy  with  all  his  preconceptions  and 
knowledge,  that  his  task  is  as  easy  as  to 
go  to  the  same  city  by  a  slightly  diver- 
gent route ;  but  not  .so  in  the  acquirement 
of  Hebrew  or  Arabic. 

What  we  are  here  concerned  to  note, 
however,  is  that  the  profound  structural 
differences  between  the  such  structural 
great  divisions  of  human  ^I.T^rg"  eat  peri- 
speech  must  have  required  odsoftime. 
long  periods  of  time  for  their  production. 
How  long  these  periods  have  been  to  ef- 
fect the  given  result  it  were  but  conjec- 
ture to  estimate.  The  problem  is  exactly 
analogous  to  that  presented  by  the  dis- 
persion of  races.  There  has  been  a 
dispersion  of  speech.  Whether  it  is 
possible,  indeed,  to  refer  all  languages 
to  a  common  point  of  departure  is 
matter  of  dispute  among  linguists  of  the 
highest  authority.  The  attempt  to  de- 
rive Hebrew  and  German  from  a  single 
original  is,  to  say  the  least,  beset  with 
as  many  difficulties  as  confronts  the  eth- 
nologist in  his  effiMl  to  trace  an  Anglo- 


TIME   OF   THE   BEGINNING.— ETHNOLOGICAL   ARGUMENT.      127 


of  common  ori- 
gin time  must 
be  greater. 


American  to  the  same  stock  with  an 
aboriginal  Australian.  All  that  we  are 
at  liberty,  in  face  of  the  facts,  to  say  is 
that  it  may  be  done ;  and  in  such  a  hy- 
pothesis, whether  for  the  different  races 
themselves  or  for  the  languages  which 
they  speak,  we  are  encouraged  by  the 
results  thus  far  attained  in  philology  and 
ethnology,  nearly  all  of  which  tend  to 
support  the  belief  in  the  monogenetic 
origin  of  mankind  and  a  common  orig- 
inal for  all  human  speech. 

The  great  significance,  therefore,  of 
all  that  we  have  been  able  to  learn  with 
If  languages  be  respect  to  the  languages  of 
the  world  is  that  if  they  are 
of  a  common  derivation, 
then  the  lapse  of  time  required  for  the 
production  of  their  several  forms  must 
have  been  very  great.  At  the  daydawn 
of  history  human  speech  had  already 
been  deflected  into  forms  even  more 
variant  than  those  at  the  present  exist- 
ing. At  that  epoch  the  inflectional 
languages  were  in  full  efflorescence. 
The  Sanskrit  and  the  Greek  presented 
examples  of  completeness  in  structural 
development  for  which  the  student  of 
language  must  search  in  vain  among  the 
current  tongues.  Already  at  that  most 
remote  date,  on  the  easternmost  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  a  Semitic  lan- 
guage had  perfected  itself  into  that  per- 
fect triliteral  rigidity  which  we  see  in 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Hebrews.  In  a 
word,  the  linguistic  types  were  as  far 
apart  and  as  well  established  in  that 
remote  morning  of  civilized  life  as  they 
are  to-day.  The  whole  divergence  be- 
tween them  had  been  effected  before  the 


Hebrew  as  a  Hebrew  and  the  Greek  as 
a  Greek  had  made  their  appearance  in 
the  remotest  dawn  of  tradition  and 
story. 

This  period  of  divergence  must  have 
been   of   great   duration   indeed.      The 

conditions   of    the    case  are    Ages  demanded 

for  production 
such   as    to    force    us    to   be-    of  Hebrew  and 

lieve  that  the  prehistoric  common°st'em. 
age  or  ages  in  which  the  Greek  and  the 
Hebrew — as  examples  for  all  others — 
were  parted  from  a  common  linguistic 
original  must  have  been  so  great  as  to 
place  the  date  of  the  origin  far  be- 
yond the  puny  calculations  which  were 
accepted  aforetime  as  not  only  probable 
but  authentic.  Even  beyond  this  im- 
aginary point  of  departure  for  the  two 
languages  from  a  common  linguistic 
original  we  are  obliged  to  look  still 
further  and  take  into  account  the  vast 
structure  and  derivation  of  the  Oriental 
tongues.  In  doing  so,  geographical 
difficulties  have  to  be  overcome.  The 
high  mountains  of  Asia  must  be  sur- 
passed and  vast  ethnical  obstacles  re- 
moved before  we  can  combine  the  line  of 
the  Mongolian  languages  with  that  of 
the  races  of  Western  Asia  and  Europe. 
In  other  words,  the  same  profound  per- 
spective is  here  required  as  in  the  case  of 
the  dispersion  of  races  and  of  the  geolog- 
ical history  of  primeval  man.  It  is  as 
difficult  to  reach  a  common  original  for 
all  existing  linguistic  forms  as  it  is  to 
find  a  common  ancestry  for  the  cave 
dwellers  of  Western  Europe,  the  native 
Australians,  the  blubber-eating  Esqui- 
maux, and  the  flint-chipping  barbarians 
of  Polynesia. 


128 


GREAT  RACr.S   OF  MAXKIXD. 


Chaptkr  VI.— History  ani3  Tka.ditiox. 


S  Nve  approach  the  pres- 
ent, through  the  vari- 
ous branches  of  inquiry 
which  have  occupied 
our  attention,  we  come 
at  length  to  History 
and  Tradition.  If  the 
first  of  these  were  complete,  or  the  other 
trustworthy,  we  might  walk  with  more 
confidence  through  the  shadowland  of 
the  past.  We  are  constrained,  however, 
to  take  history  as  it  is,  with  all  its  in- 
completeness and  tradition,  with  all  its 
crudity,  contradictions,  and  inflections, 
and  to  gain  therefrom  whatever  we  may 
respecting  the  date  of  the  appearance  of 
man  on  the  earth.  In  the  first  place,  his- 
why  history        torv  as  an  oracle  is  silent  on 

recuVofthe        this  subject;     but  this  is  UO 

beginning.  more  than  what  we  should 

e.xpect.  Indeed,  if  the  historian,  with- 
out the  light  reflected  from  other  fields 
of  inquiry,  should  attempt  to  fix  a  cal- 
endar for  the  prehistoric  ages,  he  would 
at  once  denounce  himself  to  the  thinkers 
of  all  posterit}'.  History  is  a  product  of 
the  conscious  and  reflective  life  of  man 
— of  that  civilized  life  upon  which  the 
race  enters  after  it  has  reached  the 
stage  of  a  high  human  evolution.  "What, 
therefore,  shall  history  be  able  to  record 
about  the  unconscious  life  of  the  race 
extending  Below  the  horizon  of  the  past, 
and  impo.ssible  of  approach  by  any  back- 
ward exploration  ? 

In  the   first  chapter  of  this  work  we 

have  attempted  to  define  what  history  is, 

and  to  show  its  limitations. 

Two  distinct 

types  ofhistori-    There  have  been  two  clear- 

cal  composition.    i       •,  •    ^  •       .       •  ■• 

ly  distmct  views  and  prac- 
tices in  the  composition  of  historical 
narrative.     There  was  an  ancient  type, 


and  there  is  a  new  type.  The  first  was 
pictorial,  descriptive;  the  other  is  ex- 
pository and  sociological.  The  first  pro- 
ceeded no  further  than  men  and  the  deeds 
of  men ;  the  second  reaches  through  all 
the  individual  aspects  of  human  life,  and 
through  the  deeds  which  men  have 
seemed  to  accomplish,  to  the  event,  to  the 
cause  of  the  event,  and  to  the  great  social 
evolution  of  which  the  event  is  but  the 
temporary  expression. 

The  ancient  history  aimed  at  a  perfect 
.style  and  form  of  narrative,  at  dignity 
of   language  and  eloquent 

"       ^  ^  .  Spirit  and  aim  o* 

deductions    from  the  lives  the  old  history 

T  ,  .  J.  Ti    and  the  new. 

and  actions  of  men.  It 
was  far  more  concerned  about  the  turn- 
ing of  a  period  than  about  the  accuracy 
of  the  research  and  the  authenticity  of 
the  data  which  it  employed.  In  the  new 
history  we  might  .say  that  there  is  little 
concern  about  the  form  and  expression, 
but  an  infinity  of  painstaking  with  re- 
spect to  the  materials  of  the  narrative  and 
an  ever-increasing  interest  in  those  lines 
of  causation  by  which  all  events  are  held 
together  in  a  single  great  event  consti- 
tuting the  totality  of  human  life.  It  is 
almost  needless  to  add  that  the  new  his- 
tory is  a  creation  of  the  present  century, 
and  that  by  its  method  and  spirit  and 
the  significance  of  its  results  it  is  destined 
to  relegate  all  the  previous  historical  la- 
bors of  mankind  to  the  place  of  the  iiiatc^ 
rials  of  history  rather  than  history  itself. 
We  must,  however,  in  an  inquiry  like 
the  present,  freely  and  gladly  accept  all 

historical      productions       as   The  present  in- 

of  value  and   importance,  ^'^''-y  "^^^es 

"  tree  use  of  all 

This  is  particularly  true  of  materials, 
the  products  of  the  early  ages,  as  they 
lie  so  much  nearer  than  the  present  to 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— HISTORICAL  ARGUMENT. 


129 


the  beginnings  of  civilization  and  the 
first  conscious  life  of  the  race.  They 
express  at  least  the  concepts,  beliefs,  and 
philosophy  of  the  greatest  minds  of  an- 
tiquity. They  reveal  to  us,  without  in- 
tentional effort  to  do  so,  many  aspects  of 
the  societies  which  rose  and  flourished 
around  the  Medi- 
terranean. I  n 
some  there  is  an 
attempt  to  revive 
in  the  historical 
garb  the  myth 
and  tradition  of 
the  prehistoric 
ages,  and  thus  to 
acquaint  the  read- 
er with  the  move- 
ments of  mankind 
before  the  dawn. 

History,  as  a 
species  of  compo- 
sition, was  invent- 
ed by  the  Greeks 
in  the  fifth  century 
before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  To  that 
age  belong  He- 
rodotus, Thucydi- 
des,  and  Xeno- 
phon.  Ctesias, 
Philistus,  Theo- 
pompu  s,  and 
Ephorus  came 
afterwards,  each 
with  his  particular 
merits  and  blem- 
ishes, and  with  an 


the  Greek  masters.  From  the  Graeco- 
Italic  fountains  literature,  including 
history  as  one  of  its  branches,  flowed 
down  and  mingled  with  the  intellectual 
life  of  all  the  peoples  of  Western  Europe, 
and  finally  with  that  of  the  New  World. 
It  is  only  within  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 


THOTH   AND   SAFEKH   (GODDESS    OF    HISTORY)    WRITING   THE   DEEDS   OF    KAMSES    11. 
Drawn  by  B.  Strassberger. 


evident  decline  from  their  greater  pred- 
ecessors. With  the  spread  of  Roman 
Rise  and  dissem-  power  and  the  conversion 
of  Hellas  into  a  province, 
the  seat  of  culture  was 
transplanted  to  the  Tiber ;  but  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  Roman  muses  were  never 
equal  in  spirit  and   art  to  the  works  of 


ination  of  his 
tory  in  Europe 
and  America. 


teenth  centuries  that  the  models  of  the 
classical  ages  have  been  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent put  aside  and  the  scientific  type  of 
composition  substituted  in  their  stead. 

It  is  possible,  even  probable,  that  a 
better  acquaintance  with  Chinese  liter- 
ature and  with  that  of  India  will  put  us 
into  possession  of  historical  works  of  a 


ISO 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


more  ancient  date  than  those  of  Greece ; 
but  the  question  is  still  an  open  one  in 
the  hands  of  explorers  and  Oriental 
scholars.  Not  so,  however,  with  the 
Possible  open-  sacred  books  of  the  East, 
ingofnewhis-     'p^gj^g  have  in  man}' parts 

torical  vistas  ni  •'    ^   _ 

the  East.  at    least    a    semihistoncal 

character.  Perhaps  none  of  them  were 
produced  with  the  true  historical  intent. 
The  annals  and  chronicles  which  we  find 
among-  tlic  literary  remains  of  the  East 
Indian  races,  the  Mesopotamian  nations, 
the  Egyptians,  and  the  Hebrews  in  par- 
ticular, were  not  formulated  by  the  an- 
cient seers  and  scribes  with  a  view  to 
the  preservation  of  an  authentic  narra- 
tive of  events,  but  with  the  ulterior  pur- 
pose of  furnishing  a  mold  and  matrix  in 
which  the  religious  history  and  polity  of 
the  respective  peoples  should  be  ex- 
pressed, established,  and  perpetuated. 
Nevertheless,  historical  narratives  of 
this  secondary  kind  have  a  great  value 
as  a  source  of  information  respecting  the 
early  progress  of  the  race. 

The  oldest  works  of  the  kind  referred 

to,  belonging  to    the  literature    of   the 

Arvan  race,  are  the  sacred 

Old  historical  '  /•       i  -n      i 

documents  of       books    of    the    Brahmaus, 

the  Aryan  races.    . ,  .       .       ,      .        i  •   i 

the  principal  of  which  are 
known  collectively  by  the  name  of  the 
Vedas,  This  work,  like  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  is  made  up  of  parts  which  were 
produced  at  successive  intervals  of  time, 
extending  in  the  aggregate  over  a  great 
period  of  duration.  The  oldest  of  the 
Vedas  has  been  assigned  to  the  era  be- 
tween the  twenty-first  and  the  nineteenth 
century  B.  C.  While  the  work  in  ques- 
tion is  by  no  means  historical  in  its  de- 
sign, it  contains  not  a  little  historical 
matter,  and  may  thus  be  accepted  as  the 
earliest  existent  hint  of  the  condition  of 
society  among  the  Aryan  peoples  at  a 
distance  of  twenty  centuries  beyond  the 
Christian  era. 


Among  the  Hamitic  races  still  more 
ancient  records  have  been  preserved. 
The  condition  of  literature  Karaites  pre- 
(even  historical  literature)  r^tntrapo^a^ 
at  the  time  of  the  visit  of  documents. 
Herodotus  to  Egypt  was  of  a  kind  to  im- 
press  that  forerunner  of  European  his- 
tory with  a  sense  of  remote  antiquity 
such  as  the  modern  inquirer  experiences 
in  examining  the  oldest  Greek  manu- 
scripts in  existence.  The  records  of 
ancient  Egypt,  whether  engraved  on 
granite  shafts  and  the  walls  of  palaces 
and  tombs,  or  written  on  sheets  of  pa- 
pyrus, are  undoubtedly  the  oldest  con- 
temporary  documents  in  the  possession  of 
mankind — unless  future  researches  into 
the  literature  of  China  should  bring  to 
light  others  still  more  ancient. 

The  antiquity  of  the  writings  com- 
posing the  Scriptures  of  the  Hebrews 
has  never   been   definitelv  „  ,    , 

'     Time  and  place 

determined  ;    but  they  are  of  the  Hebrew 

,  ,  ,      1    ,    "     ji        historical  books. 

known  to  antedate  the 
writings  of  Herodotus,  if  not  the  poems 
of  Homer.  It  Avas  about  the  eighth 
century  B.  C.  that  the  prophets  and 
scribes  of  Israel  began  to  reduce  tlicii 
oral  utterances  to  the  fixed  form  of  man- 
uscript. Writing,  however,  already 
existed  among  the  Hebrews  and  other 
Semitic  peoples  long  before  this  date. 
In  the  time  of  Josiah,  reigning  at  the 
middle  of  the  seventh  century  B.  C,  a 
Book  of  the  Law  was  discovered,  contain- 
ing, as  is  believed,  Deuteronomy  and 
some  other  fragments  of  more  ancient 
composition,  and  these  were  used  by  the 
king  and  the  hierarchy  in  a  religious  ref- 
ormation of  the  people.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, until  after  the  times  of  the  Babylo- 
nian captivity  of  the  Jews  that  most  of 
the  sacred  books  of  Israel  were  composed, 
approximately  in  their  present  forms. 

Behind  all  the  writings,  historical  and 
semihistorical,    poetical,    mvthical.    and 


TIME    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— HISTORICAL   ARGUMENT.  131 


prophetic,  to  which  reference  has  been 
made  in  the  preceding  pages,  lies  the 
Tradition  pre-      age  of  tradition.     Certain 

gte'^^nh^b'^S-  it  ''^  that  human  thought 
nings  of  history,  jmd    Speech    long   precede 

the  fact  of  Avritten  records.  There  Avas 
a  period  in  the  history  of  mankind  when 
the  imagination  of  the  more  highly 
developed  peoples  ran  riot  through  all 
the  forms  of  fiction  and  mythology-.  The 
beliefs,  hopes,  longings,  purposes,  and 
doubtless  the  dreams  of  the  primitive 
races  issued  from  a  thousand  fountains 
and  combined  their  products  in  a  volume 
of  oral  tradition.  The  lore  of  one  age 
"was  handed  down  to  the  next,  sometimes 
in  its  integrity,  and  sometimes  greatly 
modified  and  inflected  by  the  additions 
made  thereto  by  subsequent  myth- 
makers  and  story-tellers. 

We  must  remember  constantly  the  dif- 
ference between  history  and  tradition. 
Difference  be-  The  first  rests,  however  re- 
^ore^rdtr  mote  the  subject-matter 
tory.  may  be,  on  the  testimony  of 

witnesses  contemporary  with  the  facts  de- 
scribed ;  the  latter  reposes  on  the  testi- 
mony of  those  who  were  removed  in  time 
or  place,  or  both,  from  the  circumstances 
and  events  constituting  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  stor}'.  History'  transcribes 
directly  from  the  eyewitness,  the  ear- 
witness,  of  the  event,  or  from  the  manu- 
scripts and  sculptures  made  by  them; 
while  tradition  repeats  a  narrative  which 
has  been  transmitted  from  tongue  to 
tongue,  transformed  through  all  the  un- 
certainties of  memory  and  speech,  and  de- 
livered to  the  fixedness  of  literary  form 
only  after  the  lapse  of  generations." 

It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  history, 


'  A  good  example  of  the  historical  tradition  is  fur- 
nished in  the  storj-  of  Atlantis  as  given  by  Plato. 
When  Solon  was  a  traveler  in  Egypt,  near  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixth  century  B.  C  the  priest  of  Sa'is, 
pretending  to  a  prnfonnder  lore  of  the  past  than  was 


as   determinative   of  the   dates  of  past 
events,  has  in  it  two  elements  of  value. 
The   first  and  greatest  of  whatconsti- 
these  is  present  in  those  his-  '^"^^^  Wghest 

^  and  secondary 

torical     writings     or     sculp-    authenticity. 

tures  which  record  the  contemporary 
event  at  the  time  and  under  the  conditions  of 
its  occurrence.  Of  this  kind  are  such  writ- 
ings as  the  Covimentarics  of  Julius  Caesar, 
who  used  neither  tradition  nor  docu- 
ments, but  recorded  only  the  facts  of  his 
own  observation  and  experience  in  the 
Gallic  War.  To  the  same  class  belong 
a  part  of  the  writings  of  Josephus.  Many 
European  warriors  and  diplomats  have 
recorded  the  history  of  their  epochs  in 
books  of  memoirs,  most  instructive  to 
after  times.  The  last  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  has  witnessed  the  com- 
position of  much  historical  narrative  by 
the  participants  in  such  great  events  as 
the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States,  It 
is  needless  to  emphasize  the  superiority 
of  historical  narrative  composed  on  this 
plan  to  every  other  form  of  recorded  an- 
nals. The  second  element  of  value  and 
authenticity  is  found  in  those  writings 
which,  though  not  written  by  participants 
in  the  events  described,  are  based  ex- 
clusively upon  documents  and  evidences 
which  were   contemporaneous  with  the 

possessed  by  any  other  cult,  told  him  that  in  former 
ages  the  Athenians  had  been  great  in  war.  In  that 
remote  time  the  men  of  the  great  kingdom  Atlantis, 
beyond  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  had  made  war  on 
Europe  and  had  finally  been  driven  back  by  the 
Hellenes.  Solon,  on  his  return  to  Greece,  told  the 
story  to  his  friend  Criiias,  and  the  latter,  in  his  old 
age,  recited  it  to  his  grandson,  also  named  Critias. 
The  grandson  became  a  member,  in  his  mature  life, 
about  a  hundred  years  after  the  times  of  Solon,  of 
the  Socratic  group,  and  to  tlie  members  of  that  un- 
equalcd  club  he  told  one  day  what  his  grandfather 
had  heard  from  Solon.  Plato  afterwards  took  the 
story  up,  and  in  the  dialogue  oiTimceus  reduced  it  to 
literarj'  form.  The  world  is  much  concerned  to  know 
how  much  credence  may  be  given  to  the  tradition  of 
Atlantis  and  other  such  famous  narratives  handed 
down  from  the  primitive  ages. 


132 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


event  and  as  far  as  practicable  a  part 
thereof.' 

We  may  now  attempt  to  apply  certain 
principles  and  deductions  to  the  question 
Nocontempora-  of  the  antiquity  of  man  as 
neous  history  of  determined    bv    historical 

the  time  of  the  ■' 

beginning.  and    traditional    evidence. 

In  the  first  place,  history  in  the  primary 
intent  is,  out  of  the  nature  of  the  case, 
wholly  silent.  Nobody  saiv  the  advent 
of  mankind  on  the  earth.  The  first  men 
did  not  themselves  record  that  event  on 
stone  or  parchment.  Xo  memorial  or 
monument  exists  which  bears  remotely 
on  the  apparition  of  mankind  on  the 
earth.  No  diligence  of  antiquarian  re- 
search has  ever  been  rewarded,  or  can 
ever  be,  with  the  faintest  trace  of  an 
original  authority,  that  is,  of  contempo- 
rary evidence,  respecting  the  rise  of  the 
human  race.  The  case  stands  precisely 
as  might  be  anticipated  by  the  light  of 
right  reason.  No  man  remembers  his 
own  origin.  Xo  child  notes  its  coming 
into  the  world  by  making  a  reCord  of 
the  event  for  posterity.  To  suppose  as 
much  is  to  suppose  the  impossible.  For 
how  could  the  unconscious  being  make 
&  record  of  its  own  advent?  How  could 
primitive  man,  unacquainted  with  the 
arts,  a  stranger  to  the  desire  of  historical 
fame,  wholly  concerned  with  the  mate- 
rial wants  of  life  and  the  instinct  of  re- 
production, be  expected  to  create  memo- 
rials of  his  coming  in  a  record  which 
would  presuppose  reflection,  ambition, 
forethought,  and  the  desire  of  renown 
with  posterity? 

We  must  not,  therefore,  expect  to  find 
any  satisfactory  evidence  in  history  at 

'The  tirst  great  example  of  a  history  conforming 
throughout  to  this  lofty  standard  of  authenticity  was 
Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
which,  according  to  the  author's  own  testimony, 
was  deduced  throughout  from  documents  contem- 
porary with  the  events;  nothing  was  taken  at  second 
hand. 


first  hand  relative  to  the  date  of  man's 
appearance.  This  is  equivalent  to  say- 
ing, also,  that  history  in  its   History  from 

second  form,  that  is,  that  ^rcT-rJsofi. 
kind  of  historical  narrative  possible, 
which  is  derived  from  original  contem- 
poraneous documents,  inscriptions,  and 
monumental  remains,  is  likewise  silent 
about  the  time  of  the  beginning.  The 
first  men  were,  as  we  have  said  above, 
involved  in  labors  far  different  from  that 
of  producing  monuments  and  preparing 
parchments  for  the  interest  and  instruc- 
tion of  after  ages.  The  very  same  rea- 
son which  precludes  the  possibility  of 
the  first  man's  having  recorded  for  him- 
self the  time  of  his  coming,  by  monu- 
ment or  tablet,  precludes  also  the  possi- 
bility of  the  discovery  of  contemporary 
evidences  by  the  story-teller  or  historian 
of  after  times.  Why  should  an  antiqua- 
rian search  for  that  which  is  not?  Why 
should  the  archaeologist  hope  to  find  an 
inscription  which,  should  he  find  it, 
would  be  the  best  possible  proof  that  it 
did  not  bear  witness  to  the  beginning? 
Why  hope  that  some  contemporaneous 
monument  will  be  found  with  a  record 
of  an  age  which  neither  built  monu- 
ments nor  desired  to  be  remembered? 

While  it  is  true  that  history  in  its  first 
and  second  forms  and  also  in  its  primi- 
tive elements,  in  poem  and  important  de- 
sacred  book  and  rhapsody  frriil^thf^w 
and  prophetic  oracle,  can  cai  records, 
bear  no  direct  evidence  respecting  the 
antiquity  of  man,  there  is  a  collateral 
inference  drawn  therefrom  of  consider- 
able importance.  This  is  found  in  the 
fadt  that  the  first  writings  in  narrative 
form,  or  tending  to  that  form,  are  found 
at  very  early  stages  in  the  histories  of 
great  peoples  widely  separated  in  place 
and  already  developed  into  different  as- 
pects of  ethnic  life.  We  ma}'  accept  it 
as  true  that  writings  of  this  kind  existed 


TIME    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— HISTORICAL   ARGUMENT. 


133 


among  the  Chinese  as  much  as  fifteen 
centuries  before  our  era.  We  have  al- 
ready discovered  the 
beginnings  of  such  a 
literature  among  our 
Aryan  ancestors,  in 
the  valley  of  the  In- 
dus, as  far  back  as 
about  two  thousand 
years  B.  C.  The  his- 
torical remains  of  the 
valley  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Ti- 
gris reach  back  per- 
haps to  the  twenty- 
first  centur}-.  The 
monuments  of  Egypt 
bear  unquestionable 
evidence  of  the  exist- 
ence of  historical 
thought  and  expres- 
sion in  that  country 
about  twenty-four 
centuries  before  the 
current  era.  As  early 
as  the  eighth  century 
the  bards  and  proph- 
ets of  Israel  were 
wont  to  reduce  their 
utterances  to  poetical 
and  semihistorical 
forms.  We  find  the 
Greeks,  in  the  person 
of  Herodotus,  invent- 
ing historical  narra- 
tive proper  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixth 
century  B.  C,  and 
afterwards,  by  the  art 
of  Thucydides,  bring- 
ing that  species  of 
composition  to  a  per- 
fection which,  so  far 
as  structure  is  concerned,  has  never  been 
surpassed. 

We  thus  see  that  in  regions  far  remote 


from  each  other,  among  peoples  as  di- 
verse   in    ethnic    life    as    any    that    are 


!&. 


'm^S) 


3 


!^  D 


'0)|,, 


§ 


^1 


r^g 


D  D 


3i 


MP^ 

t^ 


c< 


^t^kt 


DFI^^^^li 


\n 


^^^^, 


V 


1>  i 


D   O 


g^FR))Vi 


t^ 


found  on  the  earth  at  the  present  time,  in 
forms  of  speech  as  widely  differentiated 
as  any  dialects  known  t6  philology,  there 


134 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKTND. 


were  at  least  the  rudiments  of  historical 
lore  at  a  date  ranging  from  six  to  twen- 
■WTiat  the  wide-  ty-four  centiirles  before  the 
apart  writings      Christian   era.      This  fact 

of  many  races 

signify.  of  itself  Constitutes  a  pow- 

erful argument  for  the  antiquity  of  the 
human  race.  Letters  and  the  art  of 
writing  are  among  the  later  products  of 
primeval  man.  Even  when  these  have 
been  invented,  it  requires  another  long 
period  of  development  to  bring  the  re- 
flective powers  and  the  art  of  composi- 
tion to  the  level  of  historical  narrative. 
We  speak  here  not  of  philosophical  his- 
tory, but  of  the  first  rude  attempts  of 
the  human  mind  to  make  record  of  the 
events  of  the  past.  To  these  considera- 
tions we  must  in  the  next  place  add  a 
third  period  of  great  duration  to  cover 
the  time  required  in  the  development  of 
the  mind  to  this  grade  of  activity  in 
wide-apart  localities.  If  it  be  true  that 
there  were  men  of  letters  engaged  in 
the  historical  art  in  China  at  an  epoch 
beyond  the  age  of  Homer  and  David ; 
if  it  be  true  that  at  a  still  earlier  period 
the  sages  of  the  Indus  valley  had  begun 
to  produce  narrative,  as  well  as  song ;  if 
it  be  true,  as  it  certainly  is,  that  the 
Greeks  as  a  nation  had,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century  B.  C,  reached  a 
stage  of  intellectual  progress  at  which 
the  story  of  Herodotus  might  be  received 
with  national  applause ;  if,  more  than 
all  this,  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  the 
priests  and  seers  of  the  age  of  the  pyra- 
mids devoted  them.selves  in  large  meas- 
ure to  the  composition  of  sacred  history 
and  philosophy,  then,  indeed,  how  great 
must  have  been  the  niitcccdoit  lapse  of 
time  requisite  for  the  evolution  of  these 
various  forms  of  ethnic  life  and  achieve- 
ment] 

We  thus  reach  the  subject  of  Tradi- 
tion proper.  While  history  in  the  true 
intent  does  not  presume  to  fix  the  time 


and  place  of  the  beginning,  tradition 
has  ever  been  busy  with  these  themes. 
In  almost  every  nation.  Tradition  be- 
among  almost  every  people,  ^ra  arouSd"t\T 
a  body  of  traditional  lore  conscious  life, 
has  been  produced  in  the  earlier  and 
half-conscious  epoch,  and  handed  down 
to  subsequent  times,  including  the  belief 
of  that  particular  branch  of  mankind 
with  respect  to  its  own  origin.  vSuch 
traditions  in  the  prehistoric  ages  became 
a  part  of  the  national  faith,  was  inter- 
woven with  the  folklore  of  the  people, 
and  afterwards  with  the  whole  system  of 
philosophical  belief.  The  myth  reached 
forward  out  of  the  past  and  grasped  the 
present.  The  poetical  fiction  mingled 
with  the  rudimentary  forms  of  history, 
and  became  a  wellnigh  inseparable  part 
thereof.  The  dream  of  the  prirnitive 
man  became  a  penunibra  around  the  life 
of  the  conscious  man,  and  thus  the  ear- 
lier ages  of  reflection  and  truth  were 
shadowed  and  haunted  with  the  fancies 
and  fictions  which  had  arisen  in  the 
childhood  of  the  race. 

Many  are  the  forms  and  applications 
of  tradition.  Generally  the  body  of 
primitive  belief  contained  Essential  arti- 
one  or  two  essential  arti-  t^,^^^^^::^ 
cles.  The  first  of  these,  as  race. 
a  rule,  declared  the  high  antiquity  of 
the  given  tribe  or  people.  It  was  a 
point  of  honor  among  the  primitive  races 
to  assert  priority.  The  Egyptians,  for 
instance,  scorning  the  narrow  limits  of 
earth-made  calendars,  declared  that  they, 
as  a  race,  were  Proscloioi ;  that  is.  Before 
the  Moon  !  Almost  every  tribe  and  in- 
cipient people  urged  some  extravagant 
claim  to  a  prior  possession  of  the  countr}^ 
or  place  which  they  occupied.  There 
seems  to  have  been  in  primitive  men, 
even  in  the  remotest  ages  of  violence 
and  barbarism,  some  notion  that  priority 
gave  right  and  advantage  to  him  who 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM   TRADITION.    135 


could  -issert  it  This  principle  in  human 
nature  acted  powerfully  against  the  pres- 
ervation of  a  belief  in  recent  migration, 
and  in  favor  of  the  assertion  of  long  oc- 
cupancy. Though  we  are  convinced  that 
the  world  was  peopled  by  the  diffusion 
of  races,  nearly  all  the  early  peoples  dis- 
claimed this  method  of  possession,  and 
asserted  immemorial  residence  in  their 
respective  countries. 

These  conditions  may  serve  to  explain 
the  general  prevalence  of  the  belief  in 
an  autochthonous  origin  among  the 
primitive  peoples  of  the  world.     There 


invasions  of  others  more  warlike  and 
adventurous. 

But  the  belief  among  the  ancient  peo- 
ples that  they  were  autochthones  did  not 
imply  simply  an  origin  from  Autochthony 
the  earth.     Vegetable  life  ^Ztt^..^. 

springs       from    .   the       soil,    etable  world. 

The  growth  of  plants  must  have  been 
one  of  the  first  and  most  tangible  phe- 
nomena recognized  by  the  senses  and  con- 
sidered by  the  reason  of  primitive  men. 
The  idea  that  they  themselves  might 
have  originated  in  like  manner  would 
have  been  natural  enough  to  the  situa- 


VIEW  OF  MOUNT  OTHRYS  FROM  TRIKHALI.— Drawn  by  Dosso,  after  Stackelberg. 


\vas  scarcely  an  extant  tradition  of 
human  genesis  which  did  not  associate 
the  beginning  of  man-life  and  tribe-life 
Universality  of  with  the  earth.  It  pleased 
toththonour  the  fancy  of  the  first  men 
*>"£''!•  to  declare   that  they  Avere 

earthborn,  or  at  least  that  the  power 
Avhich  called  them  into  existence  used 
the  earth  as  the  vehicle  and  substance  of 
creation.  There  was  thus  established, 
as  it  would  appear,  among  each  people  a 
sort  of  claim  to  the  earth  by  the  right  of 
an  indisputable  priority — a  claim  which 
the  reader  may  well  perceive  to  be  of 
great  use  to  sedentary  tribes  in  main- 
taining themselves  against  the  migratory 


tion ;   but  the  myth  took  always  another 
form. 

There    was    in    the    thought    of    an- 
tiquity a  conception  of  evolution  and  a 
conception  of  creation.     The  two  were 
blended.     Man  was  made  The  ancient 
out  of  clay ;  but  a  supernat-  ^C^x^^^l 
ural  being  was  the  maker,   creation. 
Among  the  Greeks  one  myth  ran  to  this 
effect,  that  the  first  men  were  plasvtata 
pclou,  that  is,  effigies  of  baked  clay  from 
the  hand  of   Prometheus.     And  for  this 
deed  the  jealous  deities  chained  him  to 
the  rocks  of   Caucasus.     The  more   fa- 
mous belief  was  that  which  assigned  the 
origin  of  mankind  to  the  act  of  Deucalion 


136 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


and  his  wife  Pyrrha.  These  twain, 
saved  from  a  deluge  of  waters,  reached 
Mount  Othrys,  where,  upon  landing,  they 
were  commanded  by  Zeus  to  cast  behind 
them  the  bones  of  their  mother.  Albeit 
the  bones  of  the  mother  meant  the 
stones  of  the  earth.  The.se  Deucalion 
and  his  wife  threw  down  the  hillside, 
and  forthwith  sprang  up  both  men  and 
women,  who  were  the  Stone  race,  the 
Laoi  of  Greek  mythology.  The  Indian 
myth  rims  to  the  effect  that  Prajapati, 
the  creator,  after  many  tentative  experi- 
ments, .succeeded  in  producing  from  the 
earth  a  race  of  beings  in  harmony  with 
their  environment,  and  therefore  capable 
of  surviving.  In  India,  however,  the 
fundamental  concept  of  the  genesis  of 
man  was  inflected  into  many  forms,  in- 
cluding beliefs  in  his  origin  from  the 
lower  animals,  rather  than  immediately 
from  the  earth.  The  legends  of  Greece, 
and  more  anciently  those  of  Egypt  and 
Libya,  generally  assigned  the  Cephissian 
marsh  as  the  scene  of  man's  creation — 
this  if  we  may  accept  a  fragment  of 
Pindar  as  authority. 

It  is  not  our  purpose,  however,  to  pur- 
sue the  forms  of  ancient  myths,  but  only 
Myths  of  the  to  sketch  their  general  char- 
acter and  to  deduce  there- 
from such  value  as  they 
may  hold  respecting  the  antiquity  of 
man.  It  is  clear,  in  the  first  place,  that 
the  above  views  relative  to  the  begin- 
ning of  human  life  belong  to  the  adoles- 
cent period  of  the  mind.  A  little  reflec- 
tion will  show  us  the  stage  in  the  life 
and  development  of  the  individual  to 
which  the  legendary  period  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  race  corresponds.  That 
stage  is  childhood ;  in  the  one  case  the 
childhood  of  the  individual,  and  in  the 
other  the  childhood  of  the  race.  The 
period  in  either  instance  is  that  in  which 
the  fancy  and  the  senses  are  wholly  pre- 


origin  of  man 
belong  to  race 
childhood. 


dominant  over  reason  and  the  reflective 
powers  of  the  mind. 

At  the  time  when  the  tradition  of  the 
kind  above  described  was  produced,  the 
mind  of  the  race  was  not  as  The  question 
yet  haunted  with  the  ques-  lX?do°esf 
tion.  Why?  nor  were  the  cence. 
insuperable  difficulties  which  rose  in  the 
way  of  such  myths  regarded  as  of  the 
slightest  value.  For  instance,  the  ques- 
tion might  well  have  arisen  among  the 
Greeks  how  it  was  that  the  clay-baked 
beginnings  who  aro.se  into  consciousness 
under  the  touch  of  Prometheus  could 
have  known  ought  of  their  origin.  How 
could  an  autochthonous  people  have  had 
the  slightest  memory  of  the  process  by 
which  they  came  into  being?  How  did 
the  Laoi  of  Deucalion  understand  that 
they  had  been  produced  by  the  flinging 
behind  of  stones?  Yet  these  very  ob- 
vious forms  of  rationalism  seem  never 
to  have  occurred  to  the  wise  Greeks, 
even  of  the  classical  ages. 

All  this  is  in  e.xact  analogy  with  the 
life  of  the  individual.  The  child-mind 
is  not  at  all  concerned  about 

.  ...  Child-mind  of 

the      inconsistencies      of      a    individual  and 
,  (Ti        ii      i  1  r    of  race  alike. 

story.  io  that  grade  of 
intelligence  the  more  marvelous  the 
story  the  more  acceptable  it  is.  The 
legend  of  childhood  impresses  itself  in- 
delibly upon  the  memory,  and  passes 
down  with  the  current  of  understanding, 
mingling  therewith  and  combining  with 
the  beliefs  and  concepts  of  a  later  pe- 
riod of  development.  So  with  the  oral 
traditions  of  the  primitive  world.  They 
were  manifestly  produced  in  what  may 
be  called  the  childhood  of  the  race,  and 
were  delivered  by  oral  transmission  to 
the  conscious  race  which  came  after- 
wards. 

The  present  significance  of  these  facts 
is  that  they  tend  to  confirm  the  belief  in 
the  remote  origin  of  the  human  race,  and 


PKuMEllIliUi   VIXCTUS.— Afiur  tlit  p^^.li.i  ^y   1. 


10 


138 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


to  familiarize  our  thought  with  the  con- 
cept of  a  long  period  for  the  adoles- 
Traditionsof       ccHce  of  mankind.    Beyond 

man-birth  con-  ^|j  j^  -^  ^,gj.g  J^^rd  tO  SaV  that 
firm  belief  in  re-  •  •    v 

mote  race  origin,  the  traditions  with  which 
the  early  life  of  every  people  abounds 
have  any  value  relative  to  the  date  of 
the  beginning.  It  must  be  constantly 
borne  in  mind  that  chronology  and  ge- 
ography are  precisely  the  circumstances 
which  tradition  and  the  traditional  age 
of  human  history  are  most  likely  to  neg- 
lect. Very  little  are  the  primitive  races 
concerned  about  accuracy  as  to  time  and 
place.  Such  facts  as  time  and  place 
require  investigation,  laborious  study, 
travel,  mathematical  knowledge,  and 
many  other  conditions  which  the  adoles- 
cence of  mankind  could  in  no  wise  sup- 
ply. Whatever  the  mind  could  invent 
for  itself  by  dream  and  reverie  and  fan- 
ciful excursion,  that  was  abundantly 
produced ;  but  the  sober  and  solid  ma- 
terials and  structure  of  real  history  were 
too  heavy  and  exact  and  buixlensome  to 
be  supplied  or  borne  by  the  early  races 
of  men. 

The  great  deduction,  therefore,  from 
the  traditional  lore  of  mankind  with  re- 


spect to  the  time  of  the  beginning  of 
man-life  on  the  earth  must  be  drawn 
from  the  subject-matter  of  chud-mind 
the  traditions  themselves  ^Lt^'.Urrnan- 
and  from  the  unmistakable  mind  history, 
evidence  which  they  present  that  they 
were  the  products  of  the  child-mind  of 
the  world.  History,  on  the  contrary,  is 
the  product  of  the  man-mind.  It  comes 
only  with  the  adult  age  of  reason  and 
reflection.  We  have  seen  how  far  back 
in  the  past,  however,  lie  the  rudiments 
of  historical  composition.  The  argument 
is  that  greatly  beyond  this  date  of  the 
earliest  formal  efforts  of  mankind  to  ex- 
press its  knowledge  of  itself  lay  the  mi.sty 
and  inchoate  realm  of  tradition  and 
fable.  The  time  relation  of  such  an  age 
is  deduced  from  the  character  of  its  prod- 
iicts.  If  the  beginnings  of  hi.story  are 
to  be  found  in  wide-apart  regions  of  the 
earth  at  a  date  as  remote  as  twenty  cen- 
turies before  the  common  era,  how  great 
must  be  the  distance  of  that  childhood 
of  the  race  and  that  early  youth  when 
the  mind,  still  surrounded  with  all  vis- 
ions and  dreams,  looked  forth  into  a 
landscape  and  beheld  on  every  side  men 
as  trees  walking  I 


Chapter  VII.— Chronological  Inquiry. 


E  may  next  note  with 
interest  the  results 
which  have  been 
reached  in  chronology 
proper.  This  science 
is,  as  we  have  said,  a 
part  of  history.  Every 
historic  event  must,  in  the  nature  of  the 
case,  have  a  time  locus,  and  its  signifi- 
cance will  depend  upon  its  temporal  rela- 
tions. No  satisfactory  interpretation  can 
be  made  of  the  affairs  of  men  without 


considering  them  in  their  relations  and 
dependencies  of  time.  So  important  has 
been  this  element  in  the  annals  of  man- 
kind that  a  distinct  Science  of  Time  has 
been  developed,  and  to  this  is  given  the 
name  of  chronology. 

!Many  ages  ago  the  thinkers  of  the 
world  began  to  see  the  importance  of 
an  accurate  system  of  time  measure- 
ment applied  to  the  affairs  of  peoples  and 
nations.  It  is  not  known,  indeed,  at  how 
early  a  date  attempts  were  made  to  in- 


TIME    OF    THE   BEGIXXLXG.—CHROXOLOGICAL    L\0i7Ry. 


139 


invent  a  system 
of  time  measure 
ment. 


vent  from  astronomical  data  a  system  of 
years  and  eras.  Perhaps  every  people 
AU  races  seek  to  in  the  world  on  arriving  at 
the  conscious  and  rational 
stage  of  development  busied 
itself  with  the  problems  of  a  calendar. 
The  rotation  of  the  earth  and  the  posi- 
tion and  aspect  of  the  spheres  furnished 
the  data  of  the  first  rude  calculations,  as 
they  have  continued  to  furnish  the 
foundation  of  the  highly  refined  system 
of  to-day. 

As  a  rule,  in  these  tentative  efforts  at 
time  computation,  some  prominent  event 
in  the  tribal  or  national  life  was  taken  as 


Great  eras  es- 
tablished ;  He- 
brews had  no 
date. 


chronology  have  been  produced.  Al- 
most every  nation  of  ancient  times  had 
its  own  date  from  which  all 
others  were  measured  by 
years  or  cycles.  There  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  special  activity 
among  the  great  peoples  who  flourished 
in  the  eighth  century  B.  C.  in  the  work 
of  establishing  eras  as  starting  points  for 
chronological  measurement.  The  an- 
cient Hebrews  seem  to  have  had  in  their 
earlier  history  no  era  from  which  they 
reckoned  the  dates  of  their  national  life. 
Such  facts  in  their  tradition  and  annals 
as  the  call  of  Abraham  out  of  Ur,  or  the 


PHENOiMENA  OK  DAY  AND  NIGHT  AND  .SEASON  (FOUNDATION  Or  ALL  CALENDARS). 


the  Starting  point    for  all    dates.      The 
primitive  organization  of  the  state,  the 

In  what  manner     founding    of    the     citv,    the 

l^lT^'nhi^-^ni      accession   of    some    heroic 

eras  in  chronol- 
ogy arose.  king, deliverance  from  some 

impending  disaster,  or  triumph  in  some 
civic  or  warlike  contest,  would  furnish, 
each  in  its  kind,  a  crisis  from  which 
all  other  events  would  be  reckoned. 
There  is  an  instinctive  disposition  among 
peoples  to  refer  all  common  affairs  to  the 
great  event  gone  by,  and  to  measure  its 
distance  therefrom,  as  if  a  proper  es- 
timate of  the  current  fact  might  best  be 
made  by  holding  it  in  contrast  with  an 
established  .standard  set  up  at  a  distance. 
It    is    thus  that  the  so-called   eras  of 


exodus  of  Israel  from  Egypt,  might  well 
have  furnished  a  historical  era  for  the 
Jewish  race.  But  that  people  seems 
never  to  have  adopted  any  such  crisis, 
but  rather  to  have  used  the  reckonings 
of  other  nations. 

Not  so,  however,  the  Babylonians. 
By  them  the  accession  to  the  throne  of 
the  great  king  Nabonassar,  Fixing  of  Baby- 
in  the  year  747  B.  C. 
taken  as  the  national  era, 
and  was  long  used  by  the  people  of  the 
Lower  Empire.  A  .short  time  before 
this,  namely,  in  the  year  776  B.  C,  the 
Greeks  had  established  the  Olympiad, 
dating  from  the  victorious  contest  of 
Coroebus,  in  the  Olympic  games,  in  the 


loniEUi,  Greek, 
"''^   and  Roman 
eras. 


140 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


year  referred  to.  Each  Olympiad  in- 
cluded four  calendar  years.  According 
to  Varro,  the  city  of  Rome  was  founded 
in  the  year  753  B.  C,  and  this  era  was 
chosen  by  the  Roman  race  as  the  origin 
of  dates.  It  thus  happened  that  the  three 
great  eras  of  antiquity — Babylonian, 
Grecian,  Roman — were  established  so 
near  to  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century 
B.  C.  that  a  period  of  twcnt^v-nine  years 
covered  them  all !  It  is  true,  however, 
that  though  the  events  constituting  the 
starting  points  of  the  three  eras  thus  lay 
so  near  together,  the  eras  themselves 
were  established  by  the  respective  na- 
tions at  subsequent  dates  much  further 
apart. 

The  three  eras  referred  to  continued 
to  be  used  until  the  Christian  religion 
Era  of  the  Christ  had  risen  to  such  impor- 
Teltl'th:  ju!  tance  in  the  Roman  empire 
lian  period.  ^^  to  be  able  at  length  to 

substitute  the  birth  of  the  Christ  for  the 
founding  of  the  city.  The  new  era 
gained  the  day  among  the  Western  na- 
tions, and  is  at  the  j^resent  time  more 
extensively  used  than  any  other  epoch 
of  computation.  The  substitution  of 
the  new  for  the  old  led  to  much  confu- 
sion in  fixing  the  dates  of  historical 
events,  and  it  was  to  remedy  this  diffi- 
culty that  Joseph  Scaliger,  in  1582,  in- 
vented what  is  called  the  Julian  period. 
This,  indeed,  is  not  an  era,  since  it  does 
not  begin  with  any  particular  date  in 
the  past.  It  uses  as  its  units  the  years 
as  they  were  lixed  by  the  calendar  of 
Julius  CcEsar,  and  the  Christian  era  is 
made  to  correspond  with  the  year  4714 
from  the  beginning  of  the  period.  A 
scale  is  thus  furnished  by  which  any 
year  of  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  of  a 
given  Olympiad,  or  from  the  founding 
of  Rome,  may  easily  be  reduced  to 
terms  of  the  Christian  calendar ;  that  is, 
to  the  corresponding  year  B.  C. 


In  the  early  centuries  of  our  era  the 
Christians  in  many  parts  were  scandal- 
ized with  the  observance  of   Hebrews  choose 

pagan  festivals  according  ^:^^ 
to  dates  and  anniversaries  of  the  world, 
which  had  been  perpetuated  from  the 
classical  ages.  In  order  to  free  them- 
selves from  these  heathen  rites  the  ad- 
herents of  the  new  faith  began  to  imi- 
tate a  usage  which  had  now  grown  up 
among  the  Jews  of  reckoning  from  the 
creation  of  the  world.  Israel  had  by 
this  time  become  sufficiently  scholastic 
to  produce  a  calendar  which  in  its  terms 
reached  back  to  the  beginning  of  things. 
The  Christians  deemed  it  wise  to  imi- 
tate the  Hebrew  method,  and  to  employ 
the  supposed  date  of  the  creation  as  an 
era  from  which  to  reckon  all  subsequent 
events.  In  doing  so,  however,  there 
was  much  confusion.  It  was  found  that 
the  Old  Testament  narratives  presented 
the  elements  of  at  least  three  distinct 
computations.  There  were  three  texts 
of  equal  authority,  and  neither  agreed 
with  the  others  in  the  matter  of  dates. 
There  was  a  vSamaritan,  a  Hebrew,  and 
a  Greek  text  of  the  Scriptures,  contain- 
ing irreconcilable  accounts  so  far  as 
time  was  concerned.  Nor  was  there 
any  other  calendar  with  which  the  three 
might  be  compared  and  thcjebi'  coi 
rected. 

It    thus     happened    that    among    the 
Christian   nations  of  the  West  the    era 
of  the  creation  came  to  be  Attempts  to  fix 
referred  to  as  the  primary  ^:^Z'^XT^ 

epoch     to    which    all     other    Scriptures. 

events  must  be  referred.  In  the  later 
Middle  Ages,  and  down  to  the  beginning 
of  critical  scholarship  in  our  own  cen- 
tury, the  effort  was  many  times  renewed 
by  the  unlearned  dogmatists  of  the  time 
to  fix  the  date  for  the  creation  of  the 
world  and  whatever  therein  is.  For  it 
must    be  imderstood    once  for    all    that 


TIME    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— CHRONOLOGICAL   INQUIRY 


141 


the  era  of  creation  which  crediilous 
scholastics  have  so  niiich  busied  them- 
selves to  find  was  always,  in  the  estima- 
tion of  those  who  sought  it,  the  era  not 
only  of  the  physical  world,  but  also  of 
the  human  race.  The  theory  of  coinci- 
dent origin  for  the  world  and  its  inhab- 
itants was  held  implicitly  by  the  early 
chronologists,  and  was  incorporated  by 
them  in  their  systems  of  reckoning.  In 
the  absence  of  facts,  hypotheses,  un- 
warranted assumptions,  and  vague  appli- 
cations of  the  three  different  texts  of  the 
sacred  writings  of  the  Hebrews  led  to 
an  endless  variety  of  results.  Desvig- 
noles  has  collected  more  than  two  hun- 
dred sets  of  calculations,  the  authors  of 
which  have  attempted  to  determine  the 
era  of  creation  from  the  Scriptures. 
Nor  is  it  possible  for  the  modern  in- 
quirer, with  these  computations  before 
him,  to  extract  therefrom  any  one  sys- 
tem, or  to  form  a  new  one  out  of  the 
given  materials  more  satisfactory  than 
the  rest.' 

Among  the  calculations  to  which  refer- 
ence has  just  been  made,  the  briefest  of 
all  is  that  by  the  Rabbi  Lipmann,  which 


iThe  fundamental  difficulty  in  making  out  a 
biblical  chronology  for  antiquity  lies  in  the  irrecon- 
cilable differences  of  statement  as  to  the  ages  of  the 
first  ten  patriarchs  as  given  in  the  Hebrew  and 
Septuagint  texts.  The  following  table  may  interest 
the  reader  as  illustrative  of  the  many  disagreements 
between  the  two  principal  texts  of  the  Scriptures 
upon  which  modern  times  have  placed  reliance  as 
authentic  records : 


RIARCHS. 

Age  at 

BIr 

h  of  Heir. 

Pat 

Hebrew  T 

:xt. 

Septuagint. 

130 
105 
90 
70 
6S 
162 
65 
187 
182 
600 

230 

205 
190 
170 
16; 

Seth 

Cainan         

Mahalalecl 

Tared 

162 

.65 
.87 
188 

Lamech 

Noah  (at  flood) 

foo 

flood 

Time  of  the 

J. 656 

2,262 

assigns  the  year  3483  B.  C.  as  the  era  of 

the  creation.     The  longest  of  all  is  that 
by  Regiomontanus,   which  contradictory 
sets  the  date  of  6984  B.C.  as  ''^:^:i^' 
the  beginning  of  the  world,   system.  ; 

We  have  thus  the  scholars  and  chronol- 
ogists of  the  fifteenth,  si.xteenth,  and 
seventeenth  centui^es — though  they  em- 
ployed the  same  data,  namely,  the  three 
texts  of  the  Scriptures — differing  among 
themselves  by  as  much  as  thirty-five  cen- 
turies !  It  could  hardly  be  supposed 
that  oiit  of  such  diverse  materials  and 
such  contradictory  results  any  conclu- 
sion of  importance  could  be  deduced  by 
modern  scholarship  as  to  the  era  of  the 
world. 

It  was,  however,  from  these  data  that 
Archbishop  James  Usher  undertook,  at 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
to  prepare  a  system  of  sacred  chronology. 
The  result,  strangely  enough,  was  the 
production  of  a  work  which  gained  and 
held  an  ascendency  among  the  writers  of 
the  Western  nations  for  more  than  a 
century.  It  is  only  in  recent  times 
that  scholarship  has  succeeded  in  unseat- 
ing the  Usherian  system  from  the  places 
of  learning,  and  even  to  the  present  day 
it  continues  to  exercise  a  remarkable 
influence  over  the  common  mind,  espe- 
cially among  the  English-speaking  peo- 
ples. 

The  reason  of  the  ascendency  of  this 
system  of  dates  in  the  literature  of  Eu- 
rope   and  America   is  to  be   Literature  and 

found  in  the  fact  that  the  t^Z7^,:La 
Usherian  scheme  secured  thereby, 
for  itself,  without  warrant  of  fact,  the 
claim  of  being  a  biblical  chronology. 
By  some  unknown  authority  the  dates 
prepared  by  Usher  were  inserted  in  the 
margin  of  authorized  editions  of  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
having  once  gained  a  place  therein,  the 
uncritical  and  unscholarly  opinion  of  the 


142 


GREAT  RACrS    OF  MANKfXD. 


age  permitted  their  retention.  From 
this  source  the  system  diffused  itself 
into  general  litera- 
ture. The  histor- 
ical writers  of  the 
last  century  and  of 
the  first  half  of  the 
present  century, 
for  the  most  part, 
continued  to  accept 
and  to  employ  the 
U.sherian  dates  for  all  the  events  in 
the  ancient  history  of  mankind.  To  the 
present  day  the  authorized  editions  of  the 
Bible  are  sent  forth  with  the  Usherian 
chronology  in  the  margin,  and  in  the 
popular  belief  that  system  is  referred  to 
the  same  source  and  authority  as  that  by 
which  the  sacred  canon  was  produced ! 


TIME  INSTRUMENT — ANCIENT 
SUNDIAL. 


TIME    INSTRUMENT — HOURGLASS. 

It  was  thus  that  in  modern  times  a 
supposed  date  has  been  established  for 
Astonishing  de-  the  era  of  the  creation  of 
the  earth  and  man.  Usher 
fixed  upon  the  year  4004 
B.  C.  and  the  autumnal  equinox  of  that 
year,   namely  October  23,    as  the   pre- 


tails  of  the 

Usherian 

scheme. 


cise  date  of  the  apparition  of  the  world ! 
The  creation  of  man  he  placed  with 
equal  exactitude  five  days  later,  that  is, 
on    October  28th!'     The   remainder  of 


b nadows  we  are  an d" 
like /sF)  ado  wsdebartr 

1 1 riiiii"wi> I nil i7;;rriiailli[miiiT..i7.....m....iii.uiiM*i» 


MODERN    TIME    INSTRUMENT — SUNDIAL. 


'It  is  matter  of  profound  astonishment  that  such 
a  system  of  chronology  as  that  devised — utterly 
without  warrant  of  fact — by  Archbishop  Usher, 
should  have  been  received  and  adopted  by  the  best 
scholarship  of  England  as  late  as  1825:  this,  too, 
without  the  slightest  apparent  distrust  !  The  new 
Ediiihurgh  Encyclopadia  of  the  date  just  named, 
conducted  by  Sir  David  Brewster,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  more  than  a  hundred  European  scholars 
most  eminent  in  science  and  literature,  incorporates 
without  the  slightest  note  of  dissent  the  Usherian 
system.  The  readerof  the  present  day,  and  still  more 
the  readerof  the  future,  will  almost  doubt  his  senses 
when  he  finds  the  chronological  table  in  the  great 
encyclopaedia  just  referred   to  beginning  as  follows  • 

"4004  B.  C.  The  world  created  at  the  autumnal 
equinox,  on  Sunday,  October  23. 

»  »  #  »  * 

"  Adam  and  Eve  created  on  Friday,  October  28." 

History  is  not  the  place  for  satire  or  humor;  but 
the  comment  is  pardonable,  and  the  inference  might 
well  be  drawn  from  these  astounding  particulars  of 
the  creation  that  Archbishop  Usher  had  been  a 
schoolmate  and  playfellow  of  the  progenitor  of  the 
human  race  ! 


TIME    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— CHRONOLOGICAL   INQUIRY.        143 


the  primitive  scheme  was  arranged  with 
like  precision  and  confidence ;  nor  may 
we  well  be  offended  at  so  monstrous 
a  chronological  system  when  we  remem- 
ber that  its  author  was  born  only  thirty- 
four  years  after  the  death  of  Luther. 
Our  astonishment  must  be  abated  when 
we  remember  that  the  Usherian  chrono- 
logical tables  were  prepared  before  Louis 
XIV  was  twenty  years  of  age  and 
within  less  than  a  half  century  of  the 
planting  of  the  first  English  colonies 
in  the  New  World.  That  a  trust- 
worthy system  of  chronology  could 
be  produced  in  such  an  age  and  from 
such  materials  as  were  then  extant,  un- 
der the  scholastic  methods  which  then 
prevailed  in  the  English  and  Irish  uni- 
versities, is  a  supposition  beyond  the 
limits  not  only  of  reason,  but  of  possi- 
bility. 

The  Usherian  system  of  dates, 
however,  though  originated  in  absurd 
Large  place  of  assumptions  and  pressed 
?et!f^V/er-n  ^^to  form  by  the  hand  of 
writings.  dogmatism,  has   played   a 

large  part  in  the  historical  writings  of 
Europe  and  America.  Beyond  these 
and  through  them  it  has  reached  the 
popular  belief,  becoming  as  it  were  an 
article  of  faith,  and  intimately  associated 
with  orthodoxy  in  religious  belief.  The 
system  has  thus  performed  a  most  dele- 
terious office,  particularly  since  the  be- 
ginnings of  scientific  scholarship  within 
the  current  century.  Almost  every 
branch  of  historical  inquiry  has  been 
checked  and  impeded  by  the  precon- 
ceived opinion  that  there  exists  a  sys- 
tem of  biblical  chronology  for  antiquity 
to  which  all  events,  since  the  appearance 
of  man,  must  be  conformed. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  so-called  bibli- 
cal chronology,  with  its  supposititious  era 
of  creation,  was  invented  by  an  Irish 
prelate  born  in  the  sixteenth  century; 


was  imposed  on  the  sacred  books  in  some 
unknown  manner  and  without  the  sanc- 
tion   of     any     ecclesiastical   The  system  an 

authority;  was  foisted,  as  it  '^^^^f'^^l^" 
were,  upon  the  books  of  knowledge, 
the  Old  Testament,  and  forced  into  union 
with  them ;  and  was  henceforth  made  to 
supply  the  place  of  investigation  and 
forestall  the  advance  of  knowledge.  It 
is  only  within  the  last  half  of  the  present 
century  that  the  system  of  dates  invent- 
ed by  Usher  as  a  sort  of  compromise 
and  average  among  others  that  were  ir- 
reconcilable has  been  challenged,  de- 
throned,  and  put  aside  from  all  the 
high  places  of  scholarship,  holding  its 
place  only  by  usurpation  and  folly  in  the 
authorized  editions  of  the  Bible. 

It  may  suffice  to  refer  briefly  to  some 
of  the  other  eras  which  have  been  em- 
ployed in  the  attempted  measurement  of 
time  and  the  emplacement 

.        .  The  other  prin- 

of  the   dates  of  antiquity,   cipaierasof 

A  r,        i-L       J  ■  ■  j^   ii        time  reckoning. 

Alter  the  dispersion  of  the 
Jews,  and  up  to  the  fifteenth  century, 
that  people  employed  in  their  business 
affairs  and  secular  records  what  is  called 
the  era  of  the  Seleucidas,  that  is,  the 
year  B.  C.  311;  but  since  the  fifteenth 
century  the  Israelites  have  fallen  back 
upon  their  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew 
text  for  the  era  of  the  world,  fixing  that 
event  at  the  year  3760  B.  C.  Mean- 
while, the  Greek  Christians  of  Russia 
and  the  East  adopted  for  themselves 
what  is  known  as  the  era  of  Constanti- 
nople, which  places  the  creation  of  the 
world  in  the  year  5509  B.  C,  and  makes 
the  Christian  era  coincident  with  the 
fourth  of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
fourth  Olympiad.  There  is  also  what  is 
known  as  the  era  of  Alexandria,  which 
placed  the  creation  in  the  year  5500  B.  C. 
It  were  better,  however,  to  satisfy  the 
reader's  curiosity  in  these  particulars  by 
a  tabulated  statement  showing  the  rela- 


144 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXK'fXP. 


tions  of  the  principal  eras  which,  iintil  a 
comparatively  recent  date,  have  been 
Synoptical  view  employed  in  fixing  the  time 
and  comparison    j-eLitions  of  cvcnts   in  tlic 

of  the  leading 

eras.  ancient     history     of     the 

world.  The  table  is  inserted,  not  be- 
cause of  any  value  in  its  fundamental 
assumption  of  the  era  of  creation,  but 
only  as  a  convenient  reference  to  ex- 
hibit the  relations  of  the  more  important 
eras: 


geological    and    archaeological    research 
the  discrepancy  between  the  facts  of  the 
prehistoric  world   and    the  scientific  spirit 
current  system  of  dates  be-  Z°t^lm^^° 
came  apparent.    One  or  the  dates, 
other  had  to  yield.      Either  scholars  and 
travelers  must  disbelieve  the  testimony 
of  their  senses  or  reject  the  narrow  and 
dogmatic  system  which  the  old  chronol- 
ogists  had  fixed  up  as  the  framework  of 
ancient  history. 


The  era  of  creation  corresponds  to. 


The  first  Olympiad  corresponds  to. 


The  founding  of  Rome  corresponds  to. 


The  common,  or  Christian,  era  corresponds  to 


The  Hegira  corresponds  to. 


The  era  of  the  French  republic  corresponds  lo 


The  year  4004  B.  C. 

The  year  710  of  the  Julian  period. 

The  year  3251  before  the  founding  of  Rome. 

The  year  5996  of  the  French  era. 

The  year  776  B.  C. 
The  year  322S  of  the  era  of  creation. 
The  year  23  before  the  founding  of  Rome. 
The  year  3938  of  the  Julian  period. 
The  year  2568  before  the  French  era. 

The  year  753  B.  C. 
The  year  3251  of  the  era  of  creation. 
The  year  4  of  the  sixth  Olympiad. 
The  year  3961  of  the  Julian  period. 
The  ye.ir  2545  before  the  p'rench  era. 

The  year  4004  of  the  era  of  creation. 
The  year  i  of  the  I95tli  Olympiad. 
The  year  753  of  the  founding  of  Rome. 
The  year  4714  of  the  Julian  period. 
The  year  1792  of  the  French  era. 

The  year  622  of  the  Christian  era. 
The  year  4626  of  the  era  of  creation. 
The  year  3  of  the  348th  Olympiad. 
The  year  1375  of  the  founding  of  Rome. 
The  year  5336  of  the  Julian  period. 
The  year  1206  before  the  French  era. 

The  year  1792  of  the  Christian  era. 
The  year  5796  of  the  era  of  cre.ition. 
The  year  i  of  the  643d  Olympiad. 
I  The  year  2545  of  the  founding  of  Rome. 
The  year  1206  of  the  Hegira. 
The  year  6506  of  the  Julian  period. 


In  no  department  of  human  knowl- 
edge has  the  scientific  spirit  wrought 
greater  changes  during  the  last  half 
century  than  in  the  previously  accepted 
chronology.      With    the     beginning    of 


Philology,  the  .science  of  human  lan- 
guage, added  its  testimony.  The  ruins 
of  Nineveh  and  Babylon  were  exhumed 
from  the  oblivion  of  centuries,  and 
the    cylinder-tablets    of    the    library    of 


TIME    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— CHRONOLOGICAL   INOUIRY 


145 


torical  research 
among  several 
races. 


Asshur-Bani-Pal  were  recovered  for  the 
instruction  of  mankind.  The  cuneiform 
inscriptions  were  translated.  The  hiero- 
glyphics of  Egypt  opened  their  long- 
sealed  treasures.  The  vision  of  men 
began  to  clear,  and  the  narrowness  and 
incapacity  of  the  old  system  of  chro- 
nology were  seen  in  ridiculous  outline 
against  the  almost  limitless  background 
of  the  past. 

The  chronological  researches  of  schol- 
ars in  recent  times  have  been  directed 
Results  of  his-  to  Special  fields  of  inquiry 
rather  than  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  general  sj'stem 
for  the  whole  ancient  history  of  mankind. 
The  result  has  been  that  the  annals  of 
China  and  India  have  been  traced  back  by 
means  of  native  records  and  monuments 
of  a  fairly  creditable  char- 
acter to  about  2  200  B.  C. 
.Sir  John  Gardner  Wil- 
kinson has  f-xed  with  ap- 
proximate certainty  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth 
dynasty  of  Egypt  at  the 
year  2450  B.  C.  —  to 
which  must  be  added  at 
least  the  uncertain  period 
covered  by  the  preced- 
ing dynasties.  Karl 
Richard  Lepsius,  labor- 
ing in  the  same  field  of 
inquiry,  has  extended  the 
period  of  Egyptian  his- 
tory back  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  first  dy- 
nasty, to  which  he  assigns  the  date  of 
3892  B.  C.  The  French  Egy^ptologist, 
Mariette,  one  of  the  most  expert  and 
skillful  scholars  of  the  century,  by  a  cross- 
examination  of  the  history  of  Menetho 
and  the  Egyptian  sculptures  has  shown 
many  reasons  for  fixing  the  date  of  Menes 
as  far  back  as  5004  B.  C.  The  Chaldaean 
records,    according    to   Berosus,   extend 


to  a  much  higher  antiquity  than  that  as- 
signed for  the  beginning  of  Egyptian 
history,  and  the  careful  Rawlinson  fixes 
upon  the  year  2286  B.  C.  as  the  ap- 
proximate date  for  the  accession  of  the 
first  dynasty  of  Old  Babylonian  kings. 
On  every  hand  the  scheme  of  dates  has 
been  widened  out  by  the  most  competent 
scholars  of  the  age,  in  so  much  that  all 
rational  belief  in  the  chronological  tables 
which  were  accepted  at  the  beginning  of 
the  century  has  passed  away. 

What  then  does  chronology  as  a  de- 
partment of  historical  investigation  prove 
or  tend  to  prove  with  respect  to  the  an- 
tiquity of   man?      It   shows   General  deduc- 

that  many  great  nations  of  ^LTanS^ 
the  ancient  world,   widely  of  man. 
separated,    in   some    instances   by  high 


STONE    MASONRY    ON    THR    Sl'MMITS    OF   THE   ANDES. 

mountains  and  almost  impassable  seas, 
were  already  developed  into  fi.xed  forms 
of  society  and  government,  already  in 
possession  of  institutions  and  laws  and 
literary  forms  of  record,  at  dates  ranging 
from  twenty  to  fifty  centuries  before  the 
common  era.  To  this  we  must  add  the 
monumental  evidence  already  obtained 
relative    to  the    ancient  peoples    of  the 


146 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIXD. 


American  continent.  Such  facts  as  the 
ruins  which  have  been  discovered  in 
Central  America  and  the  stone-hewn 
foundations  of  temples  and  palaces  in 
the  tops  of  the  Andes  must  tend  strongly 
in  every  thoughtful  mind  to  increase 
rather  than  diminish  the  chronological 
estimates  of  the  antiquity  of  the  ancient 
European,  African,  and  Asiatic  nations. 

AVe  may  now  proceed  to  sunnnarizc  in 
a  few  paragraphs  the  various  evidences 
which  may  be  gathered  from  scientific 
Summary  of  the  and  Other  sources  of  in- 
alt "on:mfcki  4"^^'  respecting  the  age  of 
Indication.  vci^n  on  the  earth.     In  the 

first  place,  the  astronomical  conditions 
and  laws  under  which  our  planet  came 
into  the  habitable  state  furnish  us 
with  a  tolerably  accurate  estimate  of  the 
time  when  with  the  subsidence  of  our 
last  planetary  winter  the  earth,  by  the 
favoring  conditions  which  were  then  in- 
troduced, presented  itself  as  a  fit  abode 
for  the  human  race.  With  due  allow- 
ance for  the  prolongation  of  the  epoch 
of  rigor  and  for  the  melting  away  of  the 
ice  cap  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and 
with  certain  other  allowances  which  are 
suggested  by  science  and  right  reason, 
and  with  the  application  of  the  law  of 
averages  between  the  maximum  and 
minimum  dates  which  may  reasonably 
be  assigned  for  the  appearance  of  man, 
we  may  fix  the  time  of  his  coming  ap- 
proximately at  tldrty  thousajid  or  tJiiriy- 
five  tkoitsaHd  years  before  the  Christian 
era. 

With  this  conclusion  the  important, 
almost  irrefragable,  evidence  of  geology 
Geology  coiTob-   fuUy    corresponds.        The 

orates  the  re-  *„  .•       ,•  ^^i  .-i* 

suits  arrived  at  investigation  of  the  earth  s 
ftom  astronomy,  ^.j^ust  has  not  vet  positive- 
ly demonstrated  the  remains  of  man  and 
of  his  works  belonging  to  a  period  quite  as 
remote  as  that  indicated  by  the  astro- 
nomical antecedents  as  the  approximate 


time  of  the  habitability  of  the  globe.  But 
the  geological  evidence  has  stretched 
out  far  toward  the  same  remote  date  for 
the  origin  of  our  species.  If  we  trust  to 
geological  evidence  and  indications  oii/y, 
we  shall  have  to  reduce  the  astronomi- 
cal indications  respecting  the  date  of  the 
appearance  of  man  by  perhaps  a  hun- 
dred centuries.  It  is  clear,  however, 
that  after  making  all  proper  allowances 
for  error  of  computation,  mistakes  of 
judgment,  and  partiality  of  the  inquirer 
for  one  form  and  result  of  conclusion  in- 
stead of  another,  and  after  estimating  as 
well  as  may  be  done  the  irregularities  in 
the  rate  of  change  in  the  formation  of 
the  earth's  crust  at  different  geological 
periods,  we  must  still  assign  a  date  of 
not  less  than  from  livciity  tJiousand  to 
tzvciity-Jivc  thousand  years  B.  C.  as  the 
time  of  those  geological  formations  with 
which  the  remains  of  man  and  the  traces 
of  his  activity  are  indubitably  associated. 
To  this  conclusion  should  be  added  the 
consideration  that  the  lesser  estimate  for 
the  antiquity  of  man,  gathered  from  geo- 
logical evidences  as  compared  with  the 
estimate  from  astronomical  conditions, 
furnishes  against  the  latter  only  a  nega- 
tive fonn  of  proof.  All  that  may  be 
said  is  that  geology  lias  not  fnrnis/icd  as 
high  an  estimate  for  the  date  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  man  as  is  indicated  by  the 
astronomical  conditions  which  perfected 
the  habitability  of  the  planet  at  a  period 
somewhat  more  remote. 

The  great  foundations  of  the  inquiry 
lie  in  the  solid  structure  of  geology,  in- 
cluding    the     astronomical   Geological  re- 
antecedents  by  which  the  l^J^^^^l. 
globe  was  prepared  for  the  of  the  inquiry, 
maintenance  of  man-life  upon  it.   About 
these  conditions  all  other  forms  of  proof 
are  related  and  made  thereto  dependent. 
The  archaeological  evidence   respecting 
the  antiquity  of  man  has  its  principal  sig- 


TIME    OF   THE   BEGINNIXG.— CHRONOLOGICAL   INQUIRY.        147 


nificance  from  the  geological  basis  on 
which  the  whole  science  reposes.  The 
evidence  afforded  by  the  remains  of  man 
and  the  fragments  of  his  industrial 
arts  transmitted  from  the  prehistoric 
ages  depends  constantly  for  its  value 
upon  the  geological  correlation  and  de- 
pendency. From  this  origin  of  calcula- 
tion and  estimate  the  archaeologist  pro- 
ceeds with  much  the  larger  part  of  his 
investigations.  But  while  it  is  true  that 
the  significance  of  his  results  depends 
upon  those  already  reached  in  geo- 
logical science,  it  is  also  true  that  those 
results  fully  hamtonizc  with  the  deduc- 
tions of  geology,  and  corroborate  and 
sustain  them  without  break  or  discrep- 
ancy, in  so  much  that  the  evidences  af- 
forded by  the  two  branches  of  inquiry 
become  common  and  consistent  as  a 
whole.  We  may  therefore  repeat  as  a 
concliision  drawn  from  archaeological  re- 
search the  same  approximate  date  de- 
duced from  the  records  and  inferences 
of  geology,  namely,  a  period  of  twenty 
thousand  years  or  more  before  the  comirion 
era  as  the  epoch  of  man. 

With  this  latter  estimate  coincides 
also  the  deduction  from  palaeontological 
Deduction  from  inquiry.  Here  again  we  fall 
Ci^onizl^^ith  back  upon  geology,  not 
other  results.  indeed  for  the  order  of  the 
facts  considered,  but  for  the  approximate 
dates  to  which  the  facts  must  be  as- 
signed. Those  forms  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life  with  which  the  remains 
of  man  are  associated  in  the  geological 
matrix  of  the  earth  are  referable  to  the 
same  kinds  of  proof  as  to  their  antiquity 
as  are  the  other  materials  of  archaeology. 
To  a  certain  extent  the  antiquity  of  the 
prehistoric  flora  and  fauna  may  be  de- 
termined independently  of  the  age  of 
the  geological  epochs  to  which  the  same 
belonged.  But,  on  the  whole,  the  argu- 
ment  from  palaeontology  has  the  very 


same  basis,  so  far  as. the  antiquity  of 
man  is  concerned,  as  that  from  archaeol- 
ogy; and  each  alike  corroborates  the 
geological  record  with  respect  to  the 
age  of  man.  Negatively  it  may  be  said 
that  palaeontological  research  has  in  no 
case  tended  to  reduce  the  high  estimate 
for  the  antiquity  of  man  which  has  been 
made  from  the  basis  of  geology. 

The  same  results  are  reached  from 
the  anthropological  point  of  view. 
Every  branch  of  man-study  Anthropological 


to 


deductions  are 


points        unmistakably        ...    essentially  the 

an  origin  for  the  human  same, 
race  remote  from  the  present  by  not  less 
than  a  hundred  centuries.  The  evi- 
dences found  in  the  human  body  of  or- 
gans and  offices  which  had  already  be- 
come rudimentary  before  the  beginning 
of  historical  records ;  the  like  indications 
of  the  prehistoric  differentiation  of  the 
sexes,  by  which  the  traces  of  a  common 
physical  life  were  left  in  each ;  the  es- 
tablished slowness  of  the  intellectual 
evolution  of  the  race,  whereby  the  in- 
crement of  mental  power  and  the  aver- 
age capacity  of  the  faculties  of  the  mind 
have  hardly  been  perceptibly  augmented 
in  the  space  of  three  thousand  years, 
and  many  other  facts  and  laws  of  human 
development  which  have  been  scientif- 
ically determined,  all  tend  to  establish 
beyond  doubt  an  antiquity  for  the  race 
approximately  as  high  as  that  indicated 
in  the  deductions  of  geolog}\ 

So   also   of   ethnological    and   ethno- 
graphical inquiry.     The  period  requisite 
for  the  ethnical  dispersion  Ethnology  and 
of     the    race     must    have  '^^^Z^alti. 
been  as  great  as  that  fur-  cai  conclusions, 
nished    by  the   indications  of  geology, 
archaeology,    and     anthropology.      We 
may  mark  with  certainty  not  only  the 
presence  but  the  historical  development 
of  the   different   races  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Europe  at  a  time  so  far  remote  from 


143 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JLAXKLXD. 


the  present  as  to  warrant,  and,  indeed, 
compel,  the  conclusion  that  the  length  of 
time  required  for  the  differentiation  of 
the  various  peoples  from  some  common 
stock  was  fully  as  great  as  that  indicated 
by  the  rude  implements  and  other  re- 
mains of  primitive  mankind  and  the 
emplacement  of  the  same  with  the  later, 
if  not  the  middle,  deposits  of  the  Drift. 
Xo  scholar  can  reflect  with  earnestness 
and  dispassion  upon  the  phenornena  of 
tribal  and  race  development  among  the 
Ar\-an  families  of  men  only  without  per- 
ceiving the  stretch 
of  immeasurable 
time  requisite  for 
the  whole  distri- 
bution —  for  the 
departure,  migra- 
tions, settlement, 
and  evolution  of 
the  Indie  peoples, 
for  the  like  diver- 
gence, organiza- 
tion, and  develop- 
ment of  the  Iran- 
ic  nations,  for  tlie 
far-off  and  vine- 
like progress  of 
the  fathers  of 
the  GrjECO-Italic 
tribes,  and  older 
than  they  the 
Celts,  and  perhaps  the  Teutonic  barba- 
rians of  the  northern  forests,  all  gradu- 
ally rising  through  slow  and  painful 
processes  to  the  plane  of  permanency 
and  conscious  life — without  perceiving 
the  necessity  for  a  span  of  at  least  a 
hundred  centuries  to  accomplish  the  given 
results  apparent  at  the  beginnings  of 
recorded  annals. 

Bagk  of  all  this  a  still  profounder  vista 
must  be  opened  of  at  least  equal  extent, 
in  order  to  provide  the  time  and  con- 
ditions of  ethnic  change,  such  as  were 


EXTREME  OF  ETHNIC   DIVERGENCE — HIGHEST   TVIE. — 

(l)   EROS  OK   PRAXITELES. 

Drawn  by  C.  Colb. 


necessary  for  the  division  of  the  Aryan 
races  from  the  Semitic  and  Hamitic  fam- 
ilies,    from      that      ancient   Large  allowance 

Cushite    stock    seen    with  r/peHo7o;'°' 

difficulty  on   the  horizon  of    race  dispersion. 

Egypt  and  Arabia  and  the  Lower  Eu- 
phrates, from  the  original  Black  races 
of  Africa  and  Australia,  and  finally  from 
the  ancestors  of  those  Asiatic  and  Poly- 
nesian ^Mongoloid  varieties  of  mankind 
which  to-day  are  represented  by  at  least 
one  half  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth. 
The  demands  of  ethnology  can  hardly 

be  satisfied  with 
a  period  for  the 
whole  distribu- 
tion of  mankind, 
and  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the 
ethnic  varieties 
already  present  in 
the  dawn  of  his- 
tory and  tradi- 
tion, of  less  than 
a  hundred  and 
fifty  centuries. 
An  ample  esti- 
mate for  the  re- 
quired time,  not 
unreasonable  in 
view  of  the  de- 
monstrable condi- 
tions   that    have 


surrounded  the  progress  and  differentia- 
tion of  the  race,  may  be  set  at  twenty 
tho  usa  nd  j  'ca  rs . 

With  such  conclusions  history  and  tra- 
dition— including  the  special  department 

of    chronologV are    in  full   History  sub- 

and  harmonious  accord.  f^^Slnf^ttthe. 
History  does  not  say  or  inti-  other  sciences, 
mate  that  the  world  of  man-life  extends. 
only  six  thousand  years  into  the  past.  As 
we  have  shown  in  the  foregoing  pages,  the 
testimony  of  history  is  negative  rather 
than  positive  with  respect  to  the  date  of 


TIME    OF   THE  BEGINNLXG.— CHRONOLOGICAL   IXQUIRY.        149 


because  she  can  go 
there- 


tlie  beginning'.     Nothing  more   can   be 
expected   of    historical   research    proper 
than  to  record  such  dates  and  epochs  of 
the  past  as  are  deducible  from  contem- 
poraneous documents,  industrial  remains, 
and    monumental    inscriptions.     But  it 
does  not  follow  that 
no   further   than   this  there  was, 
fore,     no    previous   career    for 
mankind     on     the     earth 
On    the    contrary,    his- 
tory    clearly     infers 
that    there    was    a 
childhood,    an 
adolescence,  and 
at    last    a   ma- 
turity into  con- 
sciousness    of 
the    primitive 
races.       With 
this  view  the 
historical  rec- 
ord, as  far  as 
it  extends,  is 
in    entire   ac- 
cord.    Histor- 
i  c  a  1     inquiry 
looks       already 
with  clear  vision 
across    those    nar- 
row    and    factitious 
eras  of  time  which  the 
ignorance     of    a    former 
age    succeeded   in  imposing 

upon  manKinu  as  a     extreme  of  ethnic  mvERCExcE — lowest  type. 
dead  wall  and  bound-  (2)  Australian  of  the  townsville  coast. 

ary  to    the    ancient 

world.  History  sees  beyond  these  limi- 
tations the  shadows  and  outlines  of  the 
real  facts  of  the  early  inorning  of  the 
race ;  but  she  does  not  presume  to  say 
ihiis-and-so  of  events  and  movements  con- 
cerning which  she  has  not,  and  in  all 
probability  can  never  have,  the  testi- 
mony of  contemporary  records. 

History  accepts  at  their  proper  valua- 


After  a  Danish  drawing, 


tion  the  traditions  and  legends  of  antiq- 
uity.    She  gives  to  them  such  credence 
as  the  master  gives  to  the  orai  story  may 
stories  of  the  nursery  and  "lo*  contradict 
thepla3-ground.  She  gladly  "ght  reason, 
admits  what  truth  soever  may  have  been 
transmitted  from  the  most  ancient  times 
to  the  epoch  of  records  and  monuments 
b"  the  oral  utterance  and  repe- 
n  of  the  primitive  peo- 
ples    but   she  disallows 
the  right  of  oral  story 
thus  handetl   down 
from  age  to  age  to 
contradict     the 
exact  and  indis- 
putable    e  V  i  - 
dence    of   sci- 
ence   and     to 
set     tradition 
on  the  throne 
in    the    place 
of  truth. 

W  e    have 
seen      in     the 
f  o  r  e  o-  o  i  n  0; 
pages  to   what 
depth    into  the 
past    the    actual 
records  of  our  race 
xtend.         Perhaps 
the  historical  horizon 
human  life,  as  deter- 
mined   by  contemporaneous 
_     evidence,     lies    not 
far  from  the  line  of 
forty   centuries    be- 
fore the  Christian  era.     But  this  signi- 
fies  no    more  than    that  the    record    is 
there  broken  bv  the  limita-  Historical hori- 
ti.ms  of  human  knowledge.  Ta^f  thlfoni- 
Beyond    that   border   line,  eth  century  B.C. 
which  for  the  present  divides  the  historic 
from  the  prehistoric  life  of  man,  extend 
those  vast  unrecorded  epochs  of  human 
existence  concernino-  which  our  informa- 


150 


GREAT  RACf.S   OF  MANKIND. 


tio;.  must  be  derived  from  those  branches 
ot  science  which  have  extended  their 
investigations  beyond  the  historical 
horizon. 

We    have    endeavored    in    the    pre- 
ceding  pages   to   gather   and   summar- 
ize   the    evidences    which 

Final  estimate  ,      ,    ,         e   ^  i 

of  the  date  of       the  present  state  oi  knowl- 

the  beginning.        ^^^^     ^^^     furnished     with 

respect  to  the  extent  of  man-life  back- 
wards through  the  prehistoric  shadows. 
While  much  remains  as  yet  indetermi- 
nate, while  the  evidence  in  many  parts  is 
indecisive,  while  the  application  of  the 
law  of  averages  and  probabilities  may 
mislead  somewhat  the  most  skillful 
research  respecting  the  vestigia  of  human 
life  in  the  prehistoric  ages,  we  are  never- 


theless fully  warranted,  by  the  juxta- 
position  of  all  the  proofs,  in  accepting  it 
as  an  established  fact  that  the  appear- 
ance of  the  human  race  belongs  to  a 
date  not  less  than  tivo  hundred  centuries 
from  the  present  time.  It  only  remains 
to  remind  the  reader  that  "human 
race  "  in  this  assignment  of  an  approxi- 
mate date  for  its  apparition  signifies 
that  species  of  beings  the  traces  of  whose 
primitive  life  are  found  close  down  to 
the  miocene  era  in  geology,  a  species 
having  the  rudiments  of  reason,  the  up- 
right form,  and  the  potency  of  the  civil- 
ized life,  but  otherwise  not  strongly  dis- 
criminated from  the  higher  primates 
except  in  the  ability  to  fashion  an  im- 
plement and  to  kindle  a  fire. 


Chapter  VIII.— The  Quest  oe  Eden. 


AA'ING  traversed  the 
field  of  inquiry  respect- 
ing the  probable  date 
of  man's  appearance  on 
the  earth,  we  come,  in 
the  next  place,  to  con- 
sider the  flacc  of  his 
origin.  Since  there  was  a  time  in  the  his- 
tory of  our  globe  when  men  did  not  exist 
upon  its  surface,  and  since  there  was  a  date 
at  which  human  beings  in  some  manner 
made  their  appearance  and  became  the 
progenitors  of  the  race,  there  must  have 
„  .  .     ,  been  a  place  of  apparition. 

Origin  of  man-  _     ^  ^^ 

life  necessarily     a    point    or    points     from 

in  some  locality.        i  •   i       . ,  ^      ,  , 

which  the  first  men  and 
their  descendants  took  their  departure 
to  people  the  earth.  Science,  conjec- 
ture, and  blank  dogmatism  have  all  in 
turn  sought  to  solve  this  problem.  Nor 
can  it  well  be  said  that  even  at  the  pres- 
ent advanced  stage  of  inquiry  the  ques- 
tion has  been  satisfactorily  settled. 


It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  the 
subject  before  us,  namely,  the  place  of 
the  beginning  of  man-life  on  the  earth, 
is  involved  with  another  one  place  or 
question  which  we  are  to  ^r/i.^n  ^f  t\e 
consider  hereafter.  That  problem, 
other  question  relates  to  the  unity  or 
multiplicity  of  the  origin  of  mankind. 
If  the  monogenetic  theory  be  true,  then 
only  one  place  is  to  be  sought  as  the 
point  of  original  departure  for  all  the 
races  of  men ;  but  if  Ihe  polygenetic 
theory  should  be  established,  then 
several,  perhaps  many,  points  of  origin 
must  be  ascertained — at  least  as  many  as 
may  correspond  to  the  leading  ethnic 
varieties  of  human  kind. 

There  have  not  been  wanting  scholars 
and  thinkers  of  the  current  century  who, 
after  an  extensive  survey  of  the  field  of 
inquiry,  have  adopted  the  theory  of 
polygenesis ;  that  is,  the  doctrine  of  the 
multiple  origin  of  mankind.     According 


PLACE    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— QUEST  OF  EDEN. 


151 


multiple  origin 
of  mankind  prO' 
pounded. 


to  this  belief,  ttie  race  has  sprung-  from 
several  fountains  wide  apart  in  place 
Theory  of  the  and  time.  There  has  been 
one  fountain  for  the  Black 
races  of  Africa  and  Aus- 
tralia, another  for  the  Asiatic  Mongo- 
loids, another  for  the  Polynesians,  an- 
other for  the  nomadic  races  of  Northern 
Asia,  another  for  the  Indo-European, 
or  Aryan,  family,  and  still  another,  or 
perhaps  more  than  one,  for  the  aborigi- 


the  inquiry  as  to  the  geographical  locus 
of  the  first  men  is  in  great  measure 
taken  away.  Should  it  be  shown  that 
the  human  race  has  had  more  than  one 
point  of  original  departure,  then  it  may 
have  had  ten  places  of  beginning-  or  a 
hundred.  Indeed,  if  we  adopt  the  poly- 
genetic  theory,  we  put  the  inquir\'  upon 
another  foundation — that  of  supposing- 
that  when  the  earth  was  in  a  certain 
cosmical     stage    of     development     and 


TO  PEOPLE  THE  EARTH.— Drawn  by  Riou. 


nal  races  of  the  American  continents. 
From  these  several  points  of  departure 
the  vines  of  diverse  human  life  have 
sprung  and  extended  themselves  by 
devious  growth  over  the  .surface  of  the 
earth. 

We  may  not  here  pause  to  consider 
the  merits  of  the  two  opposing  theories 
Poiygenesis,  if  of  the  single  and  multiple 
sfr^^'s'ntefe;*  origin  of  mankind.  It  is 
in  the  inquiry,  sufficient  to  note  the  fact 
that  if  the  hypothesis  of  poiygenesis  be 
admitted   as  true,   then  the  interest  in 


preparation  the  conditions  antecedent 
to  man-life  were  present  and  prevalent 
over  a  large  part  of  the  globe,  from 
which  conditions  human  existence  was 
as  likely  to  take  its  origin  in  this  place 
as  in  that. 

Hereafter  we  shall  consider  the  value 
of  such  a  theory  as  explanatory  of  the 
manner  and  means  by  opposite  view 
which  the  appearance  of 
man  on  the  earth  is  to  be  ac- 
counted for.  But  for  the  present  we 
shall  take  up  the  opposite  view  as  more 


more  accordant 
■with  facts  and 
reason. 


152 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIXD. 


nearly  in  accord  with  the  facts,  shall 
adopt  the  theory  of  the  unity  in  place 
as  well  as  in  time  of  the  origin  of  all 
mankind.  With  the  acceptance  of  this 
view,  our  interest  in  the  attempted  dis- 
covery of  the  point  of  departure  from 
which  all  the  kindreds  and  families  of 
men  have  derived  their  ultimate  de- 
scent is  greatly  heightened. 


given  in  Genesis  not  only  of  the  man- 
ner, but  of  the  place  of  the  origin  ot 
mankind,  has  formed  a  part  of  the  foun- 
dation of  those  great  systems  of  religious 
thought  and  powerful  ecclesiastical  or- 
ganizations which  have  constituted  so 
strong  an  element  in  the  civilized  life  of 
the  nations  of  the  West.  The  account 
given  of  the  creation  and  emplacement 


HIGHLANDS  OF  ARMENIA.— Drawn  by  Taylor,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Carla  Serena. 


The  general  belief  among  the  nations 
of  the  West  on  this  subject  has  been  de- 
The"  garden  rived  from  the  Hebrew 
Eden,"  with  its  ^^<--riptures,  constitutmg  the 
four  rivers.  h:s.%\?,    as    they   do    of    the 

religious  faith  and  practice  of  the  Israel- 
itish  race  and.  in  later  development,  of 
the  faith  and  practice  of  all  the  Christian 
nations    of    the    earth.      The    account 


of  man  need  not  here  be  repeated.  It 
is  sufficient  to  .say  that  the  scene  of  this 
beginning  of  human  life  is  fixed  by  the 
record  as  in  "a  garden  eastward  in 
Eden."  It  is  said  that  "a  river  went 
out  of  Eden  to  water  the  garden ;  and 
from  thence  it  was  parted,  and  became 
into  four  heads.  The  name  of  the  first 
[that  is  the  fir.st  head  or  river]  is  Pison : 


THE   r.llll.lCAL  PARADISE.— Drawn  by  Guslave  Dore. 


M.— Vol.   I  — IT 


154 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


that  is  it  which  compasseth  the  whole 
land  of  Havilah,  where  there  is  gold ; 
and  the  gold  of  that  land  is  good :  there 
is  bdellium  and  onyx  stone.  And  the 
name  of  the  second  river  is  Gihon :  the 
same  is  it  that  compasseth  the  whole 
land  of  Ethiopia.  And  the  name  of  the 
third  river  is  Hiddekcl :  that  is  it  which 
goeth  toward  the  east  of  Assyria.  And 
the  fourth  river  is  Euphrates."  Here 
we  have  the  geographical  definition,  so 
to  speak,  of  that  place  which  is  described 
in  Genesis  as  the  scene  of  the  creation 
of  man. 

But  where  was  the  garden  of  Eden  ? 
Is  it  possible  to  lay  this  ancient  sketch 
Difficulty  of  fix-  of  the  Scriptures  practicallv 
thl^^bifc'aT"'  on  a  map  or  globe  and  de- 
Eden.  fmc    its    position?      jMany 

have  been  the  efforts  of  scholars  and 
visionaries  to  accomplish  this  task  of 
identifving  the  ancient  Eden  with  some 

■J  o 

place  or  places  now  known  to  men.  In 
the  first  place,  it  may  be  observed  that 
only  one  of  the  four  rivers  which  are 
said  to  have  taken  their  rise  from  Eden 
is  known  or  has  been  known  to  the  ge- 
ography of  modern  times.  The  others 
are  lost,  either  in  mythology  or  in 
changes  which  have  supervened  in  the 
character  and  distribution  of  ancient 
rivers.  As  to  the  Euphrates,  the  stream 
has  been  explored  through  its  whole 
course.  Its  head-waters  lie  in  the  high- 
lands of  Armenia.  But  from  that  situa- 
tion there  is  no  Pison  to  compass  the 
land  of  Havilah,  nor  is  there  any  Havi- 
lah which  may  be  discovered,  except  by 
the  fancy  of  him  who  searches  for  it. 
Neither  is  there  any  second  river  called 
Gihon,  rising  from  Armenia  to  encircle 
Ethiopia.  And  if  the  name  Ethiopia 
have  been  used  in  the  ancient  record  as 
equivalent'  for  the  countries  possessed 
by  the  primitive  Cushites,  then  no 
river   proceeding  from  Armenia    other 


than  the  Euphrates  itself  could  be  said 
to  approach,  much  less  to  encompass, 
Ethiopia.  As  to  the  third  river,  Hid- 
dekel,  that  likewise  is  impossible  of 
identification,  unless  indeed  we  suppose 
the  Tigris  to  be  meant;  and  certainly 
that  stream  does  not  flow  toward  the 
east  of  Assyria.  In  other  words,  if  we 
accept  the  identity  of  the  Euphrates 
mentioned  in  the  second  chapter  ol 
Genesis  with  the  river  of  that  name 
which  flows  from  the  mountains  of  Ar- 
menia to  the  Persian  gulf,  we  find  it 
impossible  to  identify  the  other  three 
with  any  existing  streams  without  sup- 
posing that  the  geographical  landscape 
has  been  transformed  by  some  revolu- 
tion of  nature. 

We  may  here  pause  to  note  that  the 
narrative  of  Eden  as  given  in  the  Book 
of  Genesis  is  common  in  its  Hebrew 


sw  narra- 


leading  features  with  tra-  ^JX'iuTel:^. 
ditions  which  still  exist,  or  "ic  traditions, 
which  have  existed,  among  the  collateral 
branches  of  the  Semitic  race.  The  an- 
cient Aramaic  peoples,  the  Chaldseans, 
perhaps  the  Old  Arabians,  the  Ishmael- 
ites  and  their  descendent  nations  of  the 
Arabian  peninsula,  no  less  than  the  He- 
brews themselves,  had  the  same  tradi- 
tion, though  much  inflected  in  its  parts 
and  circumstances,  as  did  the  family  of 
Abraham.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
a  belief  in  an  Eden,  with  its  four  emer- 
gent rivers  and  for  its  occupants  the  an- 
cestors of  the  human  race,  Avas  preva- 
lent among  the  Semites  at  a  date  long 
before  the  Babylonians  were  Babyloni- 
ans, or  the  Hebrews  were  Hebrews. 

Reviewing  the  subject  in  the  light  of 
actual    geography,    we  may  best   of  all 

conclude      that      the      river   The  Euphrates 

Euphrates   referred    to  in  .te^'Eu^hra'^^s 
the    ancient    tradition,    of  of  geography, 
which  the   account  given   in   Genesis  is 
the  most  authoritative,  if  not  the  oldest, 


PLACE    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— QUEST  OF  EDEN. 


155 


form,  Avas  some  other  than  the  stream 
now  known  by  that  name.  We  should 
thus  be  driven  to  reject  altogether  the 
emplacem.ent  of  Eden  in  the  Armenian 
highlands,  and  to  seek  for  it  at  the 
source  of  some  other  system  of  streams 
corresponding  with  those  mentioned  in 
the  Book  of  Genesis.     But  in   so  doing 


into  criticism  and  general  literature  re- 
specting the  place  called  Eden.  Some 
of  the  older  writers  were  inclined  to  lift 
it  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  to 
assign  it  a  position  in  the  third  or  fourth 
heaven.  Others,  less  mythological,  but 
hardly  less  extravagant  in  their  credulity, 
have   assigned  to  Eden  a  place  within 


THE  CEVLONESE  EDEN. 


we  at  once  enter  and  are  soon  lost  in  the 
region  of  conjecture. 

It  may  well  surprise  the  reader  who 
may  not  have  given  special  attention  to 
Visionary  and  the  subject,  to  note  the  vari- 
ous conflicting  and  vision- 
ary views  which  have  not 
only  been  entertained,  but  have  been  put 
by  their  authors  — scholarly  men  even, 
accordi':>g  to  the  standard  of  their  age — 


absurd  vie"ws  of 
tlie  place  of 
Kden. 


the  orbit  of  the  moon,  while  still  others 
have  contended  that  it  lay  in  the  moon 
itself!  Some  have  tried  to  locate  the 
terrestrial  paradise  in  the  upper  air,  but 
beyond  the  attraction  of  the  earth.  From 
these  celestial  emplacements  the  less 
fanciful  searchers  for  the  original  seat 
have  given  it  a  place  under  the  earth, 
far  within  our  sphere,  or  some  unknown 
situation  on  the  surface.     Still  another 


156 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIXD. 


class  would  have  us  accept  the  north 
pole  as  the  place  of  Eden,  while  others 
go  into  the  equatorial  regions  in  the 
search.  Tartary  and  China  have  both 
been  selected  as  the  countries  within 
whose  borders  Paradise  was  established. 
The  banks  of  the  Ganges  and  the  island 
of  Ceylon  have  in  turn  been  chosen  as 
the  site  of  Eden.  The  more  rational 
have  generally  attempted  to  fix  the  place 
in  Armenia;  but  others  rejecting  the 
suggestion  furnished  by  the  mention  of 
the  Euphrates,  have  fixed  the  situation 
in  Equatorial  Africa.  Mesopotamia, 
Syria,  Persia,  Arabia,  Babylonia,  As- 
syria, and  Palestine  itself  have  all  had 
their  advocates  as  the  honored  land  in 
which  lay  the  ancient  Eden.  More  re- 
cently the  claims  of  Europe  to  the  dis- 
tinction have  been  advanced  and  strenu- 
ously defended ;  and  in  this  particular 
the  advocates  of  a  European  Paradise 
have  had  the  advantage  of  some  strong 
scientific  indications ;  for  it  is  now  agreed 
that  the  most  ancient  relics  of  mankind 
as  yet  discovered  in  the  crust  of  the 
earth  are  those  which  the  archaeologists 
of  recent  times  have  found  in  Central 
and  Western  Europe. 

The  modern  scholar  is  obliged  to 
abandon  the  pursuit.  True,  he  may 
Modern  scholar-  very  properly  and  anxiously 
idlnttfy  the  ^^ek  to  discover  the  point 

Paradise.  of  origin   from  which  the 

human  race  has  proceeded  ;  but  the  loca- 
tion of  the  particular  Eden,  or  Paradise, 
described  in  the  second  chapter  of  Gen- 
esis may  well  be  given  over  as  a  hope- 
less task.  The  geographical  concomitants 
do  not  consist  with  the  present  char- 
acter of  any  of  the  countries  to  which 
the  place  has  been  assigned.  In  order 
to  identify  the  spot  called  Eden,  we  are 
obliged  to  concede  to  him  who  is  leading 
the  discovery  so  many  things  as  to  make 
the  whole  argument  incongruous,  if  not 


absurd.  The  identity  of  Eden,  for  in- 
stance, with  the  region  about  the  north 
pole,  can  be  shown,  no  doubt,  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  one  who  begins  with  the 
conclusion  which  he  is  trying  to  estab- 
lish, and  whose  credulity  has  been  stimu- 
lated with  the  indulgence  of  the  fallacious 
hope  of  demonstrating  a  preconceived 
opinion ;  but  to  the  inquirer  who  takes 
up  the  subject  without  preconceptions  and 
prejudices  no  single  proof  will  appeal 
which  may  properly  be  regarded  as  valid- 
In  pursuing  the  inquiry,  it  is  well  to 
adopt  the  argument  b}^  exclusion.  Neg- 
atively, the  traditional  garden  of  Eden 
may  not  be  found  in  this  The  places  sug- 
place  or  in  that.     We  mav  gestedmaybe 

^  ■     excluded  by 

showb}'  almost  irrefragable  negation, 
proofs  that  many  of  the  assumptions 
which  have  been  made  about  the  lo- 
cation of  Eden  are  untenable.  If,  for 
instance,  the  favored  hypothesis  of  the 
Armenian  highlands  can  not  be  enter- 
tained without  supposing  that  a  river 
descending  from  that  locality  can  make 
its  way  into  Equatorial  Africa,  we  may 
properly  reject  the  supposition  as  im- 
possible. Or,  if  we  must  suppose  a  river 
flowing  over  the  crest  of  the  Caucasus  in 
order  to  make  its  way  into  the  Black  sea 
or  the  Caspian,  we  may  reject  that  hy- 
pothesis also.  So  in  any  other  case,  if 
insuperable  barriers  interpose,  instead 
of  trying  to  reason  them  away  with  pre- 
conceptions and  syllogistic  leverage,  we 
should  at  once  reject  the  proposed  theory 
as  contradictory  of  the  facts,  and  there- 
fore impossible.  But  if,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  hypothesis  can  be  formed  against 
which  no  inexplicable  facts  may  be  op- 
posed, and  with  which  all  the  discoveries 
made  by  scientific  investigation  fairly 
harmonize,  then  we  may  at  least  tenta- 
tively accept  such  a  supposition  as  the 
basis  of  a  true  theory  of  the  primitive 
origin  of  the  human  species. 


PLACE   OF   THE   BEGINNING.— QUEST   OF  EDEN. 


157 


yield  to  reason 
■with  respect  to 
Eden. 


Let  US  therefore  look  attentively  at 
some  of  the  views  which  have  been  en- 
Mythoiogy  must  tertained  about  the  location 
of  the  first  seat  of  the  an- 
cestors of  mankind.  Cer- 
tainly we  need  not  adopt  any  of 
those  mythological  and  transcendental 
notions  which  the  credulity  of  even  re- 
cent centuries  adopted  and  foisted  upon 
posterity  as  a  solution  of  the  question. 
What  shall  we  say  of  the  idea  that  man- 
kind originated  somewhere  in  the  celes- 
tial sphere  round 
about  ?  Shall  we 
indeed  be  terri- 
fied by  sheer  dog- 
matism from  re- 
jecting such  an 
opinion  as  be- 
longing to  the  su- 
perstitious era  in 
the  evolution  of 
human  intelli- 
gence ?  Such  a 
notion  fairly  be- 
comes the  child- 
hood of  the  race. 
It  is  fitting  that 
children  should 
be  satisfied  with 
the  notion  of  a 
Paradise  fixed 
afar  somewhere 
moon,    or    on    the 


human  beings?  Why  should  they  be 
thrust  in  and  blended  with  the  scientific 
concept  of  our  earth  and  its  inhabitants? 
Is  it  indeed  possible  that  any  intelligent 
human  being  will  accept  it  as  true  that 
the  Eden  of  our  origin  lay  beyond  the 
sphere  of  earth — was  not  a  part  of  the 
plain,  substantial,  unmetaphorical  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  such  as  we  see  it 
and  know  it  with  our  clear  senses  and 
perceptions  at  the  present  day  ? 

The  conviction  is  thus  easily  fixed  in 


AN  ETHIOPIAN   EDEN — ONE  OF  THE   SUPPOSED    PLACES   OF  THE   BEGINNING. 
Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier. 


in  the  orbit  of  the 
on  tue  face  of  that  bright 
globe,  and  that  the  ancient  Eden  thus 
hung  up  in  the  skyland  should  dip 
down  into  touch  with  the  earth,  and  at 
length,  after  the  rebellion  and  expulsion 
of  its  inhabitants,  be  drawn  back  from 
contact  with  this  low  and  degraded 
sphere  where  the  great  act  of  life  must 
henceforth  be  performed.  But  why 
should  such  opinions  be  obtruded  upon 
the  adult  age  of  the  world?  Why  should 
they  be  thought  to  hold  some  iiuportant 
relation  to  the  happiness  and  condiict  of 


the  mind  that  right  reason  and  the  in- 
vestigations   of   science   must  guide  us 
through  the  maze  qf  manv  scientific  in- 
.suppositions  about  the  local  ShTptce^of 

origin        of        our         species,    the  beginning. 

Looking  attentively  at  the  geographical 
land.scape  of  antiquity  we  see  that  many 
jDarts  of  the  earth  could  not  have  been 
the  place  of  the  beginning.  The  high 
regions  of  the  north  mu.st  all  be  rejected 
as  unfavorable,  not  only  as  the  starting 
point,  biit  also  for  the  development  and 
maintenance  of  the  race-life  of  mankind. 
At  the  time  \vhcn  men  began  to  leave 


158 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKIXD. 


the  traces  of  their  activity  in  the  river  1 
gravels  and  caverns  of  the  Old  World  j 
and  the  New,  our  hemisphere  was  just 
recovering  from  the  rigors  of  the  glacial 
epoch.  This  is  to  say  that  then,  much 
more  than  now,  the  ice  cap  around  the 
north  pole  would  keep  at  bay  the  begin- 
nings of  human  plantation  and  distribu- 
tion. It  is  fair  to  assume  that  at  this 
time  all  the  continental  parts  of  the 
northern  hemisphere  north  of  the  fif- 
tieth parallel  of  latitude  were  still  under 
cover  of  the  glaciers.  We  must  there- 
fore look  to  the  more  favoring  regfions 
of  the  south,  to  those  parts  of  the  earth 
which,  under  the  cheering  influence  of 
the  sun,  had  more  fully  recovered  from 
the  effects  of  the  long-continued  planet- 
ary winter,  as  a  suitable  scene  for  the 
appearance  of  the  first  human  inhabit- 
ants of  the  earth. 

A  few  general  laws  and  facts  of  the 
kind  just  referred  to  may  serve  a  good 
Large  area  in  purpose  in  narrowing  to 
reasonable  bounds  the 
field  of  the  inquiry ;  but 
within  those  reasonable  limitations  there 
will  be  found  a  vast  geographical  area 
running  through  the  major  continents  of 
the  earth  in  which  human  life  might  well 


which  mankind 
might  have  orig 
inated. 


have  had  its  origin.  If  we  were  left 
with  no  better  indications  than  those  af- 
forded by  geology  and  geography,  we 
should,  perhaps,  remain,  as  we  have  so 
long  been,  blind  leaders  of  the  blind  in 
our  search  for  the  probable  locality  of 
the  beginning  of  man-life  on  the  earth. 
But  we  are  not  thus  left  without  sup- 
port and  guidance.  Ethnography,  eth- 
nology, linguistic  science,  Recent  sci- 
histor>',  and  tradition  here  ^^^^^^ 
become  our  best  and  most  place  of  origin, 
profound  sources  of  evidence.  The  dis- 
persion of  mankind  into  races  and  kin- 
dreds furnishes,  in  a  word,  a  clue  for 
tracing  backwards  the  course  of  ethnic 
descent,  and  with  the  aid  of  geography 
and  other  branches  of  science  to  indicate 
the  original  point  of  departure.  Nega- 
tively, the  very  same  evidence  goes  to 
show  from  what  regions  the  different 
families  of  men  have  not  proceeded.  We 
are  thus  enabled  to  get  upon  the  track  of 
the  inquiry,  and  to  follow  it,  first  his- 
torically, afterwards  traditionally,  and 
finally  by  the  lamp  of  right  reason  to 
approach,  at  least,  that  part  of  the 
earth's  surface  from  which  only  the 
progressive  distribution  of  the  race  could 
have  begun. 


Chapter   IX.— True  Place  ok  the  Beginnino. 


T  is  not  our  purpose  to 
anticipate  any  part  of 
what  must  more  prop- 
erly be  said,  in  a  sub- 
sequent division  of  this 
work,  on  the  primitive 
migrations  of  man- 
kind ;  but  it  is  well  in  this  connection  to 
indicate  in  a  general  way  the  proofs  fur- 
nished by  ethnography  respecting  the 
place  cf  th*^  beginning.    Take,  for  in- 


stance, the  Semitic  family  of  mankind. 
The  Hebrews  inhabiting  Palestine  had 
been  a  migrant  race.  More  immediately 
they  had  come  into  the  country  of  their 
choice  from  Egypt,  but  more  remotely 
their  ancestral  tribe  had  Migration  points 
removed  from,  the  Lower  ^^^.^i^^a^nd 
Euphrates  westward  into  proceeded. 
Canaan.  This  migration,  well  preserved 
in  the  history  and  tradition  of  the  Israel- 
ites, furnishes  an  indication  of  the  place. 


PLACE    OF    THE   BEGIXXIXG.— ARGUMENT  FROM  MIGRATIOX 


159 


or  at  least  the  direction,  from  which  the 
Semitic  division  of  mankind  was  de- 
rived. In  North  America,  within  the 
historical  period,  we  have  an  example 
of  the  migration  of  the  Tuscaroras  from 
south  to  north — from  the  Carolinas  to 
the  regdon  of  the  New  York  lakes.  The 
ancient  world  is  full  of  the  traces  of  such 
migratory  movements  among, the  primi- 


of  the  ethnic  fluctuations  by  which  the 
earth  has  been  populated.  We  must  not 
suppose  that  the  first  men, 

'^  '■  The  movementa 

the  first  tribes  of  men,  drift-  of  races  are  gov. 

-I  it.  i-  i  J         emed  by  law. 

ed  over  the  contments  under 
lawless  impulses,  blown  hither  and  thith- 
er like  mists  before  the  capricious  winds, 
but  that  all  the  transmigrations  by  which 
tribes  and  peoples  were  carried  into  new 


WESTWARD  PROGRESS  OF  THE  SEMITES 


tive  peoples.  That  the  Greeks  came  out 
of  Asia  can  not  be  doubted  any  more 
than  that  the  Vandals,  who  conquered 
Spain  and  Africa  in  the  fifth  century, 
came  out  of  the  North. 

The  inquirer  will  not  have  pursued 
the  subject  far  until  he  perceives  that 
the  migrations  of  antiquity,  and,  indeed, 
of  all  time ,  are  governed  by  general  laws, 
showing  the  direction  and  ultimate  origin 


reeions   of    the   earth  were   under   tha 
reign  of  law. 

In  some  instances  the  motive  or  im- 
pulse of  the  primitive  ethnic  distribu- 
tion   may   be    discovered.  Not  whim  and 

-f      .  J  -I  „    i-    caprice  but  mo- 

and    m    other    cases    not  ^ive  decides  rac« 
so  easily.     But  aboriginal  conduct, 
tribes,   as  well   as  enlightened    people, 
act  by  motive  and  inducement,  and  not 
b}-  whim    and  caprice.      "We    may  not 


160 


GREAT  RACES   OE  .^FANKIND. 


suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  original 
Aryan  population  of  India  made  its  way 
from  the  head-waters  of  the  Indus  down 
the  river  toward  the  sea,  instead  of  in 
the  inverse  direction,  by  accident  or 
without  a  motive.  Those  migrating 
tribes  had  a  reason  and  an  end,  and  it 
was  in  pursuance  of  these  that  they  con- 
tinued to  distribute  themselves  in  the 
country  which  they  and  their  descend- 
ants were  to  possess  for  at  least  four 
thousand  years.  The  impact  of  the 
White  race  upon  the  shores  of  the  New 
World  from  the  side  of  the  Atlantic 
rather  than  from  the  Pacific  coast  was  not 
by  accident,  but  imder  the  reign  of  law ; 
not,  indeed,  that  men  are  mere  automa- 
tons, but  they  are  creatures  of  reason  and 
motive;  and  reason  and  motive  are, as  a 
rule,  derived  from  *hat  general  causation 
and  sequence  under  which  the  world 
and  its  inhabitants  exist  and  go  forward 
to  their  destiny. 

We  have  been  able  by  ethnological 
research  and  historical  tradition  to  dis- 
indications  of  covcr,  we  might  sav,  a  thou- 
ruiaSr.-  sand  threads  in  the  com- 
*'°°-  plicated  processes  by  which 

the  early  races  of  men  were  distributed 
in  Western  Asia,  along  the  African 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
throughout  Europe.  By  following 
these  threads  as  a  clue,  we  are  able 
to  reason  both  by  inclusion  and  exclu- 
sion'to  tolerably  .satisfactory  theories  re- 
specting the  starting  point  of  the  human 
distribution.  Take,  for  example,  the  re- 
cently originated  theory  of  a  European 
beginning  for  the  human  race.  As  we 
have  said  on  a  former  page,  the  indica- 
tions of  archaeology  look  rather  to  Eu- 
rope than  to  Asia  or  Africa  as  the  start- 
ing point  of  mankind.  It  may  be 
accepted  as  true  that  the  oldest  existing 
remains  of  man  have  been  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Somme.     But  that  fact  is 


by  no  means  conclusive  on  the  general 
question  of  the  local  origin  of  our 
species.  Indeed,  the  indication  is  but 
slight.  It  signifies  no  more  than  this, 
that  no  example  of  the  rcliqua;  /iiiiiiaiice 
older  than  those  of  Europe  has  been 
discovered    in  Asia   or  Africa.      But  it 


SECTION    i>V    M  KiPlTAN    KIVKR    CAVERN,    SUITABLE 
FOR    IIEI'OSITION    OF    HUMAN    REMAINS. 

should  be  remembered  that  antiquarian 
research  has  had  its  development  in  Eu- 
rope, and  that  Asia  and  Africa  have  in 
all  probability  not  yet  yielded  up  their 
most  ancient  archaeological  treasures. 

However  this  may  be,  the  theory  of 
a   European  origin   for  the  race  is  eon- 

fronted      and      opposed      bv    Hypothesis  of 

almo.st  every  historical,  tra-  ^^"^^^^1-"^ 
ditional,  and  ethnological  jected. 
fact  with  Avhich  we  are  acquainted.  All 
the  races  of  Europe  .since  the  beginnings 
of  history  ha^•e  regarded  themselves 
either  as  autochthonous  or  immigrants 
from  the  East.  The  early  movements 
of  the  European  races  were  all  from  the 
line  of  the  Ca.spian  and  the  Ural  in  the 
direction  of  the  Dnieper,  the  Danube, 
and  the  Rhine.  We  know  how  power- 
ful within  the  historical  period  has  been 
the  ethnic  pre.ssure  from  the  East  in  all 
parts  of  Europe,  and  how  .seldom  the 
ethnic  lines  have  curved  backwards 
from  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean 
borders  in  the  direction  of  their  origin. 
The  emplacement  of  primitive  cities  and 
states  was  nearly  always  in  the  western 
parts    of    the    respective    countries     la 


PLACE    OF   THE   BEGLXXIXG.—ARGUMEXT  FROM  MIGRATION.  161 


which  certain  peoples  had  at  length 
passed  from  the  migrant  to  the  seden- 
tary plipse  of  life.  We  know  that  the 
whole  p  )wer  and  contrivance  of  civiliza- 
tion wi  hin  the  historical  period  has 
scarcely  been  able  to  withstand  the  eth- 
nic and  josmic  impact  of  the  westward 
tendency  of  mankind  in  Europe. 


point  unmistakably  to  an  Asiatic  origin 
for  the  ancestors  of  the  great  peoples  of 
Europe  and  the  West.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  not  the  slightest  evidence, 
from  an  ethnological  point  of  view, 
among  the  peoples  of  Western  Asia 
that  they  or  any  of  them,  with  the  sin- 
gle   exception   of    the   Galatians,   have 


WEbl    A-1  \N    l.ANUiCAl'h.— ~t 


■^K'„E    UF    THE    Arva-."    M  '^     w  :        -    :  ■  I'       1    '  i:i 

by  Madame  Carla  Serena. 


These  remarks  apply  with  unusual 
fitness  to  the  movements  of  the  Aryan 
nations.  The  Indo-Euro- 
peans  seem  to  have  obeyed 
the  cosmic  law — to  have 
felt  its  force  and  mandate  more  univer- 
sally and  profoimdly  than  any  other 
family  of  men.  The  whole  Aryan  tra- 
dition and  all   the  testimonv  of  historv 


Indo-Europeans 
move  westward 
under  cosmic 
law^s. 


come,  either  mediately  or  remoteh',  out 
of  the  West.  Tradition  and  history  in- 
dicate immistakably  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Western  Asia,  such  as  the  Turco- 
mans, have  themselves,  like  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Europe,  migrated  from  coun- 
tries further  to  the  Ea.st.  In  short, 
every  fact  deducible  from  ethnographic 
and    ethnological  inquiry   confirms    the 


162 


GREAT  KACF.S   OF  MANKIND. 


ence  proves 
Eastern  origin 
of  Europeans. 


belief  that  all  the  peoples  inhabiting  the 
occidental  parts  of  the  Eastern  hemi- 
sphere are  the  descendants  and  repre- 
sentatives of  migrant  races  which  were 
distributed  from  an  Oriental  origin  at 
a  period  far  below  the  dawn  of  human 
tradition. 

In  this  connection  the  histor\'  of  lan- 
guage may  be  cited  as  one  of  the  strong- 
Linguistic  sci-  est  proofs  of  an  Eastern  or- 
igin for  the  races  of  the 
West.  The  discovery  of 
the  radical  identity  of  Greek  and  San- 
skrit made  by  scholars  in  the  first  half 
of  the  present  century  is,  of  itself,  a  fact 
sufificient  to  establish  the  Eastern  origin 
of  the  European  Aryans.  On  no  other 
grounds  or  hypothesis  can  we  account 
for  the  fact  that  the  Iliad,  the  ^iieid,  the 
Jcrusalcut  Delivered,  and  the  Paradise  Lost 
are  written  in  the  same  tongue  as  the  Ve- 
das.  Either  the  great  Epics,  and  indeed 
all  literature,  mythology,  and  history  of 
the  Western  nations  have  been  produced 
by  peoples  who  had  the  same  ultimate 
derivation  with  the  inhabitants  of  an- 
cient India,  or  else  the  Hindus  them- 
selves have  derived  their  culture,  as  well 
as  their  blood,  from  some  fountain  in 
Europe.  The  latter  supposition  can 
hardly  be  entertained,  and  certainly  not 
entertained  at  all  by  any  one  who  has 
acquainted  himself  with  the  subject- 
matter  and  deductions  of  ethnology. 
Indeed,  it  is  certain  that  the  ancestors 
of  the  European-Aryan  peoples  came 
out  of  Western  Asia,  and  after  long 
ages  of  wanderings  and  wars  fixed 
themselves,  by  discovery,  occupation, 
and  conquest,  in  the  respective  coun- 
tries where  their  descendants,  within 
the  historical  period,  have  grown  into 
great  and  famous  nations.  It  is  certain 
also  that  in  their  westward  course  in  the 
prehistoric  epoch  they  brought  with 
them   the  language,   laws,   institutions. 


manners  and  cu.stoms,  ambitions  and 
mental  habitudes  which  the  ancestral 
tribes  had  pos.sessed  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  migratory  era. 

By  a  method  of  investigation  and 
rea.soning  precisely  analogous  to  the 
foregoing,  we  are  able  to  Ethnic  distribu- 
prove  that  there  never  ^^--.ttl^ 
was  any  general  migration  "«"^^*- 
of  primitive  peoples  out  of  Africa  into 
Western  Asia.  It  might  be  sufficient  to 
.say  that  here  ahso  the  ethnic  lines,  in  so 
far  as  they  have  been  preserved  by  his- 
tory, tradition,  and  language,  run  in  the 
opposite  direction.  The  westernmost 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Africa  have, 
as  a  general  fact,  been  peopled  with 
migratory  tribes  from  the  eastern  parts. 
In  ancient  times  the  states  and  cities 
which  abounded  and  flourished  on  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
were  planted  progressively  from  east  to 
west.  Egypt  was  the  oldest  of  all. 
Carthage  was  one  of  the  younger  plan- 
tations of  that  region  of  the  earth.  In 
the  westernmost  parts  of  Africa  the 
ethnic  lines  have  been  sometimes 
doubled  back  by  the  barriers  of  moun- 
tain and  sea,  just  as  in  Europe  the  Celtic 
race,  having  explored  and  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  peopled  the  soiithwestern 
peninsulas  of  that  continent,  doubled 
back  and  proceeded  far  to  the  east  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  age  of  migrations. 
But  it  is  clear  to  the  student  of  these 
exceptional  movements  that  they  were 
made  against,  and  as  it  were  in  the  face 
of,  the  cosmic  and  ethnic  law  by  which 
the  primitive  tribes  had  been  carried 
from  their  Asiatic  origin  into  the  West. 

If  the  study  of  peoples  of  Western 
Asia  in  ancient  and  modern  times  should 
bring  us  into  contact  with  Ethiopian 
and  Nigritian  tribes — if  we  should  find  in 
certain  places  the  distribution  of  Black 
men  of  the  ethnic  type  peculiar  to  Equa- 


PLACE    OF   THE  BEGIXXIXG. —  IRGUMENT  FROM  MIGRATION.     163 


No  Blacks  in 
Western  Asia; 
Egyptians  from 
the  East. 


torial  Africa,  speaking  the  languages  of 
that  region  and  having  their  manners 
and  customs — we  might 
well  suspect  that  there  had 
been  at  some  time  in  the 
past  a  race  movement  from  tlie  direction 
of  the  Red  sea  backwards  toward  the  Cas- 
pian, the  Persian  gulf,  and  the  borders 
of  India.  But  no  such  evidences  have 
been  discovered.  On  the  contrary,  the 
impingement  of  Asiatic  races  upon  the 
African  coast  as  far  south  as  the  equato- 
rial region  is  a  fact  everywhere  attested. 
The  movement  of  mankind  in  this  region 
has  been  from  the  Persian  gulf  toward 
the  Red  sea  and  Abyssinia.  Indeed,  we 
can  see  dimly  through  the  prehistoric 
shadows  to  the  time  when,  probably  six 
thousand  or  eight  thousand  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  the  ancestors  of  the 
Egyptians  themselves  made  their  way 
into  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  out  of  Asia, 
became  sedentary  in  that  favorable  situ- 
ation, and  planted  there,  after  a  long 
period  of  development,  those  first  famous 
dynasties  which  mark,  like  far-off  moun- 
tain peaks,  the  extreme  verge  of  the 
historical  horizon. 

Again,  should  we  begin  an  inquiry  in 
regard  to  the  Mongoloid  races,  we  should 
Mongolians  find  them  pressing  from  the 

interior  of  Central  Asia 
eastward  toward  the  Pacific. 
The  older  divisions  of  this  race  are  in- 
land peoples  rather  than  maritime.  The 
maritime  and  insular  families  are  more 
recent.  The  Japanese  are  younger  than 
the  Chinese,  and  the  Polynesian  island- 
ers are  of  later  date  than  the  continental 
Mongoloids,  from  whom  they  are  de- 
scended. We  must  therefore  accept 
the  conclusion  that  the  general  diffusion 
of  the  eastern  Asiatics  has  been  from  the 
direction  of  Central  Asia  toward  the 
Pacific,  and  that  the  ethnic  movement 
has  been  strong  enough  to  carry  the  van- 


move  east-ward 
from  Central 
Asia. 


guard  into  peninsular  and  insular  situa- 
tions far  removed  from  the  original  seats 
of  the  race. 

The  principles  of  ethnology  and  lin- 
guistic inquiry  applied  to  the  Black  races 
give  similar  results.  These  Nigritian  dis- 
races  are  found  only  P-f---" 
in  Central  and  Southern  European  origin. 
Africa,  in  ^Melanesia,  and  Australia.  As 
to  Africa,  the  ethnic  distribution,  as  far 
as  it  has  been  discovered  and  traced,  is 
from  the  eastern  coast  into  the  interior, 
and  as  far  west  as  to  where  the  continent 
becomes  almost  peninsular  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Cape  Verde  islands.  The 
theory  of  a  European  origin  for  the  race 
of  man  is  scientifically  contradicted  by 
the  present  distribution  of  the  Nigritian 
peoples,  and  by  the  direction  from  which 
the  diffusion  has  been  effected.  In  like 
manner  it  would  be  impossible  to  find 
any  European  stem  to  which  the  native 
Australians  and  Melanesian  islanders 
can  be  referred — this  for  the  reason 
that  there  are  neither  ethnographical 
nor  linguistic  traces  of  such  peoples 
between  the  countries  which  they  now 
occupy  and  the  borders  of  Europe. 

The  same  may  be  said  also  of  Asia — 
unless,  indeed,  we  should  except  the  ex- 
treme     southern      parts     of   No  continental 

Hindustan.  There,  indeed,  P°Son°;/^Sc"k 
are  found  the  Veddahs  races, 
and  other  descendants  of  a  race  belong- 
ing, ethnologically,  to  the  same  branch 
with  the  Negroes  and  the  Melanesians. 
There  is,  in  a  word,  ho  continental  or' 
igin  which  can  well  be  assigned  for 
the  Black  races,  unless  we  should  fix 
the  same  within  the  equatorial  belt  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Africa.  From  that 
point,  indeed,  the  Nigritian  peoples 
may  all  be  derived  with  a  fair  conform- 
ity to  science  and  right  reason.  At  the 
same  time,  however,  there  would  appear 
to   be  insuperable  objections  to  this  lo- 


PLACE  OF  THE  BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM  MIGRATION.     165 


cality  as  the  original  nidus  of  the  Black 
races.  For  in  order  to  deduce  from  such 
a  situation  the  natives  of  Australia  and 
Melanesia,  the  original  stock  must  have 
crossed  the  Indian  ocean  through  several 
thousand  miles — a  hypothesis  hardly 
tenable  under  the  law  of  probabilities. 

If,  moreover,  we  allow  a  great  an- 
tiquity for  the  Black  races,  and  fix  some 
spot  in  Eastern  Africa  as  the  point  of 
their  departure,  we  are  at  a  total  loss  in 


so-called  Caucasian,  or  White,  variety  of 
the  human  species  from  an  original  seat 
in  Africa — this  whether  we  call  that 
original  seat  by  the  name  of  Eden  and 
surround  it  with  the  circumstances  of 
the  terrestrial  Paradise,  or  view  it  merely 
as  the  locality  from  which  the  tool-mak- 
ing, fire-kindling,  anthropoid  ancestors 
of  mankind  arose  and  took  their  depar- 
tttre  to  people  the  world. 

Analagous  reasoning  may  be  applied 


EVIDENCE  OF  PREHISTORIC  RACES  IN  AMERICA.— (i)  Building  of  the  Pueblos,  Restored. 


attempting  to  derive  therefrom  the  great 

Brown  peoples  of  Eastern  Asia  or  the 

Ruddy   races    of    Western 

Bro-sni  Asiatics  .       ^ 

can  not  have  an  Asia  and  Europc.  If  we 
rioan  origin.  gj^Quld  establish  the  origin 
of  the  Black  race  in  the  continent,  where 
it  now  displays  itself  in  great  diversity 
and  power,  then  we  should  be  obliged  to 
abandon  the  monogeffetic  theory  of  the 
origin  of  mankind  and  agree  that  the 
Black  races  are  of  one  ultimate  stock  and 
the  Ruddy  races  of  another.  Of  a  cer- 
tainty it   is  not  possible    to  derive  the 


with  the  same  results  to  the  supposition 
that  the  American  continents  may  have 
been  the  original  home  of  man.  To  this 
hypothesis  the  deductions  of  almost  every 
branch  of  science  are  opposed.  As  to  the 
White  race  and  the  Black  American  conti- 
race  we  know  the  dates  of  "^^^^^^^ 
their  arrival  on  the  shores  ""an. 
of  the  New  World .  While  there  are  evi- 
dences in  all  the  three  Americas  of  the 
great  antiquity  of  the  aboriginal  peoples 
who  occupied  and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
civilized  the  milder  and  more  favorable 


166 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKIXD. 


regions  of  the  western  hemisphere,  there 
are  no  other  than  the  most  visionary  rea- 
sons for  supposing  that  the  great  histori- 
cal peoples  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe 
were  derived  therefrom.  The  habits, 
manners,  customs,  arts,  and  physical 
characteristics  of  the  original  Americans 
— by  whatever  names  we  may  define 
them — ally  them  with  the  Mongoloid  divi- 
sions of  mankind,  and  suggest  with  great 
emphasis  a  derivation  by  way  of  the 
northwest  out  of  Asia,  or  by  the  Polyne- 
sian islands  to  South  America.     But  to 


EVIDKNCK    i-il      1  Ul.illalORlC    RACtS    IN    A.MLRICA — (2)   I'VK 
IDAL   MOUND   IN   MEXICO. 

draw  outward  across  the  oceans  from 
any  part  of  our  three  continents  the 
lines  of  ethnic  distribution,  and  to  carry 
them  to  Europe,  Africa,  or  Asia,  is 
to  contradict  every  principle  of  eth- 
nography, and  to  run  amuck  with  all  the 
facts  which  science  has  discovered  rela- 
tive to  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the 
continents  round  about  our  own. 

Upon  the  known  direction  of  primi- 
tive migrations  we  may  plant  ourselves 
firmly  in  this  inquiry.  When  a  given 
race  of  the  prehistoric  times  has  come  by 


long  descent  and  removal  from  a  given 
point  of  the  horizon,  wc  may  look  confi- 
dently in    that    direction  in   Direction  of  mU 

the  hope  of  discovering  a  f^^rtoV^"' 
region  of  general  ethnic  o"gin. 
dispersion — this  always  upon  the  hy- 
pothesis that  all  the  races  of  men  are  of 
one  common  iiltinialc  derivation.  But 
the  inquirer,  in  following  backwards  as 
far  as  he  can  with  fact  and  theory  the 
lines  of  ethnic  distribution,  is  likely  to 
come  upon  many  confusing  and  some 
seemingly  contradictory  evidence.  Noth- 
ing in  which  man  has  been  con- 
cerned is  regular  or  mathematical. 
Life  has  its  order  and  its  law;  but 
it  is  the  order  of  freedom  and  the 
law  of  variation.  The  calculus  by 
which  the  movements  of  all  living 
organisms,  particularly  those  which 
are  rational,  are  governed,  is  vastly 
more  intricate  than  that  in  which  are 
expressed  the  mathematical  laws  and 
principia  governing  material  nature. 
The  inquirer,  however,  in  consider- 
ing the  movements  of  the  primitive 
races  of  men,  is  as  likely  to  be  aided 
as  he  is  to  be  confounded  Avith  the 
irregularities  and  ostensible  lawless- 
ness which  appear  in  certain  parts  of 
the  problem. 
■^'"  In  no  other  part  of  the  question  is 
this  fact  more  noticeable  than  in  that 
relating  to  the  general  directions  of  the 
movements  of  mankind  from  Orient  to 

Occident.       At    first    glance    General  move- 
we   should    easily    conclude    ^aces  ftom'east 

that  the  proper  course  of  to  west, 
the  human  race  had  always  been,  as  indi- 
cated above,  from  east  to  west.  This  is, 
indeed,  one  of  the  most  tangible  circum- 
stances that  presents  itself  to  the  ethnolo- 
gist. We  should  say  at  the  fir.st  that  all 
men  and  tribes  and  peoples  naturally  fol- 
low in  the  course  of  the  .sun  from  his 
rise  to  his    .setting.       Undoubtedly   the 


PLACE  OF  THE  BEGINNING.— ARGUMENT  FROM  MIGRATION.    167 


tvhole  of  Europe,  and,  indeed,  all  of  the 
Mediterranean  countries  have  been  pop- 
ulated in  accordance  with  this  cosmic 
law.  So,  also,  in  America,  leaving-  out 
of  view  the  aborigines,  we  note  the  tre- 
mendous pressure  of  the  White  races 
from  the  eastern  to  the  central  and  west- 
ern parts  of  the  continents. 

It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to 
suppose  that  all  ethnic  movements  have 
Exceptional  been  in  like  direction.  In- 
S:ranrn:tnre  animate  nature  shows  many 
against  the  sun.  exceptions  to  the  gen- 
eral disposition  of  vines  and  tendrils  to 
adjust  them- 
selves from  left 
to  right  around 
the  objects  to 
which  they 
cling.  Some 
vines  and  ten- 
drils turn  the 
other  way. 
The  ethnog- 
rapher, follow- 
ing his  clues 
eastward  across 
Europe  and 
Western  Asia, 
comes  at  length 
to      a      reofion 


If  the  observer  take  his  position  on 
the  northern  shore  of  the  gulf  of  Oman 
and  look  straight  across  watershed  be- 
Asia    in    the    direction    of  tweenwest- 

bound  and  east- 

Nova  Zembla,  he  will  have  bound  races, 
before  him  a  continental  line  which 
will  approximately  coincide  with  a  sort 
of  ethnic  watershed  in  the  histor}-  of 
mankind  from  which  the  races  have 
flowed  to  right  and  left  in  the  original 
distribution.  Of  a  certaint)^  this  state- 
ment is  not  scientifically  exact.  There 
will  be  found  much  twisting  and  turn- 
ing after  the  manner  of  streams  that  take 


SACKS — (3)   laiNS  ( 


where  the  lines  seemingly  enter  the 
earth,  and  where  others  springing  up 
depart  in  an  easterly  direction.  By  careful 
study  from  north  to  south  through  this 
region  of  the  earth  he  finds  the  recur- 
rence of  the  same  phenomena.  In  a 
word,  he  is  unable  to  trace  further  the 
footmarks  of  the  Aryan  races.  It  is  nat- 
ural, and,  indeed,  necessary,  to  the  prose- 
cution of  the  inquiry  that  this  particular 
belt  from  which  the  lines  of  ethnic 
transmission  seem  to  depart  to  right 
and  left,  that  is,  to  east  and  west 
alike,  should  be  examined  with  great 
care. 


their  rise,  flowing  in  their  upper  courses 
in  many  directions  rather  than  in  one, 
until  a  heavy  volume  has  been  acquired 
and  a  definite  course  determined.  But, 
on  the  whole,  that  belt  of  Asia  lying  be- 
tween the  fiftieth  and  sixtieth  parallels 
of  longitude  east  from  Greenwich  will  be 
found  to  contain  the  fountain  heads,  as 
far  as  the  same  have  been  discovered, 
not  only  of  the  Europic- Aryan  races,  but 
also  of  the  vast  Indie  and  Iranic-Aryan 
families,  as  well  as  the  still  more  widely 
distributed  Mongolian  families  by  which 
the  larger  part  of  Asia,  Polynesia,  and  the 
aboriginal  Americas  have  been  peopled. 


168 


GREAT  RACES    OF  MANKTXD. 


The  geographical  belt  in  question  co- 
incides roughly  with  the  line  of  the  river 
Primitive  races  Ural,  the  Caspian,  the  divi- 
depart  right  and  ..j^^^  of  modem  Persia  cen- 

leit  irom  a  com- 
mon belt,  trally  from  north  to  sotith, 

the  Persian  gulf  and  its  outlet  into  the 
Arabian  sea.  So  far  as  ethnological  re- 
search has  extended,  it  may  be  averred 
that  all  the  primitive  races  departed 
from  this  belt  in  their  primal  distribu- 


ceptional  deviations  and  reflections  as 
may  be  accounted  for  by  geographical 
contingencies  and  the  vicissitudes  of  dis- 
covery and  war. 

So  also  were  the  Semitic  and  the 
Hamitic  families  dispersed  from  the 
same  belt  of  the  earth's  surface.  If  we 
press  the  inquiry  further  we  shall  find 
the  first  appearance  of  the  Black  races 
on   the  eastern   coast  of  Africa,   in  the 


LANDSCAPE  OF  ETHNIC  WATERSHED —Mountains  of  Jobla.— Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier. 


tion  in  an  easterly  or  westerly  direc- 
tion. It  was  only  after  the  migrations 
of  the  Mongoloid  races  had  carried  them 
to  the  eastern  borders  of  the  continent 
against  the  Yellow  sea,  the  sea  of  Japan, 
and  the  sea  of  Okhotsk  that  the  lines  of 
ethnic  diffusion  were  bent  backwards  in 
a  westerly  -direction  across  the  north- 
ern and  northwestern  parts  of  Asia.  In 
like  manner  from  the  same  meridian  the 
migrations  of  the  European  Aryans  were 
always  to  the  west,  with  only  such  ex- 


southern  part  of  Hindustan — the  former 
moving  in  a  western  direction  and  the 
latter  in  an  eastern — show-  au  non-Aryans 
ing   conclusively  that   the  ^.^rofdeP-' 
Black    division     or     divi-  ture. 
sions  of  mankind  also  departed  to  right 
and  left  from  a  meridian  almost  identi- 
cal with  the  watershed  of  the  White  and 
Brown  races  across  Asia.     It  is  hardly 
pressing  the  hypothesis  beyond  the  war- 
rant of  established  facts  to  say  that  with- 
in the  belt  of  land  and  sea  bounded  by 


X 
C 


170 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


the  fiftieth  and  sixty-fifth  meridians  of 
lon<ritude  east  from  (Greenwich  the  first 
fountains  of  man-life  in  the  earth  are 
to  be  discovered. 

Under  this  hypothesis  it  still  remains 
to  be  decided  in  ivliat  part  of  the  belt  re- 
ferred    to,    viewed     from 

Recent  arrival  ,         ,  .        - 

of  the  supra-  uorth  to  sotith,  the  primal 
Caspian  r  .  gg^ts  of  mankind  are  most 
likely  to  be  found.  First  of  all,  we  may 
exclude  the  north.  Nothing-  is  more 
clear  than  that  the  races  now  inhabiting 
the  region  north  of  the  Caspian,  includ- 
ing the  countries  drained  by  the  Ural 
and  the  Volga,  have  made  their  way  into 
those  semiarctic  countries  by  toilsome 
and  comparatively  recent  migrations. 
We  have  every  reason  to  believe  that 
the  Kirgheez,  the  Calmucks,  the  Cossacks 
of  the  Don,  and  the  Russian  Mongols  in 
general  are  newcomers  in  the  countries 
which  they  now  occupy. 

Hereafter  we  shall  see  that  man,   as 

an  animal,  was  not  in  his  primitive  state 

adapted  to  the  rigors  of  such  situations 

as  those  lying  between  the 

Primeval  man  , 

uiy  adapted  to     Caspian    and     the     White 

northern  rigors.  y     .  ,  .  , 

sea.  Into  such  regions  he 
had  to  make  his  way  slowly,  fortifying 
his  constitution  as  he  went,  and  learning 
by  much  discipline  and  experience  how 
to  prQtect  his  body  from  the  inclemency 
of  the  natural  world.  We  may,  there- 
fore, reject  the  transcaucasian  and 
supracaspian  region  from  the  list  of 
places  to  be  considered  in  the  inquiry. 

To  this  conclusion  we  are  also  led 
when  we  consider  the  impossibility  of 
tracing  the  Black  and  Brown  races  to 
Impossibiutyof  such  a  gcograjDhical  local- 
*::::frlmthe  ity.  The  derivation,  for 
North.  instance,   of   the   Negroes, 

Australians,  and  Papuans  from  a  coun- 
try above  the  fiftieth  parallel  of  north 
latitude  is  a  thing  contradicted  by  every 
fact  with  which  we  are  acquainted  and 


by  every  principle  of  right  reason. 
Moreover,  the  races  just  referred  to  are 
much  lower  in  the  scale  of  physical,  in- 
tellectual, and  moral  development  than 
are  the  great  Indo-European  famrlies  of 
men ;  from  which  fact  we  must  either 
suppose  that  the  Black  races  have  been 
derived  by  an  inverse  order  of  descent,  in- 
volving retrogression  and  reversion  to- 
ward the  lower  order  of  animals  from 
the  higher  races  of  the  north,  or  else  re- 
ject altogether  the  possibility  of  a  north- 
ern origin  for  the  native  inhabitants  of 
Central  Africa,  Australia,  and  Mela- 
nesia. 

We  are  thus  drawn  down  from  the 
subarctic  regions  to  the  consideration 
of  the  countries  lying  be-  Begion  between 
tween  the  Caspian  and  the  S^^^^ 
Arabian  sea.  It  is  to  this  indicated. 
part  of  the  earth,  as  we  have  already 
said,  that  the  ethnic  lines  of  the  Aryan 
races  seem  to  be  traceable.  The  lati- 
tude coincides  with  that  great  belt  of 
our  globe,  running  from  east  to  west,  in 
which  the  energies  of  those  races  have 
been  so  magnificently  displayed.  It  is 
a  region  presenting-  those  climatic  vicis- 
situdes tinder  Avhich  the  best  discipline 
and  most  vigorous  development  of  the 
human  race  have  been  achieved.  As 
we  have  said  above,  the  lines  of  Aryan 
descent  do  seem  to  arise  from  the  an- 
cient Iranian  region  under  considera- 
tion, and  to  depart  to  both  east  and 
west,  as  might  be  expected,  if  this  were 
the  starting  point  of  human  develop- 
ment. Limiting  our  view,  therefore,  to 
ike  A  ryan  races  only,  we  might  well  be- 
lieve that  we  had  discovered  in  the 
region  north  of  the  Persian  gulf  and 
included  between  that  water  and  the 
eastern  extension  of  the  Caucasus  the 
original  home  of  man. 

This    supposition,   however,   is    again 
confronted    with    insuperable    difficulty 


172 


r^REAT  RACnS   OF  jrAXKLYD. 


when  we  take  into  consideration  the 
races  other  than  Indo-European.  There 
Mongolians  and    have  never  been  discovered 

Blacks  not  de-  •  ^j^  countries  south  of 
riTable  from  this 

region.  the    fiftieth     parallel    and 

•west  of  the  sixtieth  meridian  the  slight- 
est trace  of  the  Mongoloid  families  of 
men.  North  of  the  Caspian  and  the 
Black  sea  Mongols  are  abundantly  dis- 
tributed; but  on  the  plateau  of  Iran, 
from  which  Aryan  life  appears  to  have 
taken  its  rise,  no  vestigia  of  Mongoloid 
existence  have  been  found.  Still  more 
is  this  true  of  the  Blacks.  The  Nigri- 
tians  have  nowhere  risen  above  the 
twentieth  parallel  of  north  latitude — ex- 
cept, indeed,  in  countries  like  the  United 
States,  where  the  presence  of  the  Blacks 
is  to  be  accounted  for  on  other  than  eth- 
nic principles.  If  we  attempt  to  deduce 
the  Black  races  from  what  appears  to 
be  the  Aiyan  nidus  in  Bactria,  we  are 
confronted  with  the  same  insuperable 
difficulties  mentioned  above.  ,.  The 
Black  races  have  not  advanced  as  far 
along  the  lines  of  the  human  evolution 
as  the  so-called  Caucasians.  Their  phys- 
ical structure,  their  intellectual  com- 
pass, and  their  moral  attributes  are  all 
clearly  of  a  more  primitive  and  less 
specialized  form  of  life  than  we  find  in 
the  peoples  of  Western  Asia  and  Eu- 
rope. There  must,  therefore,  have  been 
retrogression  in  the  case  of  the  Blacks, 
or  else  a  derivation  from  some  region 
lying  approximate  to  the  equator. 
There  has  not  been  retrogression. 

It  would  thus  seem  to  be  impossible 
to  find  a  position  on  the  land  surface  of 
No  land  surface  the  earth,  as  the  same  is  now 
rXoVl'he''"  distributed,  from  which 
problem.  the     Black,      the     Brown, 

and  the  Ruddy  races  can  be  derived  as 
from  a  common  original  home.  Indeed, 
it  is  impossible  to  make  such  derivation  ; 
but  when  this  is  said,  the  limirtations  of 


possibility  are  determined  by  the  re- 
sources of  our  present  knowledge.  It  is 
altogether  correct  for  the  inquirer  to 
use  such  language  in  the  present  age 
and  at  the  present  stage  of  human  at- 
tainment. But  it  is  not  meant  that  it 
is  absolutely  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
the  possible  that  the  Ethiopians  and  the 
natives  of  Australia  should  have  been 
derived  from  some  point  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Asia.  vSuch  conclusion,  how- 
ever, appears  so  strongly  impossible, 
and  is  so  immensely  improbable,  that 
we  are  warranted  in  adopting  the  ex- 
pression, and  in  rejecting  altogether  the 
supposition  of  an  Asiatic  origin  for  the 
Black  races  of  mankind. 

What  then?  If  the  Aryan  races  have 
not  been  derived  from  Africa  or  Aus- 
tralia,   as    they    have   not 

•'  Tenability  of 

been;  if  the  Brown  races,  another hy- 
the  great  Mongoloid  divi-  ^° 
sions  of  mankind,  have  not  and  can  not 
have  had  an  African  origin ;  and  if  they 
have  not  been  found,  even  by  trace  or 
tradition,  as  far  west  in  central  and 
southern  Asia  as  the  seat  of  the  Indo- 
Europeans,  must  we  conclude  that  the 
discovery  of  a  common  primitive  home 
for  the  first  men  of  the  human  species 
is  impossible,  and  must  we  adopt  the 
theory  of  a  multiple  origin  for  the  dif- 
ferent races?  Not  at  all.  There  still 
remains  a  single  view  which,  if  adopted, 
may  make  consistent  the  theory  of  mon- 
ogenesis  and  progressive  distribution 
with  what  we  know  of  the  present  eth- 
nic position  and  fonner  migrations  of 
the  various  peoples  of  the  earth.  This 
view  is  in  brief,  that  the  geographical 
distribution  of  land  and  water  in  that 
quarter  of  the  earth  from  which  it  would 
appear  that  the  human  race  has  taken 
its  origin  may  not  be,  and  in  all  proba- 
bility is  not,  the  same  as  it  was  at  the 
date  of  the  appearance  of  man. 


PLACE   OF   THE   BEGINNING.— LEMIRIA. 


173 


There  are  many  grounds  for  believing 
that  the  water  area  now  occupied  with 
Grounds  for  the  Arabian  sea  and  the 
suw?|ed"con-  northern  parts  of  the  Indian 
tinent.  ocean,     including      Mada- 

gascar and  extending  eastward  almost 
to  Australia  and  the  Malay  peninsula, 
was   formerly  a    continent    upon  which 


a  great  submerged  continent  in  the  re- 
gion referred  to  is  rendered  probable,  if 
not  positively  established,  by  several 
kinds  of  inquiry  having  no  reference  to 
ethnological  results. 

In  the  first  place,  the  shoal  character 
of  the  waters  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
Indian    ocean    is  a  well-known   fact   of 

i 


IDEAL  LANDSCAPE  OF  LE.MURIA.— Drawn  by  Riou. 


the  ocean  gradually  encroached  until  its 
submergence  was  effected.  If  this  sug- 
gestion were  made  with  a  view  merely 
to  furnish  a  possible  common  home  for 
primitive  mankind,  it  might  at  once  be 
rejected  as  a  part  and  example  of  that 
visionary  reasoning  in  which  dogmatic 
scholarship  has  so  much  delighted  for 
several  centuries;  but  the  existence  of 


marine  geography.  That  part  of  the 
ocean  between  the  thirtieth  degree  of 
south  latitude  and  the  equa-  shoai  character 
tor  bounded  east  and  west  ^^J^^j^  "^^ 
by  Madagascar  and  the  ocean. 
eightieth  meridian  from  Greenwich  is 
very  shoal.  Should  we  take  our  stand 
on  the  island  of  ]SIauritius  or  Rodriguez, 
we  should  see  around  us  a  vast  area  of 


174 


GREAT  RACES    OF  JfAXKlXD. 


shallow  sea.  Even  beyond  the  borders 
of  this  the  waters  are  not  deep  like  those 
of  the  profound  Pacific.  A  compara- 
tively slight  recession  of  the  ocean  such 
as  we  may  well  suppose  to  occur  in  one 
of  those  secular  movements  to  which 
the   fluid  surface  of  the  earth  has  been 


these  may  be  mentioned  with  confidence 
the  distribution  of  animals  and  plants  on 
the  two  sides  of  the  Indian  Evidences  of 
ocean.  The  birds  of  Mad-  '^^^l^^^::^^ 
aga.scar  and  those  of  the  "^"t. 
Malay  peninsula  are  of  a  common  type. 
Certain  species  of  palm  trees,  which  are 


LANDSCAPE  IN  BELUCHISTAN.— DEPARTURE  OF  THE  BROWN  R.\CES. 


many  times  subjected  in  the  past,  and 
which  we  know  to  be  actively  in  opera- 
tion—  though  slowty  —  at  the  present 
time,  would  be  sufficient  to  lay  bare  a 
continent  much  larger  than  Australia  in 
the  region  between  the  Malay  archipel- 
ago and  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa. 

The  former  existence  of  such  a  conti- 
nent is  attested  b}^  many  proofs.    Among 


disseminated  with  great  difficulty  by 
seed  or  transplanting,  are  common  in 
Singapore,  the  Moluccas,  New  Guinea, 
Australia,  and  the  western  islands  of 
Polynesia.  Botanists  of  great  reputa- 
tion have  insisted  that  this  distribution 
could  not  have  been  made  witJiout  a  con- 
tinnons  land-bridge  among  the  countries 
where  this  species  of  palms  is  found. 


PLACE    OF   THE   BEGL\\\UNG.—LEMURIA. 


175 


fX^W 


In    like    manner    the   conclusions    of 

geology  are  at  least  consistent  with  the 

former  existence  of  a  con- 

Geological  indi-        .  .  '  . 

cations  of  the       tinent  in  what  is  now  the 

same  fact,  i       t        /*    ^  i         t     t 

bed  of  the  Indian  ocean. 
Geology  recognizes  clearly  two  secular 
processes  by  which  a 
continent  existing  in 
this  region  could  have 
ceased  to  exist  by 
emergence  under  the 
sea.  One  of  these  is 
the  settling,  or  sink- 
ing, of  the  low-lying 
tropical  lands  in 
question  below  the 
level  of  the  ocean. 
The  other  is  the  en- 
croachment of  the  sea 
by  one  of  those  vast 
fluctuations  of  the 
presence  of  which  in 
geological  time  there 
are  many  indications. 
Still  another  con- 
sideration worthy  to 
be  weighed  in  the 
argument  is  the  fact 
that  the  human  race 
must  have  had  some 
geographical  starting 
point  on  the  earth. 
The  area  from  which 
mankind  began  to  be 
distributed  may  have 
been  larger  or  small- 
er ;  but  the  very  ne- 
cessity of  the  case  re- 
quires us  to  select 
some  locality  as  the  probable  home  of  the 
first  men.  Thus  much  granted,  the  lo- 
Piace  of  man's      cality  must  auswer  to  the 

origin  must  an-       i,   ,    „.i        •  -r, 

swertosome        hypothesis.      It  Were  vam 
hypothesis.  to    Select  some  place  from 

which  the  various  races  could  not  have 
been  derived.     This  kind  of  reasoning  is 


strictly  scientific.  The  search  must  be  for 
some  situation  which  will  answer  to  the 
conditions  and  the  facts  as  they  now  ap- 
pear. If  we  may  find  any  region  on  the 
land,  or  even  the  water  surface,  of  the 
earth  toward  which  the  indications  of  eth- 


HOFFMAN  S   SLOTHS. 
After  a  drawing  from  life. 


nography,  philology,  anthropology,  his- 
tory, and  tradition  all  alike  point  as  to  a 
locality  from  which  all  the  varieties  of 
men  might  have  been  diffused,  this  fact 
of  itself  becomes  a  powerful  argument 
in  favor  of  that  locality.  Indeed,  it  is 
this     particular     reasoning    which    has 


176 


GREAT  RACES   OF  ^fAXKLXD. 


brought  us  at  length  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  most  probable  locality  in  which 
to  establish  the  first  seat  of  the  human 
race  xvas  in  a  coiitiiuiit  mm'  submerged  be- 
7ieath  tlie  Indian  oeean. 

If  \ve  accept  such  a  hypothesis,  the 
whole  question  begins  to  clear.  The 
Ethnic  outlook  existence  being  granted  of 
sUiout^onT"  «"^-h  a  continent,  to  which 
"ent.  -we  may  say,  once  for  all, 

that  the  name  of  Lemuria  has  been 
assigned,  we  are  able  to  look  out,  as  it 


with  fair  probability  the  departure  of  the 
Ijre-Mongolians  in  the  direction  of  Bel- 
uchistan  or  Western  India,  for  in  these 
countries  the  first  traces  of  Mongoloid 
life  are  discoverable.  Lastly,  we  may 
imagine  a  Dravidian  line  of  ethnic  de- 
scent carried  almost  in  the  same  direc- 
tion with  the  pre-Mongolian,  upon 
which,  in  Beluchistan  or  Eastern  Per- 
sia, we  may  place  the  primal  develop- 
ment of  the  Ruddy,  or  White,  race  of 
mankind.      All  of  these  suppositions  are 


BRUSH-TAILED  ROCK  KANGAROOS. 


were,  along  the  lines  of  the  primitive 
dispersion  of  mankind.  To  the  west  we 
may  note  the  departure  of  the  Nigritian 
stem,  the  presence  of  which  is  historic- 
all}^  discovered  first  of  all  on  the  mid- 
eastern  coast  of  Africa.  To  the  east  we 
may  remark  in  like  manner  the  diver- 
gence of  another  line  of  Black  men  whose 
presence  we  find  within  the  historical 
period  on  the  northwestern  coast  of 
Australia,  in  New  Zealand,  and  in  the 
extreme  south  of  Hindustan.  Without 
changing  our  position  we  may  perceive 


cited  in  this  connection  not  because 
they  include  established  facts,  not  be- 
cause they  represent  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  the  first  distribution  of  men,  but 
because  they  do  furnish  a  consistent  basis 
for  such  an  inquiry  and  harmonize,  as 
is  believed,  in  every  part  with  the  pres- 
ent results  of  investigation,  and  accord 
with  what  may  be  called  the  necessities 
of  the  case. 

But  we  are  not  left  entirely  to  reason 
and  conjecture  as  it  respects  the  fixing 
of  the  primitive  seat  of  the  htiman  race 


PLACE    OF    THE  BEGINNING.— LEMURI A. 


177 


in  Lemuria.  Much  scientific  evidence 
may  be  adduced  to  strengthen  the  hy- 
The  nature  of  pothesis.  In  the  first  place, 
u^p^alb^gr  m^-^n  i«  originally  a  tropical 
>""£•  animal.        The   very   least 

that  can  be  said  is  that  he  is  by  his  na- 
ture semitropical  in  constitution  and 
habits.  We  are  obliged  to  select  for 
him  an  original  habitat  corresponding 
with  these  conditions.  Let  us  remark, 
once  for  all,  that  where  these  conditions 
have  been  maintained,  there  the  race 
has  invariably  made  least  progress  from 
its  original  state.  The  lowest  forms  of 
man-life  are  tropical.  The  most  original 
types  are  found  in  those  regions  where 
the  environment  has  prevented  the  evo- 
lution of  the  higher  human  varieties.  In 
a  word,  the  life  of  man  seems  in  the 
tropical  situation  to  have  continued  on 
the  original  plane,  with  little  variation  un- 
der the  influences  of  physical  nature. 

Not  so,  however,  with  those  peoples 
who  have  departed  from  the  original  en- 
Deveiopmentco-  vironment.  As  soon  as  the 
t^:ltol  unclothed  primitive  man, 
point  of  origin,  covered  witli  his  delicate 
skin, -made  his  way  from  his  warm  and 
equable  climatic  surroundings  and  be- 
gan to  be  exposed,  first  to  the  vicis- 
situdes, and  further  on  to  the  rigors  of 
higher  latitudes,  he  began  to  acquire  the 
discipline  of  nature,  to  be  specialized  in 
his  faculties,  quickened  in  his  energies, 
and  strengthened  for  battle  with  the  op. 
posing  forces  of  the  material  world.  With 
this  he  began  to  rise  in  the  scale  of 
existence.  The  extreme  distance  of  his 
departure  is  now  measured  by  the  span 
between  the  Papuan  and  the  German. 

The  significance  of  these  facts  is  that 
human  life  began  from  some  region 
where  tropical  or  semitropical  conditions 
prevailed,  and  that  its  progress  has 
been  coincident  with  its  departure  into  re- 
gions where  the  warfare  of  nature  and  the 


struggle  for  existence  have  developed 
and  symmetrized  the  body,  awakened  the 
mind,    and     produced    by  Conditions 

'■  ,  ^     favorable  to 

complexity,     reaction,     re-  beginning  un- 

ri       ,  •  1.1  1     , .  favorable  to  de- 

flection, and  the  evolution   veiopment. 

of  conscience  the  higher  phenomena  of 
the  moral  life.  Limiting  our  inquiry  to 
the  period  of  geological  time  this  side  of 
the  last  glacial  epoch,  the  conditions 
favorable  for  the  beginnings  of  our  race 
life  can  be  found  only  within  the  tropics, 
or  at  least  close  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer ; 
not  above  that  line.  The  distinction 
between  a  situation  favorable  for  the  un- 
aided beginnijig  of  the  first  men  and  the 
situation  most  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  race  into  hardihood,  activity, 
and  greatness,  must  be  constantly  borne 
in  mind. 

We  are  thus  led  by  many  lines  of  sug- 
gestion and  argument  to  select  as  the 
probable  home  of  the  an- 

•^  Conclusion  of  a 

CestorS  of  the  human  species  Lemurian  origin 
, ,  ,    .  not  final. 

the  countries  now  over- 
washed  by  the  comparatively  shoal  waters 
of  the  Indian  ocean.  It  is  proper  to  say 
that  such  a  conclusion  is  not  absolute  and 
final.  Further  investigation  may  pos- 
sibly show  us  another  way ;  but  it  is  not 
probable  that  the  conclusion  will  ever  be 
displaced  by  a  different  hypothesis  or 
seriously  modified  by  subsequent  inves- 
tigation. It  is  a  principle  of  science  that 
that  hypothesis  which  explains  a  given 
group  of  phenomena,  which  contradicts 
none  of  the  facts  and  is  consistent  with 
all,  passes,  at  least  tentatively,  into  the 
theoretical  phase  of  knowledge  ;  and  this 
is  at  the  present  day  the  condition  of  the 
inquiry  with  respect  to  the  primal  seat 
of  mankind  in  the  Lemurian  continent. 

We  ma}'  not,  however,  pass  from  the 
proofs  which  are  adducible  in  favor  of 
this  conclusion  without  citing  the  strong 
argument  drawn  from  the  distribution  of 
the  primate  animals.     If  we  strike  a  cir- 


178 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JfAXKIM). 


Gradation  of 
animal  life  up 
■ward  toward 
Lemuria. 


cle  around  the  shores  of  those  waters 
which  now  cover  the  Lemurian  conti- 
nent, we  shall  find  strong 
evidences  of  what  may  be 
called  a  zoological  climax  in 
the  area  covered  by  the  Indian  ocean. 
The  view  here  taken  includes  the  whole 
earth.  There  is  in  general  a  gradation 
of  animal  life  npivard  from  the  horizon 
iozL'ard  this  region.  If  we  approach  the 
so-called  Lemuria  from  any  point  of  the 
compass,  west,  north,  east,  or  southeast, 
we  shall  find  the  animals  graded  up  to- 
ward man,  as  though  somewhere  in  this 
region  he  stood  on  the  apex  of  all  life. 
The  zoological  conditions  of  the  primi- 
tive world  seem  to  have  been  such  as  to 
make  the  appearance  of  man  in  any  other 
quarter  than  in  the  tropical  Orient  im- 
possible— unless,  indeed,  we  suppose  the 
uniform  gradations  of  animal  life  to  have 
been  suddenly  broken  and  reversed  in 
the  case  of  man  by  his  displacement  in 
time  and  locality  from  that  region  of  the 
earth  where  the  other  forms  of  animate 
existence  had  been  most  highly  devel- 
oped. 

A  glance  at  a  few  facts  and  principles 
of  zo6log\-  may  serve  to  show  the  force 
Illustrations  of  of  the.se  deductious.  Aus- 
t^tltT^^  tralia  is  the  native  home 
center.  Qf   \^q  marsupial  animals. 

These  are  the  lowest  in  the  scale  of  the 
hot-blooded  creatures  with  which  the 
human  species  is  particularly  associated. 
True,  the  marsupials  are  widely  distrib- 
uted in  other  quarters  of  the  globe ;  but 
it  is  evident  that  their  presence  in  for- 
eign parts  is,  as  it  were,  at  the  extreme 
of  zoological  lines  which  are  central  in 
Australia.  In  the  next  place,  the  South 
American  continent  is  the  primal  seat  of 
the  edentates,  or  toothless  animals,  which 
are  next  in  order  of  development  above 
the  marsupials.  Primitive  North  Amer- 
ica was  the  home  of  the  herbivorous  ani- 


mals, which  are  third  from  the  lowest  in 
the  evolution.  The  tropical  Orient  is 
clearly  the  native  seat  of  the  great  car- 
nivora,  which  are  one  stage  higher  than 
the  herbivora  in  the  scale  of  develop- 
ment. As  in  the  case  of  the  marsupials, 
so  also  the  edentates,  the  herbivora,  and 
the  carnivora  are  of  world-wide  distri- 
bution ;  but  the  density  of  the  several 
orders,  as  well  as  their  multiplicity  and 
high  development  in  the  respective  situ- 
ations indicated,  points  to  those  regions 
as  the  zoological  centers  of  these  differ- 
ent orders  of  life.  In  a  word,  Australia 
is  on  the  lowest  zoological  plane,  South 
America  next,  North  America  third, 
and  the  Oriental  countries  within  the 
tropics  fourth  in  the  ascending  scale. 

The  argfument  is  strengthened  in  an 
especial  manner  when  we  come  to  con- 
sider the  distribution  of  the  Primate  animals 
primates,  or  of  those  forms  j^^r.^^^^J.^t 
of  animal  life  next  to  Lemuria. 
man.  This  subject  has  been  investigated 
with  great  care  by  the  English  naturalist, 
Wallace,  and  the  American  palaeontolo- 
gist, Winchell — by  the  former,  in  his 
work  on  the  Geographical  Distribution  of 
Animals,  and  by  the  latter  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  materials  for  his  Preadaniites. 
For  the  purpose  of  making  clear  their 
reasoning,  the  earth  has  been  divided 
into  several  regions  to  which  specific 
names  are  given  as  an  aid  to  understand- 
ing the  distribution  of  the  primates 
throughout  the  world.  The  first  division, 
including  Eiirope  and  Asia,  except  the 
Malay  peninsula,  Hindustan,  Southern 
Arabia,  and  Africa  north  of  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer,  is  designated  as  the  Palasarc- 
tic  region.  The  remainder  of  Africa, 
including  Madagascar  and  the  adja- 
cent islands,  is  called  the  Ethiopian 
region.  The  Oriental  region  includes 
the  Malay  peninsula  and  islands,  Hin- 
dustan,   and    Southern    Arabia,      Aus- 


PLACE    OF    THE   BEGIXXIXG—LEMURIA. 


179 


tralia,  Poh-nesia,  and  Xew  Zealand 
are  defined  as  the  Australian  region. 
South  America,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Mexico  as  far  north  as  the  tropic,  con- 
stitute the  Neotropical  region,  while  the 
remainder  of  North  America  is  defined 
as  the  Nearctic  region.  The  problem  is 
with  the  map  thus  adjusted,  to  deter- 
mine by  orders,  suborders,  and  families 
the  distribution  of  the  primate  animals. 


which  we  have  fixed  upon  as  the  prob- 
able home  of  the  first  men,  was  held  in 
between  the   two  approxi-  Raceofsup- 

'■  '■  posed  continent 

mate  parts  defined  in  the  between  Ethio- 

1  1    1,1  ..-i,     r^ii- •        •  pian  and  Orien- 

above  table  as  the  Ethiopian  tai  regions, 
and  Oriental  regions.  A  glance  at  the 
synopsis  will  show  the  astonishing  pre- 
ponderance of  the  primate  animals  in 
those  countries.  True,  the  largest  sin- 
gle distribution  is  that  of  one  hundred 


AMKRICAX  MOXKEY  W 


The  following  table  prepared  by  Win- 
chell  contains  an  abstract  of  the  results : 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  PRIMATE  AND  CARNIVOROUS  ANIMALS. 


No.  OF   FaM[LIES. 

2  » 

c 
~.2 

.1  = 

< 

u    . 

1.1 

■"  0 

O^VoVld  Monkeys  WWW 
Baboons  and  Macaques... 
American  Monkeys 

I 

4 
5 

5 

65 

70 

2 
II 
42 

10 
28 

=3 

2 

2 
I 

X 

3 
3 

si 

33 

114 

162 

'.  ' 

Total  Anthropoids 

Lemurs 

Tassiers         ....          

55 
49 

61 
4 

Aye-ayes 

Total  Lemuroids. 

Total  Primates 

Carnivora .... 

Total      Primates   and 
Carnivora 

I 
50 

90 
195 

5 

66 

95 

161 

43 
43 

It  will  be  remembered  by  the  reader 
that  the  supposed  continent  of  Lemuria, 


and  fourteen  species  in  South  America : 
but  it  has  been  noted  that  the  South 
American  primates  are  much  lower  in 
order  of  development  than  are  those  of 
Southern  Asia  and  Eastern  Africa.  No 
apes  or  any  of  the  higher  primates  have 
been  found  native  in  any  pail  of  the 
New  "World.  Leaving  out,  therefore, 
from  the  count  the  vSouth  American 
monkeys  and  marmosets,  which  are  the 
very  lowest  of  the  anthropoids,  Ave  have 
the  primates  virtually  limited  to  the 
southern  parts  of  Asia  and  the  tropical 
parts  of  Africa. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  lemuroids, 
which  are  found  only  in  the  Ethiopian 
and  Oriental  regions,  with  the  single 
exception  of  one  species  of  Tarsiers  for 


180 


GREAT  RACES    OF  jrAXA'/XD. 


Australia.  In  the  case  of  the  carnivora 
there  is,  in  the  regions  just  named,  an 

Lemurs  and  Car-  eXCeSS  of  fullv  fifty  per 
nivora  increase  ^    ^^.^.j.    ^]-,^,     „^„nber    of 

tovrard  luaian 

ocean.  species  found  in  any  other 

great  division  of  the  earth.  From  all 
of  which  we  note  conclusively  and  em- 
phatically the  climacteric  tendency  of  all 
the  higher  forms  of  life,  most  particu- 
larly of  the  primate  animals  toward  the 
basin  of  the  Indian  ocean.  On  the  hy- 
pothesis that  the  bottom  of  this  com- 
paratively   shallow    sea    constituted    in 


GROUP   OF   LEMURS. 


prehistoric  ages  a  low-lying,  tropical 
continent — reaching  on  the  one  hand  to 
the  Asiatic  peninsulas,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  coast  of  Africa — we  are  able  to 
see  with  strong  probability  in  this  re- 
gion an  apex  of  the  animal  evolution, 
and  near  that  culmination  the  ancestors 
of  the  human  species. 

The  argument  is  intensified  when  we 
estimate  the  character  of  the  human 
species  round  about  the  seeming  cul- 
mination of  the  lower  orders  of  life  in  the 
Lemurian  region.  While  these  orders, 
as  we  have  seen,  rise  to  an  apex  in  the 


direction  of  the  Indian  ocean,  the  human 
species  _/v?//  nj^  inversely  in  the  same  di- 
reetion.       This    is    said    of 

Mankind  falls  ofl 

the    general   character    of  inversely  in  the 

.,        T«.  .  same  direction. 

the  different  races  as  meas- 
ured by  the  extent  of  their  departure 
from  Lemuria.  Instead  of  finding  the 
highest  type  of  men  heading  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  hypothetical  continent 
referred  to,  thus  following  the  trend 
inanifested  by  all  the  lower  orders  of  an- 
imals, the  law  in  the  case  of  man  is 
totally  reversed.  If  we  seek  for  the  very 
lowest  types  of  human 
beings,  we  must  do 
so  among  the  Papu- 
ans and  natives  of 
Australia.  After 
these,  we  must  look 
to  Africa  for  the  next 
in  order  of  ascent. 
Thence  we  should 
have  to  consider  the 
native  races  of  South 
America,  and  from 
these  might  proceed 
to  the  aborigines  of 
our  own  continent ; 
thence  to  the  Poly- 
nesian islands,  and  to 
the  races  of  Eastern 
and  Northern  Asia ; 
finally  to  the  Aryan  division  of  mankind, 
with  its  magnificent  development  in  such 
groups  as  the  English-speaking,  French- 
speaking,  and  German-speaking  families. 
The  course  of  this  excursion  is  mani- 
festly outward  from  the  region  of 
Lemuria.  Certainly  the  Lowest  dip  of 
diagram  is  far  from  perfect  ^^^e^^h 
or  exact ;  but  in  general  of animaUty. 
the  rise  of  human  life,  as  estimated  by 
its  elevation  and  proficiency,  seems  to 
have  been  from  that  precise  quarter  of 
the  world  toward  which  the  lower  orders 
of  animated  nature  ascend  to  a  climax  I 


PLACE    OF    THE  BEGINNING—LEMURIA. 


181 


This  is  to  say  that  at  the  lowest  geograph-  ,  beginning,  so  in  that  for  the  place  of  the 
leal  dip  of  the  human  species  it  seems  to  '  beginning  there  must  be,  in  the  present 
touch  the  highest  lift  of  the  subordinate  state  of  human  knowledge,  piaceofc 
orders   of   living   beings!      Where   the 


highest  of  the  lower  primates  reach  their 
culmination,  there  the  lowest  of  mankind 


ongin 

a  considerable  margin  left  ''Ofjecturai 

*=>  rather  than  ex- 

f or  uncertainty.  The  reader  act. 

in  pursuing  such  inquiries  must  remem. 


FA^tILY  OF  GORILLAS. 


take  their  rise.  It  is  as  though  the 
noblest  of  the  anthropoids  should  from 
the  sunken  continent  hold  out  his  right 
hand  to  touch  the  left  hand  of  the  most 
ignoble  of  human  kind. 

As  in  the  search  for  the  time  of  the 


ber  that  all  sciences  are  divided  into  the 
exact  and  the  inexact.  Knowledge  on 
the  one  hand  is  absolute  and  demon- 
strable, and  on  the  other  probable  and 
approximate.  Nearly  all  deductions  rel- 
ative to  the  movements,  character,   and 


182 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


circumstances  of  the  human  race  in  the 
prehistoric  ages  have  in  them  consider- 
able elements  of  doubt  and  perhaps  of 
positive  error;  but  we  are  not  by  any 
means  to  place  less  value  on  that  kind 
of  knowledge  which  we  are  able  to  gain 
concerning  the  first  estate  of  mankind — 
its  time,  its  place,  its  circumstances — 
than  if  we  might  apply  thereto  the  for- 
mukc  of  exact  science. 

Perhaps  the  human  mind  would  rest 
in  a  state  of  greater  satisfaction  to  know 
Phuosophicai  more  precisely  the  date, 
advantages  of      ^j     localitv,  and  all  the  con- 

uncertain  *  ' 

knowledge.  comitants    and    conditions 

under  which  our  ethnic  career  began. 
Nevertheless,  exact  knowledge  has  its 
discounts  and  defects  in  the  treasure- 
total  of  our  mental  wealth.     It  may  be 


obseri'ed  that  the  exact  sciences,  while 
they  have  a  vast  and  salutary  effect  upon 
the  mind  in  con-ecting  the  judgments  and 
decisions  of  the  intellect,  nevertheless 
tend  to  reduce  all  mentality  to  a  formula 
and  mathematical  equation.  At  the 
same  time  they  tend  to  weaken  by  disuse 
the  ideal  faculties,  to  benumb  if  not  de- 
stroy the  fancy  and  tlic  imagination,  ^nd 
thereby  diminish  that  excursive  power 
of  the  mind  tipon  which  the  discovery 
of  truth  and  beauty  has  so  greatly  de- 
pended. It  is  not  desirable  that  con- 
jecture, uncertainty,  and  doiibt  should 
be  removed  from  the  concepts  which  we 
form  of  ourselves  and  of  universal  nature, 
else  the  dream  of  the  artist  and  vision 
of  the  poet  might  cease  to  add  their  gifts 
to  the  treasures  of  humanitv. 


BOOK  II -MANNER   OF   THE    BEGINNING. 


Chapter  X.— Kiax  axd  Evolutiox. 


E  have  now  looked  with 
some  attention  at  the 
great  questions  of  the 
approximate  date  and 
probable  place  of  the 
first  appearance  of 
man-life  on  the  earth. 
It  remains  to  consider  the  still  more  in- 
teresting problem  of  the  mode  of  man's 
appearance — of  the  process,  or  processes, 
the  manner,  if  we  may  so  say,  of  his 
coming.  Here  at  the  outsei;  we  are  con- 
inabiiity  of  man-  fronted  with  the  Same  dif- 
ficulty which  arose  in  the 
previous  investigation  rel- 
ative to  the  time  and  place  of  the  birth 
of  mankind,  namely,  the  inability  of 
men  themselves  to  testify  respecting  the 
circumstances  and  conditions  precedent 
to  the  unfolding  of  consciousness.  This 
is  true  in  the  individual  life,  in  the  life 
of  the  tribe,  in  the  life  of  the  people,  in 
the  life  of  the  human  race.  Conscious- 
ness began ;  but  neither  perception  nor 
memorj^  is  able  to  pierce  the  oblivious 
conditions  which  preceded  the  conscious 


kind  to  testify 
of  the  uncon- 
scious life. 


state,  or   to  give  more  than  imaginary 
testimony  with  respect  thereto. 

A    still    more     formidable    difficulty 
arises    from     the    preconceptions     and 
deep-set     opinions     which  preconceptions 
men  of  every  age  and  race  ijnpede  the  free- 

i-Liv-jj.  v^o.    v^«v,i_y    "^^  c*xxvj.  i«^-^    dom  of  mvesti- 

have  formed  with  regard  gation. 
to  the  circumstances  of  their  origin. 
Among  almost  everj^  people  there  has 
been  a  sort  of  national  faith,  involving, 
first  of  all,  the  circumstances  of  the 
genesis  not  only  of  that  people,  but  of 
mankind.  The  belief  in  some  particular 
manner  of  the  appearance  of  the  race  has 
been  interwoven  with  the  philosophical, 
social,  and  religious  systems  of  the  vari- 
ous peoples,  sometimes  forming  a  part  of 
the  political  constitution,  and  always  op- 
posing itself  with  persistent  conservatism 
to  such  investigations  and  excursions  of 
thought  as  might  seem  to  disturb  the 
existing  order.  To  the  present  time  it 
has  continued  to  appear  to  the  great 
majority  of  the  most  enlightened  peoples 
that  a  certain  interpretation — accepted 
from  the  wisdom  of  the  fathers — respect- 

183 


184 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKfXD. 


ing  the  nature  and  circumstances  of  the 
origin  of  mankind  is  essential  to  the 
steadiness,  welfare,  and  spiritual  eleva- 
tion of  the  civilized  life. 

Without  pausing  to  discuss  the  valid- 
ity of  such  opinions,  we  may  proceed  at 
Statement  of  the  oucc  to  an  analysis  of  the 
two  divergent      (jiverg-ent  views  which  have 

views;  phenom-  o 

enai  creation.  been  held  with  respect 
to  the  manner  of  the  beginning.  There 
are  two  general  beliefs  on  this  subject : 


fected  form  and  stature  as  new  existences 
without  ancestry,  strangers,  so  to  speak, 
to  the  planet  upon  which  their  activities 
were  to  be  displayed  and  their  descend- 
ants multiplied  and  disseminated. 

2.   That  the  world  and  all  its  forms  of 
life  are  the  result  of  the  process  called 

evolution,   or  growth  ;    that    Evolution 

the     different     species    of  --'^---*, 
animals    and    plants    now  bygrowth. 
aboundinof  on  the  surface  of  the  elr>be 


MANNER  OF  .MAX'S   Al'PEAKANCE.— Drawn  by  Riou. 


I.  That  the  world,  with  all  forms  of 
life  existing  thereon,  was  created  by  the 
fiat  of  the  Almighty  ;  that  the  different 
species  of  vegetable  and  animal  existence 
were  produced  at  once  and  phenomenally 
by  the  agency  of  an  intelligent  power 
over  and  above  the  world  and  apart 
from  it;  that  the  work  of  creation  oc- 
cupied but  a  brief  interval  of  time ;  and 
that  the  various  kinds  of  living  creatures 
appeared  under  the  creative  act  in  per- 


and  in  its  waters  and  atmosphere  sprang 
from  a  few  primordial  germs,  or  possi- 
bly a  single  seed  of  life,  endowed  with 
the  power  of  development,  differentia- 
tion, and  adaptation  to  environment; 
that  the  germs  of  life  from  which  all 
living  forms  are  descended  were  exist- 
ent in  the  Avorld  at  a  period  almost  infi- 
nitel}"  removed  from  the  present;  that 
the  processes  of  evolution  by  which 
the    existing   forms    of    organism   have 


MANNER    OF   THE   BEG/XX/XG.—F/A  T  AND   ErOLCTIOX. 


185 


been  produced  have  extended  over  an 
"incalculable  lapse  of  time,  working  out 
their  results  slowly,  tortuously,  and  pain- 
fully, but  preserving-  by  survival  of  the 
fittest  the  best  forms  froin  age  to  age, 
thus  vielding  at  last  bv  the  struggle  of 
life  and  by  natural  selection  the  approx- 
imately perfect  species  of  the  present 
age. 

Concerning  these  two  widely  diver- 
gent views  several  important  observa- 
Paramountin-  tions  mav  be  made.  In 
rrItfe:den^cT;f  the  first  place,  they  have 
the  question.  interested  and  divided  the 
great  thinkers  of  the  after-half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  more  profoundly  than 
any  other  question  whatsoever.  Second- 
•ly,  it  may  be  remarked  that  in  general 
the  scholastic,  conservative,  and  religious 
elements  among  the  civilized  peoples 
have  mostly  espoused  and  held  to  the 
doctrine  of  phenomenal  creation,  while 
scientists  and  progressive  thinkers  have 
adopted  the  theory  of  evolution.  Third- 
ly, and  very  importantly,  it  should  be 
obser\'ed  that  the  fundamental  difference 
between  the  two  opinions  is  simply  one 
of  modus  operandi.  The  evolution  hy- 
pothesis does  not  account  for,  and  has 
never  undertaken  to  explain,  the  origin 
of  life,  but  has  limited  the  investigation 
to  the  vtaitner  by  which  from  certain 
primordial  germs  the  existing  races  of 
plants  and  animals  may  be  accounted 
for. 

There  is  thus  a  common  ground 
which  has  been  greatly  overlooked  be- 
common  ground  tween  the  creatiouists  and 
™^'rn°/,t':     the  evolutionists— for  both 

vergence  of  the 

two  opinions.  begin  with  the  hypothesis 
of  life.  The  difference,  therefore,  takes 
the  following  form :  That  the  doctrine 
of  immediate  creation  lays  great  stress 
upon  the  phenomenal  uutliod  by  which 
the  species  or  specific  prototypes  of  the 
various  orders  of  living  beings  were  pro- 

M. — Vol.  I — 13 


duced ;  while  the  doctrine  of  evolution, 
without  attempting  to  explain  the  origin 
of  life,  proceeds  scientifically  to  consider 
the  long  intermediate  processes  by  which 
primordial  organisms  were  raised  by  dif- 
ferentiation and  development  to  the 
present  perfected  forms  of  life. 

Fourthly,  there  seems  to  be  a  grave 
mistake  in   the  nomenclature  by  which 

the  two  views  of  the  origin    Grave  mlstalie 

of  nature  and  of  man  are  t^^l^:^:^^t 
distinguished.  One  is  called  hypotheses, 
the  Hypothesis  of  Creation.  The  other 
is  known  as  the  Hypothesis  of  Evolution. 
From  this  distinction  it  might  well  be 
inferred  that  those  who  hold  the  doctrine 
of  immediate  creation  reject  evolution 
altogether  in  the  consideration  of  nat- 
ural and  living  phenomena.  On  the 
other  hand,  also,  it  is  plainly  inferential 
from  the  terms  employed  that  the  hy- 
pothesis of  evolution  has  been  made  to 
exclude  the  notion  of  creation.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  neither  of  these  infer- 
ences is  correctly  drawn,  if  we  are  to 
judge  by  the  state  of  opinion  in  the 
present  age.  The  creationists  have  not 
excluded,  and  do  not  exclude,  evolution 
as  partly  explanatory  of  the  facts  and 
conditions  of  life.  They  admit  that  evo- 
lution has  performed  a  certain  subordi- 
nate and  limited  office  in  the  production 
of  the  living  forms  now  inhabiting  the 
earth ;  but  they  lay  great  stress  upon  the 
phenomenal  aspects  of  the  beginning. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  evolutionists 
do  not  exclude  creation  from  the  scheme 
of    universal    nature.     As 

Neither  theory 

we  have  said,  they  begin  is  exclusive  of 
the  inquir}-  with  the  fact  of 
life.  The  theory  runs  thus :  Given 
life — that  is,  i.ae  primordial  germs  of  life 
— and  evolution  will  account  for  the 
rest.  But  this  theory  clearly  does  not 
preclude  creation  as  a  part — that  is, 
the  primal  part — of  the  scheme  of  life. 


186 


CRRAT  RACnS.    OF  .IfAXK/XD. 


From  which,  as  indicated  above,  the 
true  division  of  opinion  relates  to  the 
mode  of  operation — the  processes  and 
methods  by  which   the  present  organic 


dowed  with  life,  and  having  in  them  the 
possibilities  of  all  the  descendent  species 
of  living  beings  which  now  appear  on 
the  earth. 


THE  TRAnniONAI.  EDEN. 


forms  have  come  to  pass — whether  from 
perfected  ancestral  pairs  for  each  species, 
created  by  a  fiat  immediately,  and,  so  to 
speak,  full-grown  in  power  and  capacity, 
m   whether  from    potential    germs   en- 


Still  another  observation  should  be 
made  at  the  outset  with  respect  to  the 
contention  of  the  two  opinions  or  views 
of  the  origin  of  living  species.  This 
is  that,  on  the  whole,  the  belief  in  evo- 


MANNER    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— FIAT  AND   EVOLUTION. 


187 


lution  as  explanatory  of  the  modus  oper- 
andi of  universal  nature  has  steadily 
Belief  in  evoiu-  gained  grouud  in  the  high- 
g^rgr^r"  est  opinion  of  the  age.  Its 
among  thinkers,  first  conquest  was  that  of 
the  earth  itself.  The  hypothesis  of  cre- 
ation, that  is,  of  immediate  and  phe- 
nomenal creation,  formerly  included  the 
earth  as  one  of  the  products  of  a  creative 
fiat.  For  a  long  time  the  conservative 
beliefs  of  the  past  held  their  grounds 
steadily  against  the  encroachments  of 
geology.  That  science  was  resisted  in 
its  progress  by  misconception  and  preju- 
dice as  persistently  as  was  the  heliocen- 
tric theory  of  our  planetary  system.  Inch 
by  inch  the  geologist — even  as  Galileo, 
his  prototype — was  obliged  to  fight  his 
Avay  to  a  truer  concept  of  the  modes  and 
processes  by  which  the  crust  of  the  earth 
has  been  gradually  formed  through  im- 
measurable ages  of  time.  Step  by  step 
he  was  obliged  to  struggle  with  his 
demonstration  that  the  fossiliferous  his- 
tory of  the  globe,  as  well  as  the  history 
of  the  globe  itself,  extended  backwards 
through  eons  of  time  and  indescribable 
vicissitudes  of  transformation.  But  the 
evidence  was  at  length  sufficient  to  con- 
vince, and  the  ancient  concept  of  the 
earth  retreated  before  the  new. 

This  conquest,  however,  was  only  the 
preliminary  swirl  of  another  more  im- 
oid  opinions  poftant.  Zoology  and  bot- 
^^trzoViogy^"  any,  taking  up  the  work 
and  botany.  already  accomplished  by 
geology,  began  to  demonstrate  that  the 
plants  and  animals  now  inhabiting  the 
earth  are  but  the  descendants  and  vari- 
ant forms  of  others  more  simple  which 
preceded  them  in  prehistoric  time,  and 
these  in  their  turn  but  the  descendants 
of  the  fossiliferous  species  brought  to 
light  in  the  explorations  of  geology. 
Against  these  discoveries  the  creative 
hypothesis    opposed    itself    with    great 


force  and  tenacity  of  purpose.  The  old 
opinion  had  been  that  the  existing 
plants  and  lower  animals  are  but  the 
living  representatives  of  others  like  them- 
selves, created  in  perfection  and  full  form 
only  a  few  thousand  years  ago — created 
without  an  ancestry  or  previous  life  of 
any  kind  on  the  earth. 

To  yield    this   long-accepted    opinion 
seemed  as  if  pulling  up  the  sheet  anchor 
of  the  whole  system  of  thought  which, 
as  a  ship,  had  borne  the  civ-  investigation 
ilized  life  of  man  for  cen-  "^'^^T^'T^^ 

belief  as  to  the 

turies.  Nevertheless,  the  lower  orders, 
evidences  in  favor  of  the  new  theory 
accumulated.  Every  excursion  into  the 
natural  world  added  its  proof  in  behalf 
of  the  belief  that  the  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble forms  now  prevailing  over  the  earth 
are  but  the  living  representatives  of 
more  primitive  forms  preceding  them, 
and  they  of  others  back  to  the  geologi- 
cal era,  and  thence  downward  through 
the  measureless  ages  of  time  required  to 
build  up  the  crust  of  the  globe  from  the 
azoic  bed  to  the  present  surface. 

At  length  the  evidence  prevailed. 
Again  the  advocates  of  immediate  and 
phenomenal  creation  as  applied  to  the 
plants  and  lower  animals  must  recede 
before  the  facts  and  demonstrations  of 
science.  The  field  was  yielded  with  re- 
luctance, and  the  scattered  squadrons  of 
the  ancient  theory  of  the  method  of  the 
beginning  of  plant-life  and  animal  life 
are  still  seen  in  various  parts,  holding 
the  ground  against  the  prevalent  opin- 
ions that  have  occupied  all  the  heights 
and  vantages  of  the  htmian  understand- 
ing. 

But  the  advocates  of  immediate  speci- 
fic creations  did  not  yield  ismanexcep- 
all  in  conceding  that  plants  '^^^l^fl,. 
and    the    lower     animals,   t"re? 
such  as  we  now  find  them  in  living  ex- 
ample on  the  earth,  were  the  results  of 


188 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


an  evolutionary  process  extending  back- 
wards indefinitely  into  the  past.  Man 
was  still  held  to  be  exceptional.  To 
him  the  hypothesis  of  phenomenal  crea- 
tion was  now  applied  with  redoubled 
energy.  The  advocates  of  the  long- 
accepted  belief  respecting  the  mode  of 
the  beginning  of  man-life  on  the  earth, 
yielding  up  with  reluctance  the  rest  of 
the  field  of  universal  nature,  still  held 
with  the  utmost  tenacity  to  the  belief 
that  the  human  species  had  had  a  be- 
ginning different  in  form  and  manner 
and  circumstance  from  all  the  other  in- 
habitants of  the  earth.  Man  was  set 
apart  and  considered  in  another  cate- 
gory of  life  from  all  the  remaining  forms 
of  existence.  Here  the  current  view, 
strongly  intrenched  in  old  belief,  strong- 
ly conservative  lest  the  disturbance  of 
the  establi.shed  opinion  might  in  some 
way  work  harm  to  the  existing  social 
and  m(»al  order  of  the  world,  made  its 
stand,  not  only  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  long-accepted  hypothesis,  but  per- 
haps ^for  the  recovery  and  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  former  systems  of  belief. 

Such  was  the  state  of  opinion  as  be- 
tween the  two  hypotheses  of  life  history  at 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Lamarck  fore-  Already  before  this  time 
llZ^yl^Z  an  occasional  thinker  had, 
mode  of  life.  on  a  more  daring  excursion 
than  the  rest,  suggested  the  application 
of  the  known  laws  of  the  natural  world, 
universally,  to  the  human  species  in 
common  with  the  other  forms  of  ani- 
mated existence.  Foremost  among  those 
may  be  mentioned  Lamarck,  who,  before 
the  beginning  of  the  century,  and  more 
fully  in  the  first  quarter  of  our  cen- 
tennium,  set  forth  in  his  wonderful 
speculations,  with  a  cogency  and  clear- 
ness almost  unsurpassed,  the  rudimen- 
tary principles  of  that  vast  system  of 
thought  which  now  goes  by  the  name  of 


evolution.  As  must  needs  happen,  how- 
ever, in  the  case  of  a  great  mind  fore- 
running the  camp  of  progress  in  strange 
regions,  and  not  sufficiently  acquainted 
by  fact,  observation,  and  experiment 
with  the  new  realm  into  which  he  has 
entered,  Lamarck  produced  a  visionary 
rather  than  a  substantial  scheme  of  na- 
ture ;  and  while  the  lines  which  he  drew 
around  the  unexplored  region  of  the 
New  Biology  that  was  to  follow  in  the 
hands  of  another  were  sufficiently  ample, 
and  ran  in  many  parts  surprisingly  near 
to  the  accurate  surveying  of  recent 
science,  he  nevertheless  included  in  his 
excursions  and  trial  maps  of  nature  a 
vast  amount  of  crude  and  erroneous  de- 
duction for  which  the  more  accurate 
knowledge  of  the-  present  finds  no  place. 
It  remained  for  a  subsequent  genera- 
tion and  the  more  careful  mind  of  an- 
other naturalist  to  reconsid-  The  work  taken 
er  the  general  aspects  of  l^^^^tZ^^^^'.^ 
the  natural  world  and  to  uraiists. 
deduce  therefrom  that  hypothesis  of 
evolution  which  is  now  accepted  by 
science  as  explanatory  of  the  modus 
operandi  of  all  living  organisms,  includ- 
ing man.  It  is  not  our  purpose  in  this 
connection  to  enter  full}-  into  the  ex- 
plication of  the  principles  upon  which 
the  evolutionist  relies  to  explain  the 
existence  of  the  various  forms  of  organic 
life,  and  in  particular  the  descent  of 
man.  It  is  our  purpose  rather  to  point 
out  in  an  introductory  way  the  leading 
grounds  of  divergence  between  the  two 
opinions  respecting  the  life  history  of 
the  world,  and  to  show  the  general  trend 
of  opinion  and  the  gain  of  one  theory  over 
the  other.  It  will  be  desirable,  in  follow- 
ing the  inquiry,  to  state  more  fully  the 
substance  of  the  two  beliefs  respecting 
the  origin  of  man,  embracing  in  the 
exposition  of  each  theory  some  of 
the  particulars  of  its  application  to  the 


MANNER    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— FIAT  AND   EVOLUTION. 


189 


world  history  and  life  history  of  our 
planet. 

The  hypothesis  of  creation  is  generally 
understood  to  signify  the  production  of 

General  explica-    the  WOrld    OUt     of    naught. 

poThelifof  c?;a-  Perhaps  the  beliefs  of  those 
tioii-  who    hold    the    theory    of 

phenomenal  creation  are  not  altogether 
uniform  and  consistent  on  this  point. 
In  general,  however,  the  belief  is  that 
the  matter  of  the  earth  was  brought  into 
existence  by  the  fiat  of  the  Almighty. 


the  universe  was  spoken  phenomenally 
into  existence  out  of  nothing,  and  this 
view  is  still  maintained  by  the  great 
majority  of  those  who  hold  to  the 
hypothesis  of  immediate  creation. 

As  we  have  said  on  a  former  page,  the 
belief  in  a  creative  fiat  as  the  producing 
agency  of  the  world  and  its  Literal  aocept- 
inhabitants,    has   included  ^"r.^1.t?P"" 

'  cation  of  the 

as    one    of    its    features    the    Book  of  Genesis. 

notion  that  our  globe  was  produced  im- 
mediately, and  not  through  intermediate 


ac;k  ok  fishes,  ok  thE  "fourth  day." 


Some  hold  that  the  creative  act,  as  it 
relates  to  the  earth,  was  only  formative 
— that  the  matter  of  our  globe  existed 
already  in  space,  and  that  the  act  of 
creation  had  respect  to  the  production  of 
our  sphere  and  its  fitting  for  the  abode 
and  life  arena  of  plants  and  animals  and 
man.  This  view  is  to  a  certain  extent 
a  concession  to  scientific  discovery  in 
recent  times.  Up  to  the  close  of  the  last 
century  the  popular  and  scholastic  belief 
was  that  the  matter  of  our  world  and  of 


stages.  The  statements  contained  in 
the  first  chapters  of  Genesis  were  ac- 
cepted literally  throughout  the  Christian 
and  Mohammedan  nations.  According 
to  the  account  referred  to,  the  space  of 
six  days  was  assigned  for  the  creative 
work.  The  account  in  Genesis  is  seem- 
ingly succinct.  Each  of  the  days  is  oc- 
cupied with  a  certain  part  of  creation, 
and  is  defined  as  beginning  with  the 
evening  and  ending  with  the  morning — • 
according  to  the  phraseology  of  the  an- 


190 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


cient  Oriental  peoples.  By  implication 
this  period  seems  to  include  the  creation 
of  the  planetary  and  sidereal  heavens ; 
for  ' '  God  made  two  great  lights ;  the 
greater  light  to  rule  the  day,  and  the 
lesser  light  to  rule  the  night ;  he  made 
the  stars  also." 

The  progress  of  the  creative  work 
through  the  six  days  of  creation  is  de- 
Order  of  crea-  lineated  in  the  first  chapter 
tioninthe''six       f  Qenesis.     The  arrange- 

days  "of  the  => 

first  chapter.  ment  is  climacteric,  and 
ends  on  the  sixth  day  with  the  creation 
of  man,  and  the  words  are  added,  "  Thus 
the  heavens  and  the  earth  were  finished, 
and  all  the  host  of  them."  It  would 
thus  appear  that  according  to  the  ac- 
count preserved  and  transmitted  by  the 
Hebrews  of  the  beginning  of  things  the 
work  of  producing  the  material  universe, 
of  creating  our  world  in  particular,  with 
its  inhabitants,  including  man  as  the 
paragon  of  animals  and  favorite  of  the 
Almighty,  occupied  but  six  days  of  time. 
The  Hebrew  word  is  yoin,  and  is  the 
term  which  is  universally  employed  in 
that  language  to  express  a  natural  day 
as  measured  by  a  revolution  of  the  earth 
on  its  axis. 

In  this  sense  the  account  of  the  crea- 
tion given  in  Genesis  was  universally 
Meaning  of  the  Understood  until  a  compar- 
2To:::uI:^'^  atively  recent  date,  when 
reasons.  the  rise  of  geology  and  the 

correlated  branches  of  natural  science 
made  the  position  no  longer  tenable. 
At  this  juncture  the  upholders  of  the 
hypothesis  of  creation  were  obliged  to 
take  a  new  position,  and  that  was  that 
the  six  days,  or  yoins,  of  the  scriptural 
narrative  did  not  signify  six  literal  days 
but  six  indefinite  periods  of  time,  corre- 
sponding, if  rightly  understood,  to  six 
geological  eras,  or  ages,  during  which 
the  world  had  been  fashioned  for  its 
later  inhabitants.    Examples  were  found 


in  Hebrew  literature  where  the  word 
yom  had  been  used  in  a  figurative  sense, 
meaning  "a  period  of  duration"  quite 
different  from  a  natural  day. 

There  was  thus  a  rationalizing  process 
applied  to  the  account  of  the  creation  in 
Genesis,  and  its  meaning  was  modified 
and    interpreted    anew  ac-  Rationalizing 
cording  to  the  demands  of  atThTbor^d^r-^ 
scientific  discovery.     It  is  imeofiife. 
no  longer  believed  by  the  advocates  of 
the  hypothesis  of  phenomenal  creation 
that  the  world  and  its  original  inhabit- 
ants were  created  in  six  literal  days — 
such  an  opinion  being  altogether  unten- 
able in  the  light  and  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge Avhich  the  nineteenth  century  has 
brought  to  the  understandings  of  men. 

It  was  still  held,  however,  by  the  be- 
lievers in  the  creative  fiat  that  t/u-  plants 
and  auiiiials  were  phenomenally  created 
— that  the  Almighty  by  his  will  and 
edict  brought  forth  without  germ  or  seed 
the  various  species  of  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal life  which  we  see  in  their  descend- 
ants at  the  present  time.  It  was  at 
this  point  that  the  real  divergence 
between  the  two  theories  began.  The 
hypothesis  of  creation  seems  to  have 
yielded  material  and  inanimate  na- 
ture to  the  dominion  of  those  known 
laws  under  which  the  world  is  governed, 
but  to  have  refused  to  admit  the  exten- 
sion of  those  laws  over  the  organic 
forms  of  which  life,  whether  vegetable 
or  animal,  constitutes  the  essential  prin- 
ciple. The  theory  of  creation  rejects 
the  notion  of  a  development  of  the  veg- 
etable and  animal  forms  of  the  natural 
world  from  germs  remotely  planted  in 
the  past,  and  to  hold  firmly  to  the  im- 
mediate production  by  almighty  power 
of  the  mature  and  full-grown  originals  of 
the  various  species  of  living  things. 

This  is  particularly  true  in  the  case  of 
man.     The  doctrine  of  creation  as  enter- 


MAXXER    OF    THE   BEGLXXIXG.—FIAT  AND   EVOLUTION. 


191 


tained  by  the  enlightened  peoples  of  Eu- 
rope and  America  includes  as  its  leading 
Creation  hy-  article  the  belief  in  tlie  im- 
mands'™  ''^'dicxtc  and  phenomenal  pro- 
cestor.  duct  ion  of  tlie  ancestor  of  the 

human  species.  In  this  particular,  also,  the 
opinion  which  has  long  prevailed  with 
regard  to  the  progenitor  of  mankind  has 
been  based  immediately  on  the  narrative 
of  creation  as  given  in  the  first  two 
chapters  of  the  Book  of  Genesis.  The 
account,  or  rather  the  accounts,  there 
given  of  the  formation  of  the  first  pair 
of  human  beings  are  world-wide  in  their 
dissemination,  and  have  found  a  pro- 
found lodgment  in  the  convictions  of  all 
those  peoples  whose  religious  institutions 
are  based  upon  the  sacred  writings  of 
the  Hebrews. 

The  two  forms  of  narrative  in  Genesis 
are,  first,  that  the  Almighty  in  the  sixth 
Svunmary  of  the  da}"  or  epoch  of  creation 
LThe^Sir  designed  the  production  of 
Genesis.  ^    being    superior    to    the 

other  orders  of  animate  nature ;  that  the 
being  thus  purposed  as  the  climax  of 
organic  life  was  to  have  ' '  dominion  over 
the  fish  of  the  sea,  and  over  the  fowl  of 
the  air,  and  over  the  cattle,  and  over  all 
the  earth,  and  over  every  creeping  thing 
that  creepeth  upon  the  earth."  So  the 
Elohim  created  man  in  his  own  image, 
in  the  image  of  the  Elohim  created  he 
him;  male  and  female  created  he  them. 
In  the  second  chapter  the  variant  form 
of  the  narrative  is  given.  There  is  a 
reference  to  the  atmosplieric  and  meteor- 
ological condition  of  the  world.  For  as 
yet  there  had  been  no  rain,  nor  was  man 
found  to  till  the  ground.  But  there 
went  up  a  mist  from  the  earth  and 
watered  it.  Then  the  Lord  Elohim 
formed  man  of  the  dust  of  the  ground, 
and  breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath 
of  life,  and  he  became  a  living  soul. 
This  first  man  was  placed  in  the  garden 


of  Eden,  said  to  have  been  "planted  east- 
ward." But  the  man  was  alone,  and  the 
Lord  Elohim  caused  a  deep  sleep  to  fall 
upon  the  Adam — for  such  was  the  name 
given  him — and  he  took  one  of  his  ribs 
and  made  thereof  a  woman,  that  is  Ishah, 
ox  female  man,  and  brought  her  to  Ish, 
the  man,  as  his  companion.  The  name 
of  the  Adam  which  was  given  to  the  man 
signified  Earth,  or  Red  Earth,  and  to  the 
woman  the  Lord  Elohim  gave  the  name 
of  Life — for  she  was  the  mother  of  all 
living. 

Such  according  to  the  common  under- 
standing of  the  narrative  in  Genesis  was 
the  origin  of  the  first  pair 

°  .  ^  Outlines  of  a 

of  human  beings,  and  from  bibUcaieth- 
them  the  races  of  man-  "°^^p  '^• 
kind  have  descended.  Further  on  in 
the  Book  of  Genesis  we  have  sketches 
and  outlines  of  the  immediate  and  more 
remote  offspring  of  the  parents  of  the 
race.  In  the  tenth  chapter  there  is  an 
account  of  tribal  and  ethnic  dispersions 
sufficiently  ample  to  explain  the  presence 
of  the  primitive  peoples  in  the  western- 
most parts  of  Asia,  Southeastern  Africa, 
and  Eastern  Europe.  With  this  summarj-, 
however,  the  subject  of  ethnography  is 
dropped  from  .  the  Scriptures,  though 
certain  important  lines  of  descent  were 
recorded  until  long  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Israelitish  nation. 

The  account  of  the  origin  of  things 
given  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  is  a 

part    of    a    lore    which     was   Account  of  ere- 

common  to  all  the  Semitic  ^o^^^C^T 

peoples  of  antiquity.    All  of   the  Semites. 

these  held  traditions  in  which  the  critical 
reader  is  able  to  discover  at  least  the 
outlines  of  a  common  belief  with  regard 
to  the  modus  operandi  of  creation.  One 
of  the  particulars  which  always  reap- 
pears in  these  accounts  of  the  beginning 
is  that  flood,  or  great  deep,  or  primeval 
chaos  upon  which  the  wind  or  breath  of 


THE  EDEN  OF  POETRY.— Milton's  Vision  of  the  First  Pair  and  Raphael.— Drawn  by  Gustave  Dorc. 


MANXER    OF   THE   BEGINNIXG.— FIAT  AND   EVOLUTIOX. 


193 


the  Elohim  is  said  to  have  blown  as  the 
first  movement  of  order.' 

This  notion  is  strongly  imbedded  in 
the  cosmogony  of  the  Chaldees,  though 
Variations  in  Avith  them  the  primeval 
stor^oftt\e.  flood  is  spoken  of  as  fani- 
ginning.  niuc,  instead  of  the  mascu- 

line form  used  in  Genesis.  The  universal 
chaos  is,  in  the  oldest  Babylonian  ac- 
counts, regarded  as  containing  the  crea- 


the  primeval  flood,  but  as  apart  there- 
from, and  brooding  over  it,  and  sending 
thereon  the  primal  winds  of  order. 

In  other  respects  the  ancient  Semitic 
accounts  of  the  creation  preserved  in  the 
fragments  of  Berosus,  and  General  agree- 
better  still  in  those  inscrip-  ^^""^  ^°  "f^  *''° 

c      visions  of  crea- 
tions and  tablets  which  the  tio"- 

learned  George  Smith    has  interpreted 

to  the  understamling  of  our  age,  corre- 


ONE  OF  THE  PRIMORDIAL  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  GLOBE. 


tive  beings  or  forces  by  whose  agency 
the  world  was  to  become  organic  and 
man  be  produced.  From  this  concept 
there  was  a  departure  in  the  Hebrew 
narrative.  In  the  latter  the  Demiurge 
is  not  represented  as  coming  up  out  of 


'  The  language  of  Genesis  seems  in  thie  original 
to  bear  this  sense :  "  Now  the  earth  was  involved  in 
chaos,  and  darkness  was  upon  the  face  of  iehom 
(that  is,  the  flood),  and  the  wind  of  the  Elohim  was 
hovering  upon  the  face  of  the  waters.  Then  the 
Elohim  said,  Let  light  be.     And  light  was." 


spond  with  the  majestic  imagery  out- 
lined in  the  Book  of  Genesis.  There  is 
the  same  general  arrangement  of  the 
materials  of  nature  and  the  same  agents 
of  order  and  intelligence ;  the  same  in- 
troduction of  a  Demiurge,  or  Creator, 
speaking  a  fiat ;  the  same  eulogy  pro- 
nounced after  each  creative  effort  upon 
the  thing  created  as  ' '  good  "  or  "  beauti- 
ful "  or  "  delightful;  "  the  same  suboi- 
dination  of  the  stars  and  greater  lumina- 
ries as  determining  days  and  seasons. 


194 


GRF.AT  RACES   OF  MAXKIXP. 


vergence  of  the 
Hebrew  narra- 
tive. 


In  one  respect,  however,  there  is,  or 
has  been  believed  to  be,  a  striking  differ- 
Monotheistic  di-  cnce  between  the  narrative 
in  Genesis  and  the  an- 
cient forms  of  the  creative 
story  as  the  same  are  preserved  in  the 
ruins  of  the  Babylonian  plain  on  the 
tablet  cylinders  of  Asshur-Bani-Pal's 
library  chamber,  and  in  the  fragmentary 
remnants  of  Berosus.  This  is  the  poly- 
theism of  the  creative  work  in  all  the 
Babylonian  accounts  of  the  beginning  of 
things,  and  the  monotheism  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrew  narrative.  Even  in  this 
respect  there  is  a  hint  of  the  original 
common  derivation  of  all  the  accounts  in 
the  word  Elohivt  used  by  the  primitive 
Hebrew  seer  in  expressing  his  vision  of 
creation.  This  word  is  plural,  though 
it  is  believed  by  critics  to  be  an  instance 
of  what  is  known  in  the  Hebrew  idiom 
as  the  "  plural  of  majesty  or  strength." 
Literally,  the  polytheistic  idea  is  carried 
forward  into  Genesis,  where  it  is  said 
that  the  Elohim  (literally,  the  El-gods) 
created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  and 
all  the  host  of  them. 

In  still  another  particular  a  divergence 
may  be  noticed  in  the  earliest  Semitic 
Hebrew  Demi-  accounts  of  the  Creative 
mf«r:'d  "r  ^^ork.  in  the  Hebrew  nar- 
atesit.  rative    the    Demiurge,    or 

Creator,  works  upon  matter.  It  seems 
to  be  plastic  under  his  hands.  Aye, 
more  than  this,  according  to  a  long-ac- 
cepted construction  of  the  account  in 
Genesis,  he  makes  the  matter  out  of  which 
he  makes  the  form.  His  work  is  not 
only  formative,  and  as  it  were  plastic  and 
constructive,  but  creative,  in  the  prime 
intent,  of  something  out  of  naught.  In 
the  Chaldee  traditions  and  kindred  forms 
of  Semitic  lore  the  creation,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  rather  evolutionary.  The  crea- 
tures by  whom  the  later  work  is  done 
are  themselves  evolved  out  of  the  chaotic 


floods.  There  is  no  hint  of  the  produc- 
tion of  matter  out  of  nothing,  but  only  a 
secondary  process  of  demiurgic  work- 
manship and  power  upon  the  materials 
of  nature. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  .sufficient  to  note 
the  .substantial  identity  of  the  cosmogo- 
nies of  all  the  Semitic  peo-   Egyptian  tradi- 

ples  and  the  transmission  g"g'^;'''" 
of  the  outlines  of  the  same  things. 
in  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hebrews  to 
the  nations  of  modern  times.  Among 
other  ancient  peoples  the  Egyptian  sys- 
tem may  be  mentioned  as  an  example  of 
one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  belief  in  phe- 
nomenal creation.  In  that  system  the 
Demiurge  is  named  Thoth.  He  it  w,'<s 
who  gave  light  to  the  world  when  ccA 
was  darkness,  "  and  there  was  no  sun." 
To  this  extent  there  is  a  suggestion  of 
the  same  primeval  chaos  believed  in  by 
the  Semitic  seers.  In  Egypt,  also,  the 
work  is  polj' theistic.  While  to  Thoth  was 
a,ssigned  the  creation  of  light,  Ra  was 
regarded  as  the  supreme  Demiurge  of 
nature.  He  was  at  once  the  sun  god 
and  the  Anima  Mundi.  The  more  im- 
mediate evolution  of  living  forms  was 
a.ssigned  to  Ptah,  who  was  the  "  opener 
of  the  e^^  of  the  world."  From  this 
origin  the  species  of  living  forms  may  be 
said  to  have  proceeded.  But  the  system 
is  vast  and  intricate,  and  calls  for  no  ad- 
ditional comment  in  this  connection. 

Scholars  have  busied  themselves  much 
with  the  work  of  attempting  to   discover 
among  the  mythologies  of  creative  hy- 
the  Aryan  nations  the  out-  ^^efenfirl*''" 
lines  of  a  system  of  creation  nians. 
similar  to  that  of  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Semites  in  general.     But  the  effort  has 
been  attended  with  little  success.     The 
Aryan  peoples   have  from  a  very  early 
age    looked  upon    nature    and    creation 
with  another  eye.     In  a  single  instance 
a  likeness  has  been   discovered  between 


MANNER    Of    THE   BEGINNING.— FIAT  AND  EVOLUTION. 


195 


the  belief  of  a  primitive  Aryan  people 
and  that  of  the  vSemitic  races.  This  is 
in  the  case  of  the  ancient  Iranic  family 
whose  religious  faith  and  theory  of  the 
origin  of  things  are  recorded  in  the 
Avesta.  In  that  work  the  creation  of 
the  visible  world  is  ascribed  to  a  super- 
natural deity  who  issues  a  fiat,  and  na- 
ture begins  to  be.  There  is  a  similar 
godspeech  at  the  beginning  of  each 
creative  act,  and  a  like  eulog}-  at  the 
close  on  the  perfection  of  the  world.  A 
striking  point  of  dissimilarity — in  which 
the  Avesta  myth  agrees  with  the  ac- 
counts preserved  by  the  Chaldees  and 
the  Assyrians  rather  than  with  the  nar- 
rative of  Genesis — is  that  in  the  latter 
the  world  is  spoken  from  naught,  while 
the  Zend  repre.sents  it  as  being  formed 
from  preexisting  matter.  Ahura-Maz- 
dao  speaks  and  creates ;  but  he  employs 
the  matter  of  a  universe  already  exist- 
ing. Also  he  avails  himself  at  times  of 
the  aid  of  other  spirits,  both  good  and 
evil.  At  times  the  traditions  of  Ahura- 
!Mazdao  rises  in  majesty  almost  to  the 
level  of  the  Elohim  of  the  Hebrew  seer. 
In  the  celebrated  cuneiform  inscription 
at  Naksh-I-Rustam  he  is  described  as 
"  the  great  God  of  gods  who  made 
heaven  and  earth,  and  made  men." 

If  we  follow  the  line  of  the  Aryan 
evolution,  however,  we  shall  find  the  de- 
velopment to  present  a  universal  polythe- 
Poiytheistic  ism.  In  Indian  and  Gre- 
tya^nryttrof  "an  mythology  there  are  as 
creation.  many  gods  as  tribes,  with 

only  an  occasional  glimpse  at  a  supreme 
deity.  There  was,  moreover,  little  trace 
therein  of  an  original  universal  creation. 
The  Hellenic  system  followed  the  pres- 
ent aspects  of  nature  back  to  a  multiplic- 
ity of  secondary'  causes  and  agents,  but 
never  fixed  the  beginning  of  things  on 
any  substantial  basis.  Matter  was  al- 
ways presupposed.      In  the  old   Indian 


system  there  are  glimpses  of  a  higher 
and  seemingly  monotheistic  belief.  In 
one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Vedic  hymns 
we  have  the  following :  "In  the  begin- 
ning there  arose  the  Golden  Child.  He 
was  the  one-born  Lord  of  all  that  is.  He 
established  the  earth  and  the  sky.  Who 
is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our 
sacrifice?  .  .  .  He  who  by  his  might 
looked  even  over  the  water  clouds,  the 
clouds  which  gave  strength  and  lit  the 
sacrifice ;  he  who  alone  is  God  above  all 
gods.  Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we 
shall  offer  our  sacrifice? 

"  Maj^  he  not  destroy  us — he  the 
creator  of  the  earth  ,  or  he  the  righteous 
who  created  the  heaven  ;  he 

Old  Vedic  hymn 

also  created  the  bright  and  assigns  the  cre- 

•    i_.  .  ■\\T\.         •      ation  to  Indra. 

mighty  waters.  Who  is 
the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our 
sacrifice?  "  In  this  last  strophe- we  have 
the  ascription  of  creation  to  Indra,  and 
the  earth  and  the  heavens  and  the 
waters  are  mentioned  as  the  workman- 
ship of  his  hands.  There  is  no  sug- 
gestion, however,  of  a  creation  out  of 
naught.  On  the  contrary,  among  all  the 
Aryan  mythologies  there  is  the  presup- 
position of  material  nature.  It  is  as 
though  the  earliest  bards  and  philoso- 
phers of  these  great  peoples  should  have 
adopted  one  of  the  fundamental  the- 
orems of  modern  materialism,  namel)-, 
there  are  two  eternal  things — matter  and 
force.  But  in  all  the  attempted  explana- 
tions of  the  natural  world  there  was  a 
recognition  of  creative  intelligences  em- 
ployed in  forming  and  shaping  and  be- 
o-ettingf  the  world  and  its  inhabitants. 

On  the  whole,  the  principal  distinction 
between  the  views  entertained  of  the 
beginning   by  the  Semitic  Aryan  seers 

,  1  i_    „  J      more  evolution- 

seers   on    the    one    hand,  ary  than  the 
and   the  Aryan   poets  and  Semitic, 
philosophers  on  the  other,  was  that  the 
latter  accepted  to  a  larger  degree  the  ex- 


196 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


istence  of  evolutionary  processes  in  the 
origin  of  the  world  and  all  living  crea- 
tures, while  the  former,  the  Hebrews  in 
particular,  laid  great  stress  upon  the 
creative  fiat  of  an  Almighty  Power, 
speaking  the  world  out  of  nothing  and 
acting  by  his  breath  and  will  upon  the 
flood-like  chaos  of  primeval  nature. 

This  outline  of  the  manner  of  the  be- 
ginning of  things  by  immediate  and 
Long-continued  phenomenal  creation — en- 
prevaience  of       tcrtaiued  as  it  was  by  the 

belief  m  crea-  -^ 

tionbyfiat.  nations  of  antiquity — need 
not  be  amplified,  as  it  is  familiar  where- 
ever  the  civil  and  religious  institutions 
of  the  Western  nations  have  prevailed. 
Up  to  the  middle  of  the  present  century 
the  belief  in  a  fiat  of  the  Almighty  as  the 
sufficient  cause  and  explanation  of  all 
created  things  was  wellnigh  universal. 
This  implied  the  production  of  all  living 
beings,  by  their  respective  species,  at  one 
stroke  of  a  supreme  will  exercised  upon 
matter,  and  answered  by  the  springing 
up  of  immediate  and  perfected  creatures, 
each  in  its  kind. 

With  the  development  of  the  natural 
sciences,  however — with  the  better  un- 
Science  discov-  derstanding  of  the  genesis 
ftyofLTur^r  Of  the  earth  as  revealed  in 
processes.  geological     liistory — many 

doubts  arose  as  to  the  correctness  of  the 
popular  and  dogmatic  concepts  respect- 
ing the  origin  of  man  and  the  associated 
orders  of  life.  More  and  more  it  came 
to  be  accepted  as  true  that  nature  has 
been  uniform  in  her  methods  of  produc- 
xtion  and  development,  and  that  scientific 
evidences  are  wanting  of  any  break  or 
sudden  reversal  in  the  progressive  meth- 
ods of  life  unmistakably  recorded  in 
the  fossiliferous  and  subsequent  history 
of  organic  forms. 

AVe  have  already  seen  to  what  extent 
Lamarck  forecast  in  his  speculations 
the  impending     .struggle  of  the  new  sci- 


entific concept   of  life  history  with  the 
long-accepted   belief   in  a    phenomenal 

origin      of     .species.         That    The  Lamarckian 

philosopher  formed  and  FouS'/e^f ' 
promulgated  a  theory  of  of ufe  order, 
nature  involving  in  many  of  its  elements 
the  system  of  evolution  which  a  half- 
century  later  was  to  appear  with  more 
distinctness  in  the  writings  of  another 
and  greater  naturalist.  The  leading 
doctrines  of  the  Lamarckian  sy.stem  are 
embraced  in  four  theorems  by  which 
the  author  would  explain  the  production 
of  organic  forms  and  the  differentiation 
of  living  species.  These  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

1 .  "  Life  by  its  proper  forces  tends 
continually  to  increase  the  volume  of 
every  body  possessing  it,  and  to  enlarge 
its  parts  up  to  a  limit  which  it  brings 
about. 

2.  "The  production  of  a  new  organ 
in  an  animal  body  results  from  the  su- 
pervention of  a  new  want  continuing  to 
make  itself  felt,  and  a  new  movement 
which  this  want  gives  birth  to  and  en- 
courages. 

3.  "The  development  of  organs  and 
their  force  of  action  are  con.stantly  in 
ratio  to  the  employment  of  these  organs. 

4.  "All  which  has  been  acquired, 
cast  off,  or  changed  in  the  organization 
of  individuals  in  the  coiirse  of  their  life 
is  conserved  by  generation  and  trans- 
mitted to  the  new  individuals  which 
proceed  from  tho.se  which  have  under- 
gone those  changes." 

Concerning  these  propositions  of   the 
French  naturalist  we  may  remark  of  the 
first  that  it  clearlv  prcsup-  what  the  sys- 
poses    life,     and    therefore  T.s^T:^t 
suggests  no  more  than  the  tain, 
method  or  manner  by  which  the  devel- 
opment  and     completeness    of   organic 
bodies  are  attained.     The  theorem  does 
not  touch  the  question  of  the  genesis  of 


MA.VXER    OF    THE   BEGIXXIXG.—FIAT  AXD  EVOLUTIOX. 


197 


life,  but  only  the  modus  operandi  of 
living  organisms.  As  to  the  second 
law,  it  departs  widely  from  the  doctrine 
of  evolution  as  subsequently  propound- 
ed ;  but  the  principle  expressed  therein 
is  nevertheless  recognized  as  an  existing 
and  efficient  force  in  the  production  of 
the  organs  with  which  living  bodies  are 
supplied.  •  The  third  law  is  doubtless 
correct  in  the  main  as  expressing  the 
ratio  between  the  use  and  the  development 
of  the  organic  parts  in  all  living  struc- 
tures. The  fourth  law  is  simply  an  ex- 
pression of  the  well-known  principle  of 
heredity,  which  undoubtedly  plays  so 
large  a  part  in  determining  the  charac- 
ter and  limitations  of  species. 

On  the  whole,  though  Lamarck — fol- 
lowing as  he  did  the  hints  and  sugges- 
Lamarck  missed  tions  of  Buffon — made  a 
rvnnifr'^n™  bold   cxcursiou    into  what 

ry  01  liie  in  many 

essentials.  was,  at  his  time,  a  compara- 

tively unexplored  field  of  inquiry,  and 
suggested  much  which  was  calculated  to 
arouse  the  understandings  of  men  to  the 
difficulties  and  inconsistencies  involved 
in  the  accepted  belief  respecting  the 
origin  of  species,  and,  indeed,  the  whole 
method  of  the  natural  world,  he  never- 
theless missed  by  much  the  clearer  prin- 
ciples of  that  S3'stem  of  doctrine  which  was 
destined,  under  the  name  of  evolution, 
to  contest  so  strongly  the  ground  long 
occupied  by  the  hypothesis  of  phenome- 
nal creation  as  the  only  solution  of  the 
beginning  of  universal  nature  and  of 
man.  It  remained  for  the  first  part  of 
the  after  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
to  witness  the  rise  and  development,  first 
in  the  higher  circles  of  science,  and  aft- 
erwards more  broadly  among  the  peoples 
of  the  Western  nations,  of  the  belief  that 
the  varied  and  perfected  forms  of  liv- 
ing organism  have  resulted  from  a  proc- 
ess of  differentiation  and  development 
from  a  few  simpler  primary  forms  by  the 


agency  of  natural  selection  and  the  sur- 
vival of  that  which  was  best  adapted  to 
the  conditions  of  its  environment.  The 
progress  of  this  opinion  and  its  actual 
conquest  of  several  antecedent  beliefs 
respecting  the  modus  operandi  of  life 
has  itself  been  an  evolution  in  the  his- 
tor}-  of  human  thought,  and  may  well 
i-equire  some  extended  notice  of  the 
various  stages  through  which  it  has 
passed. 

The  term  evolution  first  appears  in 
the  biological  essays  of  the  eighteenth 
centurv ;  but  the  idea  is  as  Historical  de- 
old  as'  Aristotle  himself.  .^trotStion 
It  might  almost  be  said  hypothesis, 
to  have  been  in  all  time  the  covert  or 
half-expressed  opinion  of  leading  natu- 
ralists in  different  ages  and  countries. 
The  great  physiologist  Harvey  (1578- 
1657),  who  shares  with  Servetus  the 
honor  of  having  discovered  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood,  was  a  believer  in  the 
theory  of  epigeuesis,  namely,  that  the  new 
organs  of  the  higher  animals  do  not  ap- 
pear suddenly  by  the  simultaneous  addi- 
tion of  parts,  or  by  a  sudden  change  in 
the  arrangement  of  tissue,  but  by  the 
successive  differentiation  of  a  single 
rudiment  into  the  several  organs  of  the 
body  by  the  influence  of  use  and  the 
adaptation  to  enviromnent.  Near  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  question 
was  reviewed  by  Marcello  Malpighi,  of 
Bologna,  who  by  the  application  of  the 
microscope  to  the  study  of  tissue  in  em- 
brj'o  came  to  conclusions  quite  different 
from  those  of  his  predecessors.  His  views 
respecting  the  process  of  production  in 
living  bodies  are  known  as  metamorphosis, 
in  contradistinction  from  epigenesis. 
The  new  opinion  was  taken  up  and  car- 
ried forward  by  Leibnitz  and  Jlale- 
branche,  and  by  Bonnet  and  Haller,  who 
amplified  and  applied  the  speculations  of 
their   predecessors   to   large   groups   of 


198 


GREAT  RACES   OE  ^TAXKIXD. 


vital  phenomena.  After  them  came 
Buffon,  the  elder  Darwin,  and  Lamarck, 
to  the  last-named  of  whom,  as  we  have 
seen  above,  the  origination  of  much  of 
the  hypothesis  of  evolution  as  it  is  now 
understood  must  be  referred. 

Up  to  the  middle  of  the  present  cen- 
tury,   however,   the  views  of  biologists 


CHARLES   ROBERT   DARWIN. 
From  the  medal  by  Alphonse  Legros,  Royal  Academy 

were  rudimentary  and  tentative.  It 
remained  for  Charles  Robert  Darwin  to 
Darwin  and         gather  Up  the  Opinions  of 

Wallace  lead  the    i,  ,• ,  i  i         t      • 

revolution  in  bi-  "1^  predecessors,  to  elimi- 
°'°sy-  nate  therefrom  by  observa- 

tion and  jiritical  methods  those  parts 
which  did  not  consist  with  the  order  of  na- 
ture, and  to  formulate  on  the  basis  of  fact 
and  right  reason  that  remarkable  theory 
of  the  origin  of  species  which  has  to  so 


great  an  extent  fixed  itself  in  the  con- 
victions of  mankind  as  the  true  explana- 
tion of  the  manner  by  which  the  germinal 
forms  of  life  have  been  evolved,  by  strug- 
gle, adaptation,  survival  and  natural 
selection,  into  the  multifarious  varieties 
of  living  forms' which  inhabit  the  earth. 
With  him  and  his  work  is  intimately  as- 
sociated the  great 
naturalist,  Alfred. 
Russel  Wallace, 
who,  by  a  com- 
plete coincidence, 
on  July  I,  1858, 
transmitted  by  the 
hands  of  Sir 
Charles  Lye  11, 
and,  without 
knowledge  of  the 
investigations  of 
x^Ir.  Darwin,  gave 
to  the  Linnaean 
Society  his  pajjer 
' '  On  the  Tenden- 
cy  of  Varieties  to 
Depart  Indefinite- 
ly from  the  Orig- 
inal Type."  It 
was  on  the  very 
same  date  that 
Darwin  himself 
read  before  the 
society  his  paper 
"On  the  Tend- 
ency of  Species  to 
Form  Varieties, 
and  on  the  Perpetuation  of  Species  and 
Varieties  by  Means  of  Natural  Selection  " 
— a  production  which  was  the  basis  and 
fundamental  form  of  the  greater  publica- 
tion made  by  the  author  in  the  following^ 
year. 

Since  the  close  of  the  sixth  decade  of 
the  current  century  a  vast  controversial 
and  expository  literature  has  been  pro- 
duced, having  for  its  bottom  principle  of 


J/AXXER  OF  THE  BEGLXXIXG.—GEXESIS  OF  XEW  DOCTRINE.      199 


contention  the  hypothesis  of  evolution. 
To  this  literature  the  leading  naturalists 
Controversial  and  thinkers  of  all  the  civ- 
Sr;:?''  ilized  nations  of  the  West 
contest.  have  contributed.   The  new 

doctrine  has  made  its  way  from  the  spec- 
ulative reveries  of  men  and  from  the 
hitherto  unconsidered  facts  of  nature 
into  books  and  libraries  and  seats  of 
learning,  and  from  the.se  it  has  descended 
by  percolation  into  the  common  mind  un- 
til, at  the  present  time,  some  knowledge 
of  the  leading  principles  of  evolution  is 


possessed  by  nearly  all  intelligent  people. 
The  hypothesis  is  most  clearly  stated  in 
Darwin's  Descent  of  Man,  published  in 
1 87 1 — a  work  supplementary  to  the 
Origin  of  Species.  Biologists  have  in 
general  adopted  the  doctrine  as  the  be- 
ginning of  all  their  teaching,  and  it  is 
but  just  to  say  that  the  more  it  is  ap- 
plied to  the  phenomena  of  life,  the  more 
complete  and  reasonable  does  it  appear 
as  an  explanation  of  the  process  by  which 
all  living  beings  have  arrived  at  their 
present  state  of  development. 


Chapter  XI.— Genesis  oe  the  New  Doctrine. 


ij  N  order  to  a  clearer  un- 
derstanding of  the  Doc- 
trine of  Evolution,  it 
is  necessary  to  note 
with  precision  several 
things  which  it  does 
not  teach.  Close  atten- 
tion to  these  particulars  may  serve  to 
show  how  grossly  a  new  opinion — mak- 
ing its  way  among  the  old  beliefs  of 
mankind — is  likely  to  be  misunderstood, 
misapplied,  and  misrepresented  by  the 
advocates  of  opposing  views.  Perhaps 
no  other  hypothesis  Avhich  has  ever  been 
propounded  as  the  explanation  of  a  large 
group  of  phenomena  has  suffered  more 
in  this  respect  than  the  doctrine  of  evo- 
lution. It  seems  at  the  very  first  to  have 
been  looked  upon  as  a  malevolent  opin- 
ion, calculated — and  indeed  designed — 
to  disturb  the  existing  intellectual  and 
moral  order  of  the  world. 

It  is  an  unfortunate  fact  in  the  history 
The  mind  takes  of  the  human  mind  that  it 
takes  up  arms  and  assails 
with  unseemly  animosity 
whatever  opposes  itself  to  its  precon- 
ceptions and  long-established  modes  of 


arms  -when  old 
opinions  are  aS' 
sailed. 


action .  Evolution  did  to  a  certain  extent, 
though  propounded  in  one  of  the  inildest 
and  most  conciliatory  books  of  the  cen- 
tury, disturb  the  existing  beliefs  of  the 
world  with  respect  to  the  phenomenal 
creation  of  species ;  but  otherwise  it  can 
hardly  be  said  that  the  new  doctrine  ob- 
truded itself  with  violence  upon  the  for- 
mer concepts  of  men  respecting  them- 
selves, their  nature,  or  their  destiny. 
Indeed,  it  has  been  no  part  of  the  evolu- 
tion hypothesis  to  discuss  teleological 
questions,  or  to  travel  in  any  direction 
beyond  the  region  of  fact  and  scientific 
deduction.  The  whole  significance  of 
the  doctrine  is  its  application  to  the  vis- 
ible processes  of  the  natural  world,  with 
special  reference  to  the  tendencies  and 
movements  of  organic  life,  by  which  the 
higher  and  more  complex  are  derived 
from  the  simpler  and  more  rudimentary 
forms  of  existence. 

The  first  and  greatest  of  the  miscon- 
ceptions which   have  popu-   Evolution  deals 

larly  prevailed   respecting  ^^^^l^^^ 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  is  origin  of  ufe. 
that  it  has  presumed  to  teach  the  origin 
of  life.     A  belief  has  been  disseminated 


200 


GREAT  RACES'  OF  MANKIND. 


that  the  new  hypothesis  proposes  to  ac- 
count for  the  existence  of  life  on  our 
planet — to  do  so  by  the  operation  of  the 
known  laws  of  the  natural  world,  and 
thus  to  refer  all  life  to  a  purely  material 
origin.  This  view  of  the  doctrine  is  at 
once  untrue  and  gratuitous.  Perhaps  a 
few  biologists  in  their  speculations  have 
suggested  the  possibility  of  a  purely 
material  beginning  for    the  vital    phe- 


to  suggest  the  indissoluble  union  and  in- 
terdependence of  mind  and  matter;  but 
the  theory  of  evolution  has  not,  as  a 
theory,  concerned  itself  with  such  in- 
quiries. It  has  naught  to  do  with 
teleology,  but  rather  with  the  processes 
and  modes  of  life.  It  considers  life  as  a 
fact  already  existent  in  the  world,  and 
proposes  no  more  than  a  rational  ex- 
planation of  the  processes  of  differenti- 


ORANOE-COLORED  MONERON.— Showing  the  seemingly  Automatic  Processes  of  Germ  Life. 


nomena  of  the  world.'    Some  have  spoken 
of  the  physical  basis  of  life  in  a  manner 


'The  foundation  for  such  a  view  of  the  origin  of 
organic  forms  is  so  slight  as  to  be  neglected.  In  a 
few  instances  vital  phenomena  have  been  observed 
in  which  it  would  seem  that  life  begins  in  merely 
physical  reactions;  but  the  investigation  of  such 
facts  is  doubtless  incomplete.  In  the  case  of  the  so- 
called  orange-colored  moneron  we  have  an  example 
of  the  alleged  automatic  or  spontaneous  processes  of 
life  (marked  in  the  drawing  A.  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,"),  but 
it  will  no  doubt  be  found  that  in  this  as  in  all  other 
organic  tendencies  the  beginning  of  life  is — life. 


ation  and  growth.  It  traces  the  correla- 
tions  of  life  and  organization,  but  does 
not  pre.sume  to  account  for  the  beginning 
of  the  one  or  the  ultimate  purpose  of  the 
other.  In  a  word,  the  notion  of  final 
causes  does  not  enter  into  the  doctrine 
of  evolution,  and  is  indeed  foreign  to 
the  legitimate  field  of  investigation 
which  is  the  peculiar  province  of  the  new 
science  of  living  forms. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  miscon- 
ception here  referred  to  has  been  the 


MANNER  OF  THE  BEGINNING.— GENESIS  OF  NEW  DOCTRINE. 


201 


Results  of  the 
misconception 
of  the  theory. 


fruitful  source  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  animosity  which  the  scholastic  and 
ecclesiastical  worlds  have 
shown  to  the  evolution 
hypothesis.  The  thought 
/  of  mankind  in  the  past  ages  has  been 
greatly  occupied  with  the  notion  of  final 
causation.  A  great  first  cause  has  been 
demanded  by  the  mind  as  the  ultimate 
producing  force  and  explanation  of  what- 
ever is.  This  notion  has  included  the 
creation  of  matter  out  of  naught,  but 
more  particularly  the  creation  of  the 
specific  prototypes  of  all  the  existing 
forms  of  life.  The  doctrine  of  evolution 
seemed  at  first  glance  to  destroy  the  idea 
of  a  final  cause  as  the  efficient  source  of 
all  things,  and  to  substitute  therefor  the 
notion  of  one  thing,  namely,  matter,  with 
its  potencies  and  laws. 

There  was  thus  a  failure  to  perceive 
that  the  true  doctrine  of  evolution,  as  it 
Originators  of  was  propounded  and  illus- 
d^e^iar^Us^Tu^  trated  by  Darwin,  Wallace, 
"I'^ent.  and     their    followers,    did 

not  include — as  it  does  not  now  include 
— the  consideration  of  final  causes.  On 
the  contrar}-,  the  author  of  the  doctrine 
succinctly  and  carefiilly  disclaimed  for 
the  hypothesis  of  evolution  any  purpose 
of  accounting  for  the  origin  of  life  or  for 
the  ultimate  plan  and  purpose  of  organic 
being.  He  would  from  the  first  care- 
fully limit  the  inquiry  to  the  modes  and 
processes  by  which  the  organic  forms  of 
life  are  evolved  from  their  respective 
germs ;  but  life  itself  as  a  principle  and 
fact  in  material  nature  is  always  presup- 
posed and  granted. 

A  proper  attention  to  this  important 
feature  of  the  doctrine  of  development 
Antagonism  has  must  have  gone  far,  had  it 
c°eptr;fo?tir-  been  duly  weighed,  to 
doctrine.  abate,  if  not  wholly  remove, 

the  deep-seated  antagonism  between  the 
ancient  theorem  of  life  and  the  doctrine 

M.— Vol.  I— IX 


of  evolution.  It  must  be  understood,  then, 
at  the  outset  that  this  doctrine,  instead 
of  removing  the  notion  of  a  final  cause, 
instead  of  accounting  for  the  origin  of 
life,  actually  presupposes  the  existence 
of  life  and  contents  itself  with  an  inquiry 
into  the  laws  and  processes  by  which 
living  organisms  are  brought  to  their 
perfected  development.  The  ultimate 
cause  of  vital  phenomena  ~  remains  as 
■occult  and  inaccessible  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  prevalent  theory  of  evolution 
as  it  was  before. 

The  recent  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  does  not  pre- 
clude a  final  cause  as  the  Reconciliation 
explanation  and  source  of  °owsu°nde^r-°'' 
life  has  gone  far  toward  standing  them, 
a  reconciliation  of  the  two  opinions 
which  for  a  quarter  of  a  centurj-  or  more 
warred  with  each  other  for  ascendency 
over  the  beliefs  of  mankind.  While 
from  one  point  of  view  the  evolutionists, 
by  their  ever-extending  conquest,  may 
claim  the  victory  over  the  long-prevalent 
doctrine,  from  another  station  it  is  pos- 
sible for  the  creationists,  reconstructing 
their  views  out  of  scientific  materials 
and  by  the  tactics  of  right  reason,  to  re- 
assert their  sway  in  this,  that  science 
does  not  account,  can  not  account,  for 
the  origin  of  life,  and  is  obliged  to  ac- 
cept from  the  creative  hypothesis  its  es- 
sential principle  and  doctrine,  namely, 
that  the  germs  of  life  from  which  all 
organic  forms  have  proceeded  to  matu- 
rity by  growth  and  law  were  not  them- 
selves the  products  of  matter  or  of  the 
material  forces  now  operating  in  the  nat- 
ural world. 

A  second  popular  and  widely  prevalent 
error  which  has  done  much  Mistaken  beUef 

that  evolution 

to  prejudice  the  doctrine  of  teaches  cross- 

,       .  .  ^  descent  of  spe- 

evolution,  and  to  postpone  ^xes. 
its    acceptance    by    the    civilized    peo- 
ples of  the  world,   has  been  the  belief 


202 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JifANKLXD. 


that  this  doctrine  teaches  the  descent  of 
the  higher  animals,  inchuling  man,  from 
the  lower  animals;  that  is,  from  lower 
animals  different  in  kind.  For  a  long 
time  after  the  hypothesis  of  evolution 
was  formally  given  to  the  world  by  Dar- 
win and  Wallace,  it  was  believed  that 
the  new  doctrine  included  as  its  leading 
feature  a  belief  that  man  is  a  descendant 
of  the  apes  or  monkeys.  Human  nature 
in  its  present  refinement  was  scandalized 
with  such  a  proposition,  and  without 
pausing  to  consider  whether  such  a  no- 
tion was  really  a  part  of  the  evolution 
hypothesis,  rejected  it  with  disdain. 
This  is  the  more  surprising  when  we  re- 
member that  Darwin  and  all  the  great 
promoters  of  the  new  doctrine  had  care- 
fully disclaimed  the  deduction  of  a  cross- 
descent  of  man  from  existing  species  of 
animals.  There  was  a  failure  in  public 
opinion,  and  even  on  the  part  of  scholars, 
to  discriminate  the  true  from  the  false 
intent  in-  the  proposed  explanation  of 
the  origin  of  species.  The  belief  be- 
came deeply  fixed  that  evolution  signi- 
fied a  degraded  and  bestial  ancestry  of 
the  human  race  from  those  creatures  for 
which,  by  acquaintance  with  their  habits 
and  characteristics,  civilized  people  have 
conceived  so  deep  a  repugnance. 

The  theory  of  evolution,  however,  is 
not  justly  chargeable,  as  we  shall  here- 
after see,  with  the  crude,  widely  dissemi- 
nated notion  that  the  human  species  has 
been  derived  by  descent  from  the  an- 
thropoid '  apes.  True,  the  doctrine  is 
that  mankind  are  the  lineal  offspring  of 
lower  forms  of  life,  not  perhaps  more 
highly  developed  than-  the  simians  of 
existing  species,  and  these  in  their  turn 
of  others  still  lower  in  the  scale  of  exist- 
ence. But  the  idea  of  cross-descent 
which  would  make  any  one  species  of 
the  higher  animals  to  have  been  derived 
from  some  other  existing  species  of  a 


different  kind  is  not  only  foreign  to  the 
theory  of  evolution  as  set  forth  by  its 
great  advocates,  but  is  positively  contra- 
dictory of  the  leading  principles  of  the 
doctrine. 

The  distinction  here  drawn  between 
that  cross-descent  which  evolution  has 
been  untruly  charged  with  Distinction  here 
teaching,  and  the  lineal  der-  fj^^^^^^iffhe' 
ivation  of  every  existing  question. 
.species  from  its  own  ancestral  line  back- 
wards through  the  various  grades  of  or- 
ganic development  from  the  simplei- 
forms  of  a  remote  ancestry,  or  even  from 
the  remotest  germ  of  life,  is  fundamental 
to  any  correct  apprehension  of  the  theory. 
The  law  of  the  specialization  of  living 
beings  by  departure  from  common  types, 
instead  of  favoring  the  notion  that  one 
species  of  living  organisms  is  deducible 
from  another  existing  species,  between 
which  and  itself  a  Avide  chasm  has  al- 
ready been  opened  by  the  process  of  dif- 
ferentiation, positively  forbids  such  cross- 
descent,  and  makes  it  impossible.  It 
has  long  been  known,  indeed,  that  nature 
herself  has  put  a  bar,  in  the  infertility 
of  hybrids,  against  the  amalgamation, 
cross-grafting,  and  confusion  of  the  or- 
ders of  life  such  as  would  be  implied  in 
the  possible  derivation  of  one  species 
from  another  different  in  kind. 

The  principle  here  insisted  on  as  fun- 
damental to  a  correct  understanding  of 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  is  Analogy  of  Un- 
world-wide  in  its  manifes-  ^^^^- 
tations.  Upon  this  prin-  species, 
ciple,  as  an  example,  the  modern  science 
of  language  is  based.  Without  it  we 
should  possess  at  the  present  time  no 
really  scientific  knowledge  of  human 
speech.  All  linguistic  phenomena  eon- 
form  to  laws  precisely  analogous  to  those 
which  govern  the  evolution  of  living  or- 
ganisms. This  indeed  is  no  more  than 
might  be  expected ;   for  language  is  so 


'MANNER  OF  THE  BEGINNING.— GENESIS  OF  NEW  DOCTRINE.      203 


distinctly  con-elated  with  the  nervous 
and  cerebral  development  of  the  highest 
and  most  perfect  of  the  animals  as  to 
constitute  an  invariable  index  of  the 
stages  and  modes  of  life  through  which 
that  animal  has  passed. 

If  we  take  the  most  cursory  survey  of 
the  science  of  language  and  of  the  his- 
tory of  that  science  since  it 

Languages  not 

the  result  of        began  to  be,  we  shall  find 

cross-derivation.  .  -  .        ,  , 

a  series  ot  mistakes  and 
misconceptions  respecting  it  almost  iden- 
tical with  those  which  have  beset  and 
perplexed  the  doctrine  of  evolution. 
Glancing  for  a  moment  at  the  six  or 
seven  principal  families  of  Aryan  speech, 
we  find  two  of  the  divisions  in  xVsia  and 
the  remainder  in  Europe.  The  former 
are  the  Indie  and  Iranic  families,  and 
the  latter  the  Grseco-Italic,  the  Celtic, 
the  Teutonic,  and  Slavonic  branches. 
Aforetime  it  was  believed  and  taught 
that  Latin  was  a  derivative  of  Greek. 
Subsequently,  within  the  current  cen- 
tury it  was  concluded  that  both  Greek 
and  Latin  were  derivatives  of  Sanskrit, 
and  it  was  sometimes  in  dispute  whether 
Celtic  was  derived  from  a  Graeco-Latin 
original  or  the  latter  from  it. 

The  whole  idea  of  the  species  of  lan- 
guage— if  we  may  so  name  the  different 
Mistake  of  phi-  varieties  of  speech — was 
i:^f  onanguage  thus  coufused  and  blurred 
descent.  by  ^  total  misapprehension 

of  the  fundamental  principle  of  linguistic 
descent.  Even  scholars  seem  to  have 
had  no  notion  of  the  origin  of  a  given 
tongue  except  that  it  had  been  derived 
from  some  other  given  tongue.  In  a 
word,  it  did  not  occur  to  the  early  philol- 
ogists that  there  might  have  been,  and 
indeed  was,  out  of  the  nature  of  the  case, 
a  prehistoric  primitive  language  out  of 
which,  as  from  a  common  germ,  all  forms 
of  Aryan  speech  had  descended. 

At  length,  however,  the  tiiie  concept 


arose  itpon  the  understandings  of  schol- 
ars, and  with  it  came  the  beginning  of 
a  true  science  of  language.  True  concept  of 
Henceforth   the   absurdity  relation  of  lan- 

.'     guages  to  their 

of  supposing  Latin  or  Celt-  originals, 
ic  to  have  been  derived  from  Greek,  or 
Greek  from  Sanskrit,  was  manifest,  and 
at  the  present  time  even  the  novice  in 
linguistic  study  is  too  correct  in  his  ap- 
prehension of  the  problem  to  admit  the 
preposterous  notion  of  the  cross-descent 
of  one  language  from  another.  What 
should  be  said  of  the  attempt  to  derive 
French  from  Italian,  Wallachian  from 
Portuguese,  Rhoetian  from  Spanish, 
Swedish  from  Dutch,  Icelandic  from 
Anglo-Saxon,  English  from  German? 
The  scholar  knows  that  the  six  Romance 
languages  have  been  produced  by  lin- 
guistic evolution  and  vicissitude  out  of 
an  original  Latin — produced  by  a  process 
of  natural  selection  and  survival  of  the 
fittest.  He  also  knows  that  Latin  and 
Greek  and  Teutonic  and  Iranic  and  Indie 
speech  are  all  the  descendants  of  an  an- 
cient original  which,  though  it  exist  only 
by  hypothesis,  is  known  as  certainly  to 
have  existed  as  are  the  species  of  ex- 
tinct animals  whose  fossil  remains  are 
preserved  within  the  stony  covers  of  the 
book  of  geology.  The  idea  of  cross- 
derivation  among  the  languages  has  thus 
been  eliminated  by  scientific  investiga- 
tion ;  and  the  derivation  of  one  tongue 
from  another  by  cross-descent  is  no  more 
spoken  of  as  a  thing  possible  among  the 
phenomena  of  human  speech. 

It  is  in  this  manner,  or  in  a  manner 
precisely  analogous,  that  public  opinion, 

and       even      the       incorrect    Erroneous  opln- 

teachings  of  scholars,  have  ^^^^  "c'trdYn^ur 
had  to  be  corrected  respect-  "^"^y- 
ing  the  hypothesis  of  evolution.  It  is 
surprising  to  open  the  earlier  series  of 
the  many  hundreds  of  controversial  vol- 
umes produced  in  Europe  and  America 


204 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


on  the  subject  of  evolution,  and  to  find 
them  pervaded  in  every  part  with  the 
two  gross  misapprehensions  to  which  we 
have  referred ;  namely,  first,  that  the 
doctrine  presumes  to  explain  the  origin 
of  life  by  the  operation  of  existing  phys- 
ical laws;  and  secondly,  and  more  par- 
ticularly, that  it  teaches  the  descent  of 
man  from  the  apes  and  monkeys. 

It  may  suffice  in  this  connection  to 
brush  away  once  for  all  these  erroneous 
Evolution  seeks  views  and  misconceptions 
to  explain  the       respecting  the  sense  of  the 

processes  of  or-  ^  e> 

ganiciife.  evolution  hypothesis.  That 

hypothesis  does  not  presume,  and  has 
not  presumed,  to  explain  the  origin  of 
life,  but  beginning  with  the  fact  of  life, 
it  has  aimed  to  explain  the  processes, 
laws,  and  modes  by  which  the  many 
varieties  of  organic  being  have  been 
brought,  by  natural  selection  and  adapta- 
tion to  environment,  up  to  their  present 
perfected  forms.  And  in  the  second 
place,  the  doctrine  of  evolution  has  not 
taught,  but  has  or  the  other  hand  dis- 
tinctl}'-  denied,  the  cross-descent  of  man 
from  the  higher  primates,  or  of  these 
from  lower  existing  orders  of  animated 
nature  different  in  kind. 

After  removing  from  the  mind  of  the 
reader  the  foregoing  misconceptions  with 
Circumstances  regard  to  the  theory  of  ev- 
TuntS-of  ol^ition,  we  might  at  once 
the  new  theory,  proceed  to  explain  and 
elucidate  affirmatively  what  that  theory 
really  is;  but  before  doing  so  we  may 
well  pause  to  note  historically  the  cir- 
cumstances which  preceded  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  new  doctrine  of 
organic  life.  As  has  been  said  above,  the 
hypothesis  of  evolution  is  itself  an  evolu- 
tion out  of  antecedent  conditions  long 
operative  in  the  minds  of  men,  bringing 
them  gradually  to  the  formation  of  a  new 
concept  of  universal  nature,  of  our  earth 
in  particular,  and  of  its  inhabitants. 


The  great  promoters  of  the  new  theory 
of  the  viodus  operandi  of  life  were  them- 
selves prepared  for  their  Teachers  of  evo- 
office  and  work  by  forces  i:fr3lnTv"o- 
which  were  actively  at  lotion, 
work  before  their  birth.  In  short,  under 
the  operation  of  those  general  laws  by 
which  the  intellectual  as  well  as  the 
material  life  of  man  is  conditioned,  the 
time  had  arrived  when  the  old  anthro- 
pomorphic concept  of  nature  was  des- 
tined to  be  displaced  by  another  and 
more  rational  explanation  of  the  existing 
aspects  of  organic  life,  and  in  particular 
of  the  methods  by  which  the  specific 
germs  of  all  things  living  had  been 
developed  into  their  present  forms  and 
powers.  It  can  but  prove  of  interest  to 
sketch  the  intellectual  preparation  which 
preceded  the  announcement  of  the 
hypothesis  of  evolution. 

In  the  first  place,  Descartes  had 
formed  and  promulgated  the  conception 
that  the  material  universe  is  Descartes  is  foi- 
divided  into  living  and  non-  ^rob^L'L'n"' 
living  matter,  and  that  it  and  experiment, 
has  the  nature  of  a  mechanism.  From 
these  postulates  he  held  that  the  universe 
is  susceptible  of  interpretation  in  accord- 
ance with  physical  laws.  In  the  second 
place,  the  age  of  observation  and  experi- 
ment had  .supervened  in  place  of  the  age 
of  dogmatism  and  authority.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  microscope  and  the 
profounder  researches  of  chemistry  had 
led  to  a  knowledge  of  tissue  and  of 
structural  forms  which  had  never  before 
been  attained.  Consequent  upon  these 
new  excursions  of  science,  the  discovery 
was  made  that  structure  has  a  history 
reaching  from  a  simple  origin  in  germ 
life  to  the  vast  complexity  of  organic  life, 
i  This  history  was  found  to  be  repeated  in 
every  form  of  vegetable  and  animal  ex- 
istence, thus  furnishing  the  hints  of  larger 
laws  than  had  ever  been  known  hitherto. 


MANNER  OF  THE  BEGINNING.— GENESIS  OF  NEW  DOCTRINE.    205 


With  the  progress  of  observation, 
analogies  were  discovered  between  the 
Discovery  of  individuals  constituting  va- 
reeffnd^::d-  ^i^tics  and  species  and 
uais  and  species,  between  the  species  of  cor- 
related groups  constituting  the  suborders 
and  orders  of  creation ;  in  every  part 
there  was  the  hint  of  law.  The  next 
stage  in  the  coming  scientific  concept  of 
nature  Avas  the  observation  that  all 
species,  even  they  of  habits  widely 
different,  have  a  common  fundamental 
structure  or  plan  of  organization,  with 
only  such  departures  therefrom  as  the 
particular  environment  and  habit  of  the 
animal  or  plant  may  have  suggested. 
This  was  followed  with  the  discovery  of 
certain  parts  in  the  structure  of  living 
beings  for  which  the  animal  possessing 
them  had,  under  its  changed  conditions 
and  habits,  cast  off  or  lost  the  use,  and 
which  had  shrunk  from  disuse  into  a 
rudimentary  form  merely  suggestive  of 
the  lost  functions — thus  indicating  the 
course  of  life  which  the  given  animal 
had  pursued  in  its  development.  Still 
further,  the  observation  was  made  and 
recorded  that  all  living  beings  are  sub- 
ject to  variation  under  changed  condi- 
tions of  environment  and  habit. 

Finally,  while  these  various  branches 
of  investigation  were  in  progress,  geol- 
Geoiogy  deter-  ogy  Completed  its  work  by 
^f'^ftil'^ct^^t!'  classifying  and  arranging 
cies.  the   extinct    forms    found 

in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  so  that  their 
succession  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
orders  was  scientifically  determined — 
thus  establishing  the  fact  that  the  pre- 
historic history  of  life  in  our  planet  was 
a  history  of  progress,  metamorphosis 
under  changing  conditions,  and  evolu- 
tion. All  of  these  forms  and  principles 
of  knowledge,  none  of  which  antedate 
the  seventeenth  century,  were  modified 
and  extended  slowly  and  irregularly  dur- 


ing the  eighteenth,  but  were  not  brought 
to  a  condition  from  which  generaliza- 
tions relative  to  the  universal  laws  of 
life  might  be  formed  until  about  the 
middle  of  the  current  centennium.  It 
does  not  require  prescience,  or  even  the 
greatest  acumen  to  discover  in  the  con- 
ditions here  present — in  the  stage  of  dis- 
covery and  observation  respecting  vital 
phenomena — the  probability  and  neces- 
sity of  the  promulgation  of  a  new  con- 
cept of  universal  nature  and  of  man. 

Still  another  fact  w^hich  strongly  pre- 
vailed to  substitute  for  anthropomor- 
phism the  new  doctrine  a  knowledge  of 
of  evolution  under  law  t^^rtterndt"* 
was  the  enlarged  and  cor-  viduai. 
rected  knowledge  which  had  been  gained 
in  recent  times  of  the  life  of  the  indi- 
vidual. It  is  here,  indeed,  that  the  the- 
ory of  evolution  really  begins.  The 
hint  of  the  general  law  is  furnished  by 
the  individual  organism,  by  the  method 
of  its  beginning,  by  the  process  of  its 
development,  and  the  conditions  under 
which  it  reaches  maturity  and  perfec- 
tion. We  have  only  to  study  with  par- 
ticularity the  progress  of  the  individual 
in  order  to  gain  an  epitomized  knowl- 
edge of  the  history  of  the  species  or  va- 
riety of  which  the  individual  is  the  con- 
stituent unit. 

The  ignorance  of  antiquity  with  re- 
spect to  anatomical  and  physiological 
laws  and  phenomena,  is  a  ignorance  of  an- 
fact  that  may  well  surprise  "^^^^^^^ 
the  understanding.  When  caiiaws. 
we  consider,  for  instance,  that  the  hu- 
man body  is  to  the  faculties  of  the  mind 
and  to  the  consciousness  the  most  imme- 
diate and  tangible  of  all  the  facts  of  na- 
ture, we  may  well  be  surprised  at  the 
profound  ignorance  of  even  the  greatest 
minds  of  antiquity  with  regard  thereto. 
The  scholars,  statesmen,  warriors,  and 
poets  of  the  Graeco-Italic  races,  as  well 


206 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


as  the  old  bards  who  sang  the  Vedas,  the 
priests  who  formulated  the  cult  of  Osiris 
and  Isis,  the  Chaldee  sages  who  studied 
by  night  the  planets  and  stars,  and  the 
venerable  seers  of  Israel,  were  all  alike 
ignorant  of  the  simplest  processes  of  or- 
ganic life.  The  functions  of  bodily  or- 
gans were  unknown,  or  at  least  not  un- 
derstood. The  body  throughout  was  a 
mystery.  Its  structure  had  never  been 
investigated.  The  relations  and  offices 
of  its  parts  were  totally  misapprehended. 
The  beginning  of  life  was  misconceived 
in  its  nature ;  and  though  the  body 
seemed  ever  to  invite  to  anatomical  and 
physiological  study,  the  notions  of  even 
the  wisest  on  these  subjects  were  crude  in 
all  particulars  and  preposterous  in  most. 
It  were  hard  to  account  for  what 
seems  to  have  been  the  indifference  of 
the  great  thinkers  of  the  ancient  world  to 
Indifference  of  the  practical  questions  of 
:h:pr:crsses°of  organic  life.  It  would  seem 
organic  life.  that  the  mere  accidents  to 

which  living  beings  have  been  subject 
in  all  time  would  have  taught  the 
scholars  of  the  classical  ages  much  more 
than  they  ever  knew  about  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  living  bodies.  It  is  an 
amazing  fact  that  all  the  learning  of  an- 
tiquity failed  to  note  so  simple  a  thing 
as  the  digestion  of  food  or  the  circulation 
of  the  blood.  The  offices  of  the  organs 
were  as  little  known  as  though  the  body 
did  not  contain  a  brain,  a  heart,  a  spinal 
cord,  an  alimentary  canal.  Nor  did  this 
ignorance  give  place  to  light  under  the 
scholasticism  of  the  Middle  Ages.  On 
the  contrary,  in  the  mediaeval  times 
superstition  raised  its  hand  against  all 
that  kind  of  investigation  which  now 
goes  under  the  name  of  natural  science, 
and  the  absurd  beliefs  of  antiquity  re- 
specting the  methods  and  phenomena  of 
life  were  intensified  by  the  general  gloom 
which  overhung  the  human  mind. 


It  is  to  the  present  century  that  the  great 
scientific    discoveries   must  be   referred 

by    which     the    modus   Opcr-    Knowledge  pro- 

audi  of  organic  being  has  LlfvMuaTto^le 
been  revealed.  We  here  species, 
speak  of  life  in  the  individual,  and  refer 
thereto  in  order  to  show  the  tremendous 
influence  which  a  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  individual  growth  has  exerted  in  the 
larger  theory  which  explains  varieties 
and  species  and  orders  and,  indeed,  uni- 
versal nature,  by  the  same  principle 
which  brings  a  single  organic  being  from 
the  germ  to  its  perfected  form.  What, 
then,  is  the  outline  of  evolution  as  de- 
duced from  the  individual  organism? 

Each  living  thing  has  been  evolved 
from  a  minute  particle  of  matter  in 
which  the  most  critical  tests  of  science 
are  unable  to  discover  the  aii  organic  life 
slightest  resemblance,  out-  ^^^clustav- 
line,  or  suggestion  of  the  ingiife. 
adult  form  which  is  to  arise  therefrom. 
This  living  particle,  from  which  the 
complex  organism  is  to  proceed,  is  called 
a  germ.  It  is  simply,  in  its  primordial 
state,  a  cell  of  living  matter,  endowed 
potentially  with  a  principle  of  growth, 
expansion,  and  final  maturity  of  organic 
structure ;  but  no  trace  of  such  organic 
structure  is  discoverable  in  the  germ  it- 
self. Indeed,  it  is  not  certainly  known 
that  a  germ  is  actually  alive.  Perhaps 
it  were  better  to  define  it  in  the  first  in- 
tent as  potentially  alive.  In  any  event, 
neither  the  microscope  nor  chemical 
analysis  is  able  to  indicate  the  existence 
in  a  germ  proper  of  any  fact  or  quality 
by  which  it  may  be  discriminated  from 
other  cells  which  have  no  power  of 
growth  or  development. 

The  better  view  is  that  every  germ 
capable  of  becoming  an  organic  body  is 
itself  a  detached  portion  of  the  substance 
of  some  living  organism  already  exist- 
ing.    For  a  long  time  Harvey's  biologi- 


MANNER  OF  THE  BEGINNING.— GENESIS  OF  NEW  DOCTRINE.   207 


cal  aphorism,  "  Omne  vivuin  ex  ovo"  or 
*' Every  living  thing  from  an  egg"  was 
Scientific  aphor-  accepted  as  the  correct  ex- 
T^I^^torV  Pi-ession  for  the  beginning 
ganism.  of  the  individual  life,  and 

the  maxim  has  been  but  slightly  modi- 
fied by  the  more  recent  biology  into  the 
form  of  ' '  Every  living  thing  from  some- 
thing alive  " — the  distinction  being  that 
a  cell  may  have  all  the  qualities  of  a 
germ  except  the  touch  of  life  and  yet 
remain  incapable  as  any  other  not-living 
matter  of  becoming  an  organic  body. 

Scientific  tests  have  been  carefully  ap- 
plied to  germs  of  many  kinds,  and  their 
qualitv  clearly  determined. 

Nature  and  '     .  .       . 

movements  of  The  livmg  cell  IS  found  to 
germ  e.  ^^  filled  with  the  chem- 
ical compound  called  proteine,  consisting 
under  analysis  of  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitro- 
gen, with  traces  of  sulphur 
and  phosphoi'us  swimming 
in  much  water.  It  should  be 
observed  that  proteine  is  not 
a  natural  product ;  that  is,  it 
is  always,  so  far  as  known,  a 
constituent  of  living  organ- 
isms or  a  product  thereof  — a  conclusion 
which  strengthens  the  belief  that  with- 
out life  life  can  not  begin. 

Such,  then,  is  the  germ  from  which 
every  organic  body  takes  its  rise.  From 
History  of  the  this  the  living  individual 
^orroftTans'ort  begins  to  be.  Henceforth 
mations.  the  history  of  the  individual 

life  is  a  history  of  processes,  changes, 
adaptations,  and,  in  a  word,  evolution. 
The  first  of  these  changes  and  transfor- 
mations is  simple  growth.  The  germ, 
or  living  cell,  begins  to  increase  in  size. 
This  is  the  first  manifestation,  indeed, 
that  the  particle  of  matter  in  question  is 
a  true  germ.  It  expands  by  a  force 
seemingly  within  itself ;  but  at  first  with- 
out other  modification  in  character.     It 


remains  under  the  first  expansion  simple 
and  homogeneous. 

The  second  stage  of  the  evolution  is 
marked  by  the  appearance  of  a  stricture 
corresponding  to  the  equator  of  the  eel' 

by  which  a  division  begins    in  what  manner 

to    be    effected,    and    two  tt^^^Z'lT' 

'  izes  by  process 

cells  produced  instead  of  offission. 
one.  Each  of  the  two  parts  assumes, 
in  turn,  the  form  and  character  of  the 
original;  but  the  division  is  not  com- 
plete, the  substance  of  the  two  cells  con- 
tinuing to  flow  in  common  under  the 
line  of  stricture.  Around  each  of  the 
two  lobes  lines  of  division  appear,  and 
four  parts  are  produced  instead  of  two, 
and  these  four,  by  division,  become  eiglit, 
each  of  which  retains  the  exact  charac- 
teristics of  the  original  germ.     Thus  is 


MANNER   OF   GERM    DEVELOPMENT   BY    FISSION   (SUCCESSIVE   STAGES 
MARKED    A,  B,  C,  D). 


produced  what  is  known  as  a  cell  aggre- 
gate, which  is  the  first  stage  in  the  ad- 
vance from  the  germ  toward  complete 
organic  being. 

The  question  at  once  arises  by  what 
means  this  first  enlargement  of  germ  life 
is  effected.    Whence  comes  How  the  mate- 
the  material  which  the  cell  ^^^^^^^^ar" 
uses    in    its    own    enlarge-  gathered, 
ment?     Certainly  not   out   of    nothing. 
The  cell  has  the  power  of  appropriation. 
It  has  this  in  virtue  of  the  life-principle 
within.      It  draws  to  itself  and  absorbs 
the  aliment  whereby  the  increase  in  size 
and   the  other   phenomena  of   division 
and  multiplication  are  produced.     The 
materials  so  gathered  are  not  mechan- 
ically distributed  as  if  they  were  packed 


208 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


between  the  parts  of  the  living  cells, 
but  are  absorbed  and  assimilated  with 
the  substance  thereof,  or,  in  a  word, 
digested. 

The  next  stage  in  the  evolution  is  the 

formation  of  what  is  called  the  gastrula 

out  of  the  cell  aggregate. 

Formation  of  the  .        .  , .   ,       ,      , 

gastrula  and  ar-  T  his  IS  accomplished  by 
chenterom.  ^     ^^^j^^     ^^     transforma- 

tions .such  as  the  production  of  the  ar- 
chentirom  and  its  transformation  into  an 
embryonic  stomach.  The  cells  compos- 
ing the  first  aggregate  take  the  form 
called  Xheplanula,  which  is  next  doubled 
in  on  one  side,  as  if  by  external  pressure. 
The  processes  are  somewhat  occult,  and 
may  be  traced  by  the  curious  reader  in 
the  pages  of  any  modern  work  on  physi- 
ology. It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  with 
the  formation  of  the  gastrula  the  rudi- 
ments begin  to  appear  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  organism  that  is  to  be, 
namely,  the  epidermis,  or  outer  .skin, 
the  intermediate  tissue,  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  a  system  of  nerves. 

The  process  of  organic  life — the  prep- 
aration for  a  complete  individual — is  now 
'fully  under  way.     Assimi- 

Further  evolu- 
tion of  organs       lation  coutmues,  the  matter 

and  parts.  ,      •  j  •  •  1 

being  drawn  primarily 
from  the  body  of  the  mother  and  ulti- 
mately from  the  nutritive  substances  of 
the  proximate  environment.  Growth 
also  continues,  and  the  embryonic  organ- 
ism begins  to  manifest  that  distinction 
of  parts  and  outline  of  organs  which  in 
the  aggregate  are  to  constitute  the  living 
being  that  is  to  be. 

At  length,  after  successive  stages  of 
growth  and  development,  the  new  crea- 
Manner  of  de-      turc  is  ready  for  deliverance 

This 

process  is  ettected  by 
several  methods.  Some  animals  are 
oviparous,  or  egg-bearing;  that  is,  the 
ova  within  the  body  of  the  mother  are 


cr;'a"rt''^i"s"  to  the  outer  world. 

environment.         nrnfPQQ       iq       effected 


developed  to  completeness,  ustially  in- 
closed in  a  chalky  shell,  and  deposited 
in  a  suitable  situation  for  the  secondary 
process  of  fecundation.  This  consists 
in  subjecting  the  eggs  to  heat — generally 
derived  from  the  mother's  body — and  to 
other  favoring  conditions  during  which 
the  processes  above  described,  reaching 
from  germ  life  to  organic  life,  are  com- 
pleted, the  shell  broken,  and  the  new 
organism  liberated  into  the  same  condi- 
tions as  the  adult  parent.  In  the  case 
of  the  viviparous  animals,  the  whole 
process  of  embryonic  development  takes 
place  in  the  body  of  the  mother,  until 
the  offspring  reaches  the  limit  of  its  first 
stage  of  being,  when  it  is  delivered  to  the 
new  arena  of  life  independent  of  the 
mother's  body. 

It  is  not  needed  to  dwell  in  extenso 
upon    facts    and    modes    of    life    which 

in     the     case     of      the     indi-    Fundamental 

vidual  are  well  understood.  l^rjl^^K,,, 
The  whole  course  of  or-  Uving  forms, 
ganic  development,  as  the  same  is  illus- 
trated in  the  individual  being,  is  Avell 
apprehended,  and  has  been  demonstrated 
by  ob.servation  and  made  of  record  until 
hardly  any  feature  of  the  process  is  any 
longer  obscure.  But  it  is  only  in  recent 
times  that  the  discovery  has  been  made 
of  the  fundamental  identity  of  the  meth- 
ods of  development  in  the  embryonic 
life  of  the  different  orders  of  animals. 
There  has  been  found  to  be  no  discover- 
able difference  in  the  process  by  which 
the  germ  expands  into  organism  in  the 
several  species  an  d  orders  of  living  beings. 
The  process  is  the  same  in  the  sponge 
as  in  the  coelentera ;  in  the  worm  as  in 
the  echinoderm ;  in  the  tunicates  as  in 
the  anthropods;  in  the  mollusks  as  in 
the  vertebrata.  Indeed,  in  all  the  forms 
of  life,  above  the  protozoans,  the  modes 
of  development  from  the  germ  to  the 
organism    are   fundamentally  identical. 


MANNER  OF  THE  BEGINNING.— GENESIS  OF  NEW  DOCTRINE.   209 


This  fact  is  the  first  stage  in  the  exten- 
sion of  the  law  of  evolution  from  the  in- 
dividual to  the  other  orders  of  beinof, 
and  finally  to  universal  nature. 

The  next  stage  is  like  unto  the  first. 
This  is  reached  in  the  discovery  that 
not  only  are  the  processes  of  germinal 
and  embryonic  life  identical  in  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  various  species  and  orders 
of  animate  existence,  but  that  the  funda- 
mental structure  of  the  various  kinds  of 
animals  is  essentiallv  the  same  throueh- 
out,  with  only  such  variations  and  modi- 
fications of  the 
common  pattern 
as  have  been 
produced  by 
adaptation  to 
certain  c  o  n  d  i  - 
tions  of  life  by 
the  exigency  of 
environment. 

In  the  concept 
of  general  na- 
ture, the  differ- 
ences  in  the 
structure  of  the 
various  orders 
of  being  were 
aforetime  great- 
ly exaggerated. 
Mere    sense    of 

sight  and  touch  were  used  as  the  basis  of 
judgment  respecting  the  degree  of  diver- 
The  natural  gence  between  one  kind  of 
animal  and  another  kind, 
m  recent  times  no 
scientific  tests  were  applied  to  measure 
by  a  truer  standard  the  existing  differ- 
ences in  the  bottom  plan  of  universal 
nattire.  To  the  eye  the  bird  was  suffi- 
ciently unlike  the  fish,  and  the  fish  unlike 
the  mammal.  What  similarity  might 
the  unaided  sight  of  an  untaught  man 
discover  between  a  frog  and  a  squirrel, 
between  a  lizard  and  a  hawk  ? 


By  the  scientific  method  of  observa- 
tion, however,  the  likenesses  in  the  frame- 
work and  general  structure  Fundamental 
of  all  the  orders  of  living  sf^cturai  iden- 


tity  of  all  living 
forms. 


beings  begin  to  appear, 
and  the  unlikenesses  to  disappear.  It 
is  found  by  the  tests  of  science  that  the 
differences  between  animals  are  .super- 
ficial, and  it  might  almost  be  said  fal- 
lacious, whereas  the  likenesses  are  fun- 
damental and  real.  We  here  speak  of 
the  likenesses  existing  among  the  mature 
animals  of  different  species  and  orders 


&'B. 


senses  exagger- 
ate differences 

ofstructure.         Until    in   recent  times 


LOWER  LIMBS  OF  L'NT.ULATE  ANIMALS — SHOWING  THE  PROGRESSIVE  DEVELOPMENT 

(marked  a,  b,  c,  I),  e)  of  organs. 

in  the  essentials  of  their  structure  and 
form.  One  not  familiar  with  the  fact 
mu.st  needs  be  a.stonished  to  note  how, 
under  the  investigations  of  comparative 
anatomy,  the  fundamental  parts  of  all 
living  creatures  more  and  more  approx- 
imate a  common  type,  from  which  the 
several  species  and  varieties  have  been 
inflected  to  a  certain  limit  only  by  the 
conditions  of  environment,  including  the 
operation  of  natural  selection,  or  strug- 
gle for  life,  and  the  survival  of  the  best. 
The  skeletons  of  all  vertebrates  approx- 
imate a  single  pattern.     This  pattern  in 


210 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


turn  approximates  the  basal  structure  of 
the  invertebrata ;  and  so  on  with  the  en- 
largement of  the  investigation  all  animate 
beings  are  seen  to  approach  to  one  com- 
mon rudimentary  form,  insomuch  that 
the  inquirer  might  be  induced  to  believe 


THE   SPECTROSCOPE. 


that  nature  has  had  but  a  single  pattern 
in  her  laboratory  of  possibilities  I 

The  effect  of  these  discoveries  in  biol- 
ogy must  needs  be  great  in  leading  the 
mind  toward  a  wider  con- 
cept of  uniformity.  First, 
we  have  the  actual  demon- 
stration of  the  modes  and  processes  by 
which  mature  organism  is  reached  in  the 


The  mind  dis- 
covers the  law 
of  uniformity. 


SOLAR   SPECTRUM. 


case  of  the  individttal.  In  the  next  place, 
we  discover  that  the  same  processes  and 
methods  of  expansion  and  development 
take  place  in  the  individuals  of  all  the  or- 
ders of  life.  The  modus  operattdi  cover- 
ing the  progress  of  life  and   of  living 


^  grade  of  the  protozoa.  In  the  third  place, 
a  .scientific  examination  and  clas.sification 
of  the  completed  stnictural  parts  of  all 
animals  shows  an  astonishing  likeness 
amounting  to  virtual  identity  for  every 
kind  of  organism,  whether  mammal,  bird, 
or  reptile,  whether  vertebrate  or  in- 
vertebrate, or  mollusk,  whether  of  the 
highest  or  lowest  grade  of  animated 
existence.  Everything  approximates 
a  common  type,  and  indicates  in  terms 
not  to  be  mistaken  the  fundamental 
unity  of  the  plan  on  which  all  varieties 
of  animal  life  have  been  produced. 

It  is  doubtless  tnie  that  certain 
other  discoveries  made  in  the  domain 
of  natural  science  have  tended  in  re- 
cent times  to  promote  and  suggest 
one  general  law  of  uniformity  for  all 
the  processes  of  nature.  The  tendency 
of  science  in  the  nineteenth  century  has 
been  toward  what  may  be  integration  of 
called  the  integration  of 
universal  nature, 
of  the  spectroscope  a  knowledge  has  been 
acquired  of  the  constitution  and  character 
not  only  of  the  planetary  worlds,  but  of 
the  sidereal  heavens.  Reviewing  the 
nature  of  these  discov- 
eries, it  appears  that  the 
human  mind  was  in  ex- 
pectancy of  a  different 
kind  of  knowledge  from  that  which  came 
by  the  revelations  of  spectroscopic  anal- 
ysis. Instead  of  expecting  to  find  the 
universe  a  unit  in  its  fundamental  char- 
acteristics, it  would  appear  that  expecta. 
tion    reached    rather   toward    diversity, 


all  nature  es- 
tablished by 
Bv  means    science. 


■nui 


SPECTRUM  OF  IODINE  VAPOR. 


forms  from  the  germ  through  certain  in- 
termediate stages  to  complete  organic 
structure  is  identical  in  all  orders,  species, 
and  varieties  of  living  being  above  the 


novelty,  incongruity,  and  in  short  a  dif- 
ferent order  for  the  upper  worlds  from 
that  established  in  our  own. 

All  such  anticipation  was  disappointed. 


MANNER  OF  THE  BEGINNING.— GENESIS  OF  NEW  DOCTRINE.   211 


Instead  of  unlikeness,  likeness  was  dis- 
covered ;  instead  of  heterogeneity, 
Scientific  prog-  identity;  instead  of  con- 
tWnUyTfrhe  tradiction  and  novelty,  one 
universe.  ia.\v  and  substance  for  the 

whole.  Hydrogen  and  carbon  and  cal- 
cium and  sodium  were  found  above  as 
well  as  beneath,  in  the  distant  stars  as 
well  as  in  our  solar  group  of  worlds. 
The  phenomena  of  combustion,  of  trans- 
formation, the  suggestions  of  growth,  of 
life,  of  mutation,  of  maturity,  and  death 
were  found  everj'where,  indicative  of 
the  substantial  imity  in  character,  as- 
pects, and  offices  of  all  worlds  with  our 
own  and  the  system  to  which  it  belongs. 
In  like  manner  chemical  progress  has 
tended  to  one  thing  out  of  many.  The 
Chemistry  old    chemistrv   has  passed 

ne°roV^:t°eria-i  ^way,  the  new  has  taken 
nature.  its  place.     Oneofthemost 

.striking  aspects  in  this  transformation 
has  been  the  discovery  that  the  many 
elements  formerly  supposed  to  constitute 
the  materials  of  nature  are  probably 
reducible  to  a  few,  and  possibly  to  one. 
Of  the  sixty  or  seventy  elementary  sub- 
stances which  were  accepted  as  such  by 
the  chemists  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent century,  all  have  been  reduced  to 
four  or  five  principal  modes  of  motion 
and  sensation  with  the  strong  probabil- 
ity that  the  further  reduction  of  these-  to 
a  single  one  will  be  effected.  This  dis- 
covery that  the  substance  of  all  nature  is 
really  but  one  substance,  or  at  most  but 
a  few  constituting  those  ' '  permanent 
possibilities  of  sensation  "  '  which  we  call 
matter,  has  conduced  powerfully  to  bring 
in    the    concept    of   unity,    not    only  in 

'  Matter  may  be  defined  as  a  permanent  possibil- 
ity of  sensation. — John  Stuart  Mill. 


material  nature,  but  also  in  the  realm  of 
organic  life  under  law. 

Such  in  general  were  the  scientific 
antecedents  of  the  new  doctrine  of  the 
origin  of  species  by  natural  selection. 
The  theory  of  evolution,  however,  came 
by  obser\^ation  and  experi-  Evolution  the 
ment.      Darwin  was  a  trav-  P'-°<iuct  of  ob- 

servation  and 

eler,  an  observer  of  nature,  experiment. 
Though  thoroughly  versed  in  the  biologi- 
cal theories  that  had  preceded  his  age,  he 
nevertheless  relied  upon  generalizations 
which  he  himself  made  from  facts  col- 
lected from  the  natural  world.  Though 
he  owed  to  his  grandfather  a  certain 
hereditary  type  of  mind  favorable  to  the 
formation  of  large  theories  respecting 
the  laws  of  man  and  nature,  he  none 
the  less  pursued  his  lines  of  study  as  an 
independent  inquirer  and  with  no  appar- 
ent predisposition  for  any  class  of  opin- 
ions. In  1859,  as  already  stated,  he 
published  his  Origin  of  Species  by  means  of 
Natural  Selection,  and  two  years  after- 
wards his  Descent  of  Man,  in  which  the 
new  doctrine  of  the  order  of  life  was 
fully  set  forth  and  defended  by  an  ex- 
tent and  variety  of  obser\'ation  and  an 
acuteness  of  deduction  which  must  ever 
remain  a  surprising  event  in  the  intel- 
lectual history  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
His  studies  included  far-reaching  excur- 
sions into  both  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms,  but  more  particularly  the 
former.  His  research  and  industry  were 
equaled  by  the  lucidity  of  his  reason- 
ing. His  conclusions  reached  up  by 
steady  approximations  from  the  lower  to 
the  higher  forms  of  life,  including  man 
himselfas  the  highest  of  all,  but  under  the 
dominion  of  the  same  laws  which  deter- 
mine the  character  of  the  lower  species. 


212 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JfAXKEVD. 


CHAPTER  XII.— The  True  Evolution. 


HAT  then  is  the  doc- 
trine of  evolution? 
First  of  all,  it  is  the 
theory  that  the  higher 
forms  of  living  being, 
including  man,  are  the 
descendants  of  some 
ancient,  lower,  and  extinct  forms  which 
have  been  lost  in  the  struggle  for  life 
and  replaced  by  the  stronger  and  fitter 
of  each  respective  kind  until  the  present 
species  have  been  produced.  The  proc- 
ess is  in  general  what  is  called  natural 
selection.  The  terms  of  this  expression 
were  chosen  by  Darwin  after  his  study 
of  the  life  of  animals  under  domestica- 
Darwin'sdis-  tion.  He  pcrceivcd  that  in 
iZ':i:Ittli  these  there  is  a  c/^oice  by 
selection.  the  stock-raiscr  of  the  best 

of  each  kind  and  a  rejection  of  the  unfit ; 
that  by  these  means  a  given  species  is 
perpetuated  and  improved  along  certain 
lines  of  development  which  are  desired 
in  preference  to  others;  and  that,  in 
short,  the  domestic  animals  are  largely 
the  result  of  the  intelligent  choice  or 
selection  of  those  who  produce  them.  It 
is  thus  that  certain  qualities  attractive 
and  beneficial  in  given  breeds  are  pre- 
served, augmented,  transmitted,  and 
perfected  by  a  law  of  adaptation,  and  in 
particular  by  the  mating  of  the  sexes  so 
as  to  intensify  the  desirable  qualities  of 
the  parents  in  the  offspring. 

These  hints,  gathered  from  a  field  of 
inquiry  to  which  Darwin  devoted  a  great 
Survival  of  or-  amount  of  study,  furnished 
the  word  selection ;  but 
the  question  was  whether 
living  beings  not  under  the  dominion 
and  intelligent  choice  of  man  are  influ- 
enced in  their  development  by  the  action 


ganic  forms  by 
natural  selec- 
tion. 


of  a  similar  law.  Of  this  law — of  its 
existence  and  character — Darwin  may  be 
said  to  have  been  the  discoverer.  Mak- 
ing a  wide  excursion  into  the  open  field 
of  nature,  he  found  that  a  law  of  selec- 
tion exists  here  also,  by  w-hich,  or  in  ac- 
cordance with  which,  the  character  of 
each  species  of  living  beings  has  in  the 
main  been  determined.  In  a  word,  he 
discovered  that  there  is  a  natural  selec- 
tion prevailing  in  all  parts  of  the  domain 
of  life  by  which  the  fittest  of  each  kind 
of  living  creatures  are  chosen  and  the  rest 
rejected,  the  criterion  of  fitness  being 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  envi- 
ronment. This  is  to  say  that  every  liv- 
ing organism  is  more  or  less  fitted  by  its 
powers  to  its  surrounding  condition  in 
the  natural  world ;  more  or  less  able  by 
its  organs  and  faculties  to  secure  for  it- 
self the  means  of  subsistence ;  more  or 
less  fully  equipped,  as  compared  with  its 
fellows  of  the  same  species,  to  gain 
place  and  footing  in  the  somewhat  slip- 
pery contest  for  the  most  advantageous 
situation — for  the  supply  of  its  wants 
and  the  exercise  of  its  natural  appetites. 
Those  creatures  that  are  thus  naturally 
or  fortuitouslv  best  fitted  for  the  strug- 
gle  of  life  succeed  in  the  competition, 
while  the  weaker  of  the  same  kind  fall 
back  in  the  race  and  disappear. 

Such  is  one  of  the  leading  notions 
which  enter  into  the  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion. It  is  known  as  natural  selection,  or 
the  survival  of  the  fittest.    Darwin  says-: 

"  Let  it  be  borne  in  mind  how  infi- 
nitely   complex    and -close-    Darwin's  expli- 

fitting  are  the  mutual  rela-  ^^.1^=°™'='''' 

o  and  Its  expres- 

tions  of  all  organic  beings  sion. 
to  each  other  and  to  their  physical  condi- 
tions of  life ;   and  consequently  what  in- 


MANNER    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— FHE    TRUE   EVOLUTION. 


213 


finitely  varied  diversities  of  structure 
may  be  of  use  to  each  being  under  ctiang- 
ing  conditions  of  life.  Can  it  then  be 
thought  improbable,  seeing  that  varia- 
tions useful  to  man  have  undoubtedly 
occurred,  that  other  variations  useful  in 
some  way  to  each  being  in  the  great  and 
complex  battle  of  life  should  sometimes 
occur  in  the  course  of  thousands  of  gen- 
erations? If  such  do  occur,  can  we 
doubt   (remembering    that    many  more 


It  will  be  noted  that  this  law  involves 
the  fact  called  variation.  Unless  varia- 
tion be  admitted,  then  there  could  be  no 
such  thing  as  selection,  whether  natural 
or  artificial.  But  the  fact  The  law  pro- 
so-called  does  exist  univer-  t^^^^yj  ^^^^\ 

tion  of  form  and 

sally  in  the  domain  of  life,   function. 
It  exists  naturally — in  virtue  of  the  very 
conditions  under   which   organic  forms 
are   produced    and   developed.      Living 
organisms,  instead  of  being  alike,    are 


VARIATIOX  OF  ANIMAL  FORMS.— (t)  Under  Nature-Common-  Wolf 


individuals  are  born  than  can  possibly 
survive)  that  individuals  having  any  ad- 
vantage, however  slight,  over  others 
would  have  the  best  chance  of  surviving 
and  procreating  their  kind  ?  On  the  other 
hand,  we  may  feel  sure  that  any  variation 
in  the  least  degree  injurious  would  be 
rigidly  destroyed.  This  preservation  of 
favorable  variations  and  the  destniction 
of  injurious  variations  I  call  Natural  Se- 
lection, or  The  Survival  of  the  Fittest." 


unlike.  This  is  said  not  of  the  funda- 
mental  plan  of  their  structure,  but  of  the 
particular  features  which  characterize 
each  individual.  The  members  of  a 
given  variety  of  living  forms  are  dis- 
criminable  the  one  from  the  other  by 
differences  which  they  bear.  Perfect 
likeness  is  nowhere  found.  The  dis- 
covery of  two  creatures  however  nearly 
related  and  produced  under  howevei 
nearlv  identical    conditions,    which    are 


214 


GREAT  RACi:S   OF  J/.LYAVA'D. 


indiscriminable  by  manifest  differences 
in  their  structure,  qualities,  and  physical 
features,  is  impossible.  No  likeness  of 
parents,  or  careful  preparation  of  ante- 
cedents, or  accidental  results  of  creative 
forces,  or  nurture  and  development,  can 
produce  two  organisms  which  are  the 
same  in  all  particulars.  It  is  doubtless 
true  that  in  all  the  incalculable  millions 
of  bushels  of  wheat  which  the  world  has 
produced  no  two  grains  were  ever  pre- 
cisely alike.     Xature  in  all   of  her  do- 


doctrine  of  evolution.  But  they  are  only 
the  beginning  of  the  phenomena.  Given 
the    unequal   capacities    of  variafion  in- 

1-     •  •  •  4-1,^    tensified  by 

hvmg  organisms  m  the  g.^wthand 
arena  of  life,  and  we  have  adaptation, 
the  clue  to  the  real  variation  which  is  to 
follow.  The  individuals  of  a  given 
species  begin  their  existence  by  gather- 
ing sustenance  and  fitting  themselves  to 
their  environment.  But  those  having 
the  superior  powers  accomplish  this 
work   most  successfully.     In    doing  so 


tr^c^'^ 


\AKIATIOX  OK  ANIMAL  FORMS.— (2)  Under  Domlstication  — Italian  Greyhound, 


mains  avoids  with  everlasting  persist- 
ency the  exact  repetition  of  any  of  her 
results.  It  therefore  happens  that  when 
the  living  organisms  which  are  to  in- 
habit  the  world  are  projected  into  the 
arena  of  life  they  come  with  unequal 
powers  and  capacities,  with  differences 
which,  though  in  many  instances  minute, 
are  nevertheless  appreciable  m  the  con- 
test which  is  to  ensue,  with  fitnesses 
more  or  leSs  complete  for  survival  and 
the  procreation  of  their  kind. 

These  facts  constitute  the  basis  of  that 
variation  which  is  so  fundamental  to  the 


they  augment  and  make  permanent  the 
very  faculties  and  organs  by  which 
success  is  attained.  The  use  of  the 
organs  with  which  they  are  endowed 
increases  their  development,  and  the 
offspring  of  these  successful  organic 
forms  are  born,  not  with  the  rudimen- 
tary powers  which  were  possessed  by 
their  parents,  but  with  the  developed 
powers,  instincts,  and  capabilities  which 
their  parents  possessed  and  transmitted 
in  procreation. 

There    is  thus  originated  a  series  of 
forces   culminative  in   their  action   and 


31ANXER    OF   THE   BEGIXXING.—THE    TRUE  EVOLUTION. 


215 


tending-  to  the  perfection  of  organic  life 
in  a  certain  direction.  Meanwhile,  how- 
ever, those  original  organisms  which, 
were  not  so  well 
endowed  have 
either  wholly 
perished  or  have 
been  crowded 
from  the  line  of 
development 
taken  by  their 
successful  com- 
petitors, into  a 
deviating  course 
of  life  where  the 
conditions  are 
somewhat,  per- 
haps largely, 
different  from 
those  surround- 
ing the  lines  fol- 
lowed by  the 
first  group. 

It  can  but  be 
of  interest  t  o ' 
note  a  few  spe- 
cific instances  of 
the  operation  of 
the  law  of  sur- 
vival. Take,  for 
example,  the 
case  of  that 
large  number  of 
flowering  plants 
which  are  per- 
petuated by  the 
trans  fer  of 
pollen.  It  is 
thus  that  fecun- 
dation is  effected 
and  the  given 
species  ex- 
tended    over     wider     and 

Specific  exam- 
ples of  the  law      still  wider  areas  of  growth. 

Whatever   favors   the    dis- 
tribution   of     pollen    will    therefore    be 


pi-omotive  of  the  welfare  and  rapid  mul- 
tiplication of  the  species.  This  work  is 
usually  effected  by  the  agency  of  insects 


GORILLA   TAKING   HOLD   WITH    FOREFOOT. 


traveling  by  wing  from  blossom  ta 
blossom  and  carrying  with  them  per 
accidens  the  fecundating  principle.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  motive  of  this 


216 


GREAT  RACFS   OF  MANKIND. 


plants  flourish 
by  secreting 
nectar. 


work  is,  as  it  were,  unknown  to  the  in- 
sects themselves,  they  being  busy  with 
another  instinct  and  appetite.  This 
other  impulse  is  the  seeking-  of  food. 
The  cells  of  flowers  contain  many  .sub- 
stances, notably  honey,  which  attract 
the  insects  and  thus  bring  them  into 
contact  with  the  pollen. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  that  particu- 
lar blossom,  or  particular  species  of  blos- 
Biossoming  soms,    which,  under  given 

conditions,  secretes  the 
largest  quantity  of  the  most 
delicious  sweets  will  draw  the  greater 
number  of  insects,  and  that  the  pollen 
thereof  will  be  most  widely  distributed. 
If  any  particular  plant,  or  variety  of 
plants,  through  weakness,  or  semisterili- 
ty, or  any  fortuitous  circumstance,  should 
be  poorly  supplied  with  the  attractive 
nectar,  that  variety  would  be  neglected. 
The  general  result  would  be  that  the 
favorite  plant  would,  with  the  next  sea- 
son, secure  a  wider  area  of  growth  with 
all  the  better  situations.  The  tendency 
thus  started  would  increase  in  influence. 
Slowly,  perhaps,  but  steadily  the  plants 
having  the  best  supply  of  nectar  would 
run  ahead,  preoccupy  the  best  ground, 
overgrow  their  competitors,  and,  in  short, 
become  an  example  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest. 

If  we  pass  up  to  the  animal  kingdom, 
we  find  this  law  still  more  strongly  oper- 
Expiication  of  ative — Still  more  powerful- 
ly determinative  of  given 
results.  It  is  among  animate 
beings  that  the  struggle  for  existence  has 
its  widest  and  most  important  exemplifi- 
cation. It  was  here,  indeed,  that  the  first 
glimp.ses  of  the  law  were  caught.  It  was 
in  the  closing  years  of  the  last  centtiry 
that  Thomas  Robert  Malthus  published 
that  Theory  of  Population  which  has  ever 
since  borne  his  name.  To  him  belongs 
the  honor  of  having  first  formally  devel- 


Malthusian 
theory  of  popu- 
lation. 


oped  the  idea  of  the  encroachment  of 
the  animals  of  the  world  upon  the  means 
of  subsistence.  He  perceived  that  all 
animal  life  is  procreated  in  a  geometric- 
al, not  in  an  arithmetical,  progression. 
However  .slow  the  rate  of  increase  may  ■ 
be  in  any  given  case,  the  ratio  is  always 
a  geometrical  series.  If  a  given  species 
of  animals  reproduce  in  such  a  rate  as  to 
double  the  number  in  four  years,  then 
in  eight  years  the  number  will  be  quad- 
rupled, and  in  twelve  years  increased  to 
eightfold  the  original  number.  If  the 
number  be  not  doubled  for  twenty-five 
years,  then  with  fifty  years  it  will  be 
quadrupled,  and  so  on  in  a  geometrical 
ratio. 

The  animals  of  the  world  subsist 
ultimately  on  the  products  of  vegeta- 
tion.      Plants,     multiplying   in  what  manner 

by  their  seeds,  increase  ^^rchonmeans 
also  in  a  geometrical  ofsubsistence. 
ratio,  so  that  at  first  glance  it  would 
appear  that  the  increase  of  animal 
life  and  the  increase  of  the  means 
of  subsistence  are  coordinate  phenom- 
ena ;  but  a  moment's  reflection  will 
show  that  all  plant-life  is  fixed  in 
the  earth  or  water.  There  is  thus  a 
natural  limit  to  the  extent  of  the  in- 
crease of  any  given  variety.  A  certain 
kind  of  plants  may,  indeed,  multiply 
under  the  geometric  law  imtil  a  given 
space  of  producing  soil,  as  of  an  acre, 
is  occupied.  After  this  limit  is  reached, 
all  that  the  given  species  of  vegetation 
can  do  is  to  occupy  and  fill  to  repletion 
another  acre,  and  then  another.  But 
this  process  is  addative,  or  simply  arith- 
metical, and  not  geometrical.  In  a 
word,  nature  has  provided  in  the  lim- 
itations of  the  soil  of  the  earth  a  law 
by  which  the  rate  of  increase  in  all  the 
vegetable  products  of  the  world  is 
changed  from  a  geometrical  to  an  arith- 
metical series;    but  in  the  case   of   the 


MANNER    OF    THE   BEGINNING. —  THE    TRUE   EVOLUTION. 


217 


animals,  they  being  not  so  fixed  to  the 
soil,  the  geometrical  ratio  of  increase 
continues  operative ;  which  is  to  say 
that  the  animals,  multiplying  more  rap- 
idly than  the  means  of  subsistence  can 
multiply,  encroach  with  the  force  of  the 
calculus  on  the  food-supply  which  nature 
has  provided  for  them.  There  is,  there- 
fore, only  one  thing  remaining  to  equal- 
ize the  two  forces,  and  that  is  the  intro- 
duction of  another  law,  or  laws,  by  which 
the  effects  of  the  geometrical  ratio  in  the 
increase  of  animate  beings  shall  be  cur- 
tailed and  limited  in  its  operation,  so  that 
the  means  of  subsistence  may  keep  pace 
with  the  demands  thereon. 

The  law  whereby  the  geometrical  ratio 
in  the  multiplication  of  animals  is  re- 
stricted to  the  means  of  sub- 

The  three  forms 

of  the  struggle     sistcnce  is,  in  a  word,  the 

for  existence.  .  ,        r        ,■!■         ., 

Struggle  tor  life — the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest.  Among  the  animals 
this  struggle  goes  on  forever.  It  as- 
sumes one  of  three  forms : 

1.  The  struggle  of  the  individual 
with  the  individual  of  the  same  species. 

2.  The  struggle  of  the  individual  of 
one  species  with  the  individual  of  another 
species. 

3.  The  struggle  of  the  individual  or 
the  species  with  the  physical  conditions 
of  life,  commonly  called  the  environ- 
ment. 

The  first  kind  of  contest  covers  all  the 
varieties  of  competition  which  one  indi- 
vidual of  any  species  has  with  another 
individual  of  like  kind  with  itself.  It  is 
a  well-known  fact  that  nature  is  extreme- 
ly prodigal  in  the  provision  which  she 
makes  for  the  procreation  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  germs  of  every  species  of  or- 
ganic life.  She  always  provides  for 
much  more  than  can  exist.  In  the  case 
of  some  plants  the  number  of  seeds  pro- 
duced is  so   incalculable  that  if  it  were 

not  for    the    prodigious  waste  and  the 

M.— Vol.  I— 13 


countervailing  laws  by  which  the  spread 
of  that  species  is  restricted,  it  must  in  a 
short  time  occupy  the  whole  earth  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  other  forms  of  vegeta- 
tion. Thus  it  is  that  the  very  seeds  of 
life  begin  a  competition  which  can  only 
end  with  the  death  of  the  organic  forms 
potential  in  them. 

On  the  land  and  in  the  deep  the  same 
phenomenon  constantly  reappears  in  all 

the  forms  of  existence.       It    Exuberance  of 

is  estimated  that  a  single  "f« --est^cted 

o         by  opposing 

codfish  will,  under  favoring  agencies, 
conditions,  in  one  season  produce  three 
million  eggs!  It  is  needless  to  point  out 
the  fact  that  at  this  rate  of  increase,  were 
not  the  most  efficient  and  active  restraints 
imposed  upon  it — including  competition 
for  the  means  of  subsistence — the  whole 
Atlantic  bed,  from  shore  to  shore,  would 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  be  filled  to 
the  surface  with  a  solid  mass  of  this  su- 
perfecund  species  of  fish.  It  can  not  be 
doubted  that  but  for  the  action  of  very 
efficient  countervailing  agencies  the  quail 
of  North  America  would  in  a  short  time 
multiply  to  the  occupation  of  all  fields 
and  groves  and  valleys,  from  mountain 
to  mountain  and  from  .sea  to  sea.  So 
also  of  the  rabbits  and  many  other  spe- 
cies of  ground  animals. 

It  may  suffice  to  point  out  in  this  gen- 
eral way  the  rudiments  of  the  great  prob- 
lem of  life.    Nor  can  it  fail  curtailment  of 
of  interest  to  follow  the  in-  ^feSli^d  " 
vestigation  along  the  lines  seed. 
of  those  methods  which  are  provided  for 
the  curtailment  of  life  under  the  general 
law  of  natural  selection.     First  of  all,  in 
the  case  of  living  creatures  vastly  great- 
er numbers  of  eggs  are  provided  than  are 
necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  spe- 
cies.    Here  the  struggle  begins  in  the 
destruction  of  the  eggs  of  one  species  by 
the  animals  of  another.     Great  and  mul- 
tifarious   are    the    exigencies    through 


218 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKTXP. 


EXAMl'l  K  ni    RAPID  MULTIPLICATION.— Burrow  of  Rabbits.— Drawn  by  Giacomelli. 


which  all  eggs,  as,  for  instance,  the  eggs 
of  birds,  must  pass  before  they  can  come 
to  the  stage  of  life  and  organic  develop- 


ment. Every  nest  is  exposed  to  the 
vicissitudes  of  storm  and  flood.  Every 
nest  is  a  temptation  as  well  as  a  seat  of 


MANNER    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— THE    TRUE  EVOLUTION. 


219 


hope  and  despair.  The  living  enemy 
lurks  on  every  hand.  No  eyrie  is  so  in- 
accessible as  not  to  be  approached  by  the 
stealthy  march  of  the  foe.  Then  come 
the  vicissitudes  and  hardships  of  climate. 
These  bear  alike  on  the  germs  of  life  and 
upon  all  stages  of  organic  development. 
A  single  winter  of  unprecedented  sever- 
ity, like  that  of  1607-08,  is  sufficient  to 
work  havoc  and  decimation  M-ith  the 
plant  and  animal  life  of  large  areas  of 
the  world.  After  such  a  disaster  the 
species  surviving  from  the  ordeal  must, 
as  it  were,  begin  anew,  and  in  so  doing 
only  the  hardier  stocks  are  preserved  as 
the  progenitors  of  new  races. 

But  we  are  here  to  speak  more  partic- 
ularl}'  of  the  contest  of  the  individual 
Struggle  of  the  with  the  fellow-individual 
L"th^s'of1tl"^  of  the  same  species.  In 
species.  this  respect  the  struggle  of 

life  is  perhaps  the  most  remorseless 
fact  which  the  student  of  nature  is 
obliged  to  contemplate !  It  is  a  conflict 
of  the  strong  with  the  weak,  in  which 
the  strong  always  prevails  and  the 
weak  always  perishes.  As  a  rule,  the 
hungry  animal  seizes  from  his  fellow 
the  one  portion  of  food  which  is  not 
sufficient  for  both.  The  strong  takes 
it;  the  weak  loses  the  battle.  There 
is  neither  remorse  nor  pity.  True,  to  a 
certain  extent  the  parent  animal,  the 
mother  in  particular,  cares  for  her  off- 
spring; but  this  law  holds  only  to  a  cer- 
tain limit.  Beyond  that  there  is  neither 
preference  nor  sympathy  nor  recogni- 
tion. Even  while  the  instinct  of  parental 
protection  still  prevails,  it  is  counteracted 
by  appetite,  and,  except  in  the  case  of 
the  human  species,  the  offspring  itself  is 
ruthlessly  devoured  by  the  parents.  Even 
in  our  own  kind  this  horrid  circumstance 
in  the  struggle  for  life  has  been  again 
and  again  repeated,  as  if  to  proclaim 
with  a  great  voice  over  the  whole  arena 


of  living  being  the  one  dominant  law 
that  the  strongest  shall  live  and  the 
weakest  go  to  the  wall. 

Passing  to  the  war  between  individuals 
of  different  species,  we  find  the  conflict 
as  wide  and  as  universal  as  Plants  of  one 
the  domain  of  life.     In  the  species  contend 

for  place  with 

plant  world  the  individ-  those  of  another, 
uals  ot  one  species,  stronger  than  the 
prevailing  form  in  a  given  locality,  ob- 
trudes upon  the  exi.sting  kind,  multi- 
plies, and  drives  out  the  weaker  species. 
The  struggle  goes  on  everywhere,  from 
the  conflict  between  one  kind  of  cryptog- 
amous  plants,  growing  like  a  mold  on 
the  cellar  wall,  and  another  kind,  its 
competitor,  up  to  the  struggle  of  one 
forest  growth  with  another.  The  sub- 
stitution of  one  entire  forest  for  another 
kind  is  a  common  fact  in  the  botanical 
history  of  the  world. 

In  the  arena  of  animal  life  one  species 
drives  out  another.     The  whole  sea  of 
animated  nature  is  fluctuat-  Battle  forUfo 
ingf  along  its  entire  surface  between  ani- 

°  ,  ^  mals  of  different 

from  shore  to  shore  with  species, 
the  varying  vicissitudes  of  the  conflict 
between  the  stronger  and  the  weaker 
wave.  Some  of  the  waves  follow  the 
course  of  civilization.  The  black  rat 
gives  way  to  the  brown,  and  the  gray 
squirrel  of  the  American  woods  retreats 
before  his  red  rival.  In  other  portions 
of  the  field  the  contest  is  waged  between 
wide-apart  orders  of  living  beings.  The 
carnivora  devour  the  herbivora,  fishing 
birds  deplete  the  waters  of  their  inhab- 
itants, parasitic  insects  attack  the  strong- 
est animals  and  reduce  them  to  skeletons. 
Further  and  still  further  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  battle  extend,  until  all  na- 
ture .seems  to  be  involved  , 

Illustration  of 

in    one  vast  complication,  the  vicissitudes 

T  .  T    ,    •    .  r    of  the  contest. 

In     a     given     district     or 

country  cats  are  plentiful.     They  are  of 

a  strong  breed,  vigorous  in  procreation, 


220 


GREAT  RACKS    OF  MANKIND. 


IKI   l,(,l,F,   'iF   LIl  K— IHE  STRdNc;  TAKES   HIS  PRl-,\  .  — I 'i..«  .i  In  Sljnley  Berkeley. 


and  eager  in  the  pursuit  of  prey.     They 


trict,     and     almost    exterminate    them. 


feed  upon   the  ground  mice  of  the  dis-     Everywhere,   in  meadow  tuft  or  by  the 


MANNER    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— THE    TRUE   EVOLUTION. 


221 


roots  of  decaying  stumps,  or  along  the 
lines  of  fences,  the  mouse  nests  are 
hunted  from  their  places.  The  parent 
and  the  young  are  alike  devoured.  With 
the  disappearance  of  the  mice  the  bum- 
blebees greatly  multiply ;  for  the  mouse 
is  the  great  enemy  of  the  bumblebee. 
The  nest  of  the  latter  is  constantly  in- 
vaded and  its  contents  destroyed  or  eaten 
by  the  enemy.  With  the  destruction  of 
that  enemy  the  life  of  the  bumblebee  is 
liberated  from  danger;  the  nests  are 
multiplied  in  all  favoring  localities,  and 
with  the  hatching  of  th^offspring  the  air 
is  murmurous  with  their  humdrum  music. 
Round  about  this  scene  spread  the 
fields  of  red  clover.  It  is  by  the  agency 
Correlations  of  of  the  bumblebee  that  the 
red  clover  with     poUe^  of  red  clover  is  borne 

cats,  mice,  and       -r 

bumblebees.  from  blossom  to  blossom. 
Without  such  agency  there  can  be  no 
maturity  of  the  seed,  no  germination, 
no  preparation  for  an  ensuing  ci"op.  It 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  in  a  given  sea- 
son the  first  cutting  of  red  clover  finds 
no  seed  in  the  blossoms.  It  is  only 
later  in  the  year,  when  the  bumblebees 
have  gone  abroad,  that  the  seed  crop  is 
developed.  Note,  therefore,  the  extent 
of  the  correlation.  Where  cats  are  plen- 
tiful the  mice  are  exterminated,  the 
bumblebees  abound,  and  red  clover  not 
only  flourishes  but  prepares  its  seed  for 
a  more  extended  area  of  growth.  Where 
cats  do  not  exist  ground  mice  flourish 
and  multiply,  the  bumblebees  are  exter- 
minated, and  the  red  clover  perishes  for 
want  of  fecundation ! 

These  lines  of  vibration  and  vicissi- 
tude extend  in  all  directions  through  the 
Law  of  conflict  whole  domain  of  life.  They 
extends  to  the      {nclude  not  onlv  animated 

whole  domain 

ofiife.  nature,   but   the   vegetable 

world  as  well.  They  knit  together  all  the 
forms  of  living  organisms  in  mutual  de- 
pendencies by  which  the  relative  advan- 


tage and  very  existence  of  each  are  con- 
ditioned. They  furnish  the  clues  of  a 
study  which  is  world-wide  in  its  extent 
and  variety.  He  who  runs  may  read  the 
story  of  the  unending  warfare  that  goes 
on  between  the  species  of  living  beings 
— goes  on  from  the  insect  battle  on  the 
under  side  of  a  leaf  to  the  dropping  of 
the  tortoise  from  the  eagle's  claw ;  from 
the  sting  of  the  mosquito  on  baby's 
hand  to  the  ferocious  conflict  of  men 
with  tigers  in  the  Indian  jungles;  from 
the  snap  of  the  swallow's  beak  on  the 
ephemeral  gnat  to  the  assault  of  the  in- 
furiated monster  of  the  deep  on  the 
whaler's  boat. 

In  the  third  place,  the  struggle  for  life 
is  intensified  by  the  resistance  which  the 

material  world  offers  to  the    Environment  of- 

welfare  and  safety  of  every  f^^.l^f^Sr'' 
living  creature.  In  .some  forms- 
parts  of  the  world,  particularly  toward 
the  north,  the  vegetation  and  the  power 
of  nature  to  produce  it  are  so  limited 
that  animal  life  of  all  kinds  must  be 
correspondingly  sparse  and  barren. 
Certain  regions  of  the  globe  become 
inore  and  more  bleak  until  vital  phe- 
nomena first  weaken,  then  sink  to  lower 
levels  of  development,  and  finally  dis- 
appear. Besides  this,  nature,  instead  of 
being  a  safe,  is  everywhere  a  dangerous, 
ai-ena.  While  she  invites  life,  she  op- 
poses it  and  puts  impediments  in  the 
way  of  its  progress.  Not  infrequently 
she  is  a  destroyer.  The  world  has  its 
cataclysms  and  physical  commotions  in 
which  not  only  multitudes  of  individuals 
but  whole  races  of  living  beings  are 
swallowed  up.  Life  stands  always  on 
the  perilous  edge  of  hazard. 

The  conditions  not  only  of  health  but 
of   disease  are    present   in  ^^^^^^f^^^ 
the  world.     Epidemics  .su-  subject  to  dis- 

,  J    ease  and  death. 

pervene    at    intervals    and 

sweep  away  or  decimate  existing  species. 


222 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


The  havoc  of  disease  is  seen  not  only 
where  human  kind  has  risen  above  the 
other   orders  of    animated   nature    and 


ci\dlized  the  world,  but  wherever  life  is 
found.  It  were  a  great  error  to  suppose 
that  the  plant  world,  in  a  state  of  na- 


ture, is  free  from  the  ravages  of  disease 
— still  greater  to  imagine  that  the  lower 
orders  of  animated  being  are  not  visited 

by  destructive 
epidemics.  It 
might  well  ap- 
pear to  the  cal- 
culating  mind  of 
Malthus  that  dis- 
ease is  one  of 
the  natural 
weapons  by 
which  the  su- 
perabundance of 
life  is  beaten 
back  into  the 
dust. 

The  genera] 
fact  called  cli- 
mate, with  the 
changes  which  it 
involves,  c  o  n  • 
tributes  largely 
to  the  struggle 
for  life.  It  would 
appear  that  every 
species  of  living 
organism  is  care- 
fully balanced  in 
its  climatic  en- 
vironment. All 
living  beings  are 
sensitive,  most  of 
them  highly  sen- 
sitive, to  the  in- 
fluence of  even 
slight  chang-es 
among  the  cos- 
mic forces  in 
w  h  ic  h  they 
swing.  "When- 
ever the  turn  of 
the  secular  wheel 
brings  around  an  altered  condition  of 
earth  or  sea  or  air,  that  alteration  is  the 
catastrophe  of  many  species  of  animals 


MANNER    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— THE    TRUE   EVOLUTION.       223 


and  plants.  Man}-  more  species  are 
seriously  affected  by  the  change,  some 
favorably  and  others  unfavorably.  Some 
are  aided  by  the  alteration  in  natural 
conditions,  and  others  crippled  for  life. 

The  geological  history  of  organic 
forms  preserved  in  the  earth's  crust 
Secular  changes  shows  conclusively  that 
f;o°phe\7u^:g  the  metamorphosis  of  spe- 
fonns.  dies   has    been    coincident 

with  the  secular  changes  to  which  the 


If  we  note  with  particularity  the  habits 
and   vital   capacity   of    any    animal    or 
species  of  animals  in    given    zone    and 
within    a    given   area,    we  Natural  seiec- 
shall  find  the  living  being  ^VTng%Tm?oTts 

or     beings    in     question     to    environment. 

have  been  brought  by  natural  selection 
into  very  careful  adjustment  with  cli- 
matic conditions.  The  given  animal  is, 
for  instance,  capable  of  enduring  the 
maximum  cold  of  the  winter  in  his  lati- 


MAN-LIFE  Ll.MriED   BY  BATTLE  WITH  ANIMALS. 


earth  itself  has  been  subjected.  Life, 
in  a  word,  makes  a  new  departure 
when  the  general  cour.se  of  nature  is 
disturbed.  Animals  are  changed  in 
their  forms  and  habits,  not  indeed  per 
iciuin,  but  gradually  from  one  mode 
and  aspect  of  activity  to  another.  The 
distribution  of  plants  and  all  forms  of 
animated  existence  departs  on  new  lines 
with  every  cosmic  change  in  the  en- 
vironment. 


tude,  but  no  more.  He  is  fitted  to  bear 
the  heat  of  the  corresponding  summer, 
but  no  excess  thereover.  He  is  in  like 
manner  balanced  with  the  conditions  of 
moisture  and  drought,  and  indeed  with 
all  the  meterological  and  cosmical  forces 
that  hold  him  in  his  place.  Any  dis- 
turbance among  these  forces  must 
seriously  affect  his  welfare.  Any  swell- 
ing or  perturbation  of  the  secular  laws 
overwhelms  him,   or   drives  him    forth 


224 


GREAT  RACES   OF  ^FAXKIXD. 


into  a  new  condition  of  activity  and  a 
new  form  of  specific  development. 

But  these  cosmical  changes  do  occur. 
The  islands  and  continents  of  our  globe 
Cosmical  crises  not  only  yield  to  the 
are  attended        vicissitude  of  changing  cli- 

■with  destruc-  ^      ^ 

tion  of  species,  mate,  but  sink  and  emerge 
by  turns  from  the  sea.  Terra  contends, 
with  Oceanus,   and  he  with  her.     With 


produce  a  general  alteration  in  the 
aspects  and  tendencies  of  organic  life; 
but  for  the  most  part  the  changes  are  so 
slow  as  to  admit  of  a  gradual  life-adjust- 
ment to  the  altered  conditions  as  they 
arise.  But  the  fact  of  climatic  and  cos- 
mical disturbance  exists,  and  the  law  of 
natural  selection  depends  thereon  in  part 
for  its  efficiency  and  ultimate  results. 


NDkl'HKRM   LlMir  OF  M  AN-Ll  IE.— King  William  I,a\d. 


each  subsidence  and  upcoming  of  the 
land  from  the  sea  a  new  environment  is 
prepared — a  new  field  for  animal  activi- 
ties. True  it  is  that  since  the  days  of 
Sir  Charles  Lyell,  the  notion  of  vast  im- 
mediate cataclysms  and  reconstructions 
of  the  globe  has  given  place  to  the  con- 
cept of  slow  but  ever-operative  changes 
in  the  forces  that  balance  the  world. 
At  certain  times,  no  doubt,  crises  are 
passed  in  these  secular  movements  which 


wStill  another  active  force  in  the  strug- 
gle for  life  is  what  is  called  sexual  selec- 
tion.     Mr.    Darwin  in   his 

struggle  for  life 

later  studies  was  led  hx  ob-  on  unes  of  sex- 

,.  1  .'  .    ual  selection. 

servation  and  experiment 
to  dwell  much  upon  this  circumstance  in 
nature  as  an  efficient  cause  of  variation. 
Here  also  the  study  begins  with  the 
methods  of  reproduction  in  the  ca,se  of 
animals  in  a  state  of  domestication.  It 
is  clear  that   where  the  animals  under 


MANNER    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— THE    TRUE   EVOIUTION.       225 


observation  are  domesticated  and  thus 
subjected  to  the  intelligence  and  purpose 
of  man,  the  largest  and  most  striking 
results  are  produced  by  the  adaptations 
of  sex  in  mating.  It  may  well  surprise 
the  inquirer  that  a  principle  so  widely 
known  and  acted  upon,  perhaps  from 
antiquity,  should  not  have  suggested  to 
the  early  biologists  the  extension  of  the 
law  into  the  realm  of  untrammeled 
nature  beyond  the  limits  of  man's 
agency.  The  principle  in  question 
has  been  so  much  employed  that 
the  leading  aspects  of  animal  life 
in  a  state  of  domestication  have 
been  produced  by  the  skill  of  the 
breeder,  by  the  knowledge  and 
application  of  sexual  selection. 

Nearly  every  species  of  domestic 
creature  has  been  brought  to  its 
Domestic  ani-  present  State  by  this 
Te^entZmsby  "method.  Generation 
sexual  matings.  after  generation  the 
breeder  and  raiser  have  chosen  to 
develop  varieties  on  certain  lines 
of  excellence,  and  almost  the  single 
force  which  they  have  employed 
has  been  the  mating  of  the  sexes 
according  to  the  criterion  of  the 
quality  desired  in  the  offspring. 
We  may  well  be  surprised  to  look 
around  us  in  the  arena  of  civil- 
ized life  where  domestic  animals  so 
much  abound  and  to  note  how  each 
creature  and  each  variety  of  crea- 
tures have  been  perfected  by  this 
easy  and  manifest  method  of  sextial  ad- 
aptation. The  great  breeds  of  Teeswater 
cattle  have  been  produced  by  the  system- 
atic choice  of  favorite  qualities  in  the 
male  and  female,  and  the  mating  of  those 
animals  in  which  the  desirable  qualities 
were  most  highly  exemplified.  vSo  also 
of  the  Alderneys  and  the  Holsteins. 
So  also  in  the  Polled  Anguses,  in  which 
the  variation  has  proceeded  to  the  extent 


of  the  absolute  obliteration  of  horns  and 
the  rounding  into  smoothness  and  sym- 
metry of  the  head  over  the  part  from 
which  the  horns  once  sprang! 

The  various  breeds  of  domestic  fowls 
have  in  like  manner  been  brought  to  the 
wide  differentiation  which  we  see  among 
them.  And  so  indeed  through  the  whole 
range  of  those  creatures  which  man  has 


BRITISI 
OK 


I    ISI.F.S    AND    SURROl-NniNC.    SEA SIlDWINT.    IhlW     A     RISE 

SIX   HUNDRED    FEET   WOULD   MAKE   GREAT    BRITAIN 
CONTINENTAL. 

reduced  from  Avild  nature  to  domestica- 
tion.    Perhaps  the  different   species  of 
dogs   illustrate  the   action  -wide  range  of 
of  the  law.  as  well  as  any.  ^utedby do'°" 
Here    it    would  seem   that  mastication, 
the   very  extremes  of    possibility  have 
been  reached  by  the  simple  process  of 
sexual  selection.      From  the  minute  and 
delicate  poodle  to  the  tall,  muscular  Irish 
staghound — perhaps  the    fleetest  of    all 


226 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


animals — and  the  tremendous  mastiff 
and  St.  Bernard  the  work  has  been  ac- 
complished by  simply  selecting-,  genera- 
tion after  generation,  the  individuals  in 
which  the  desirable  qualities  have  begun 
to  appear  and  by  mating  these  individ- 
uals together,  thus  accumulating  the 
peculiarities  sought  for,  intensifying 
them,  fixing  them,  and  sending  them 
down  with  an  accelerated  force  to  the 
next  genciation. 

So  powerful  is  the  action  of  this  prin- 
ciple of  sexual  selection,  so  general  its 
Results  of  seiec-  application,  and  so  uni- 
do°neT/r^:e":;i  vcrsal  its  efficiency,  that  in 
of  process.  the  hands   of    man   it  can 

easily  be  reversed  and  made  to  undo  its 
own  results.  It  is  only  needed  to  adopt 
the  method  of  mismating  in  order  to 
obliterate  in  a  few  generations  the  pe- 
culiarities which  have  been  developed 
through  many.  The  crossing  of  breeds, 
as  is  well  known,  produces  a  mongrel 
midway  in  size,  color,  features,  instincts, 
and  modes  of  activity  between  the  two 
mismated  parents.  The  strong  differ- 
entiation which  sexual  selection  so  easily 
sets  up,  perpetuates,  and  at  length  fixes 
in  permanent  varieties,  may  be  easily 
smoothed  out  and  leveled  down  by  the 
■  reversal  of  the  same  principle. 

With  these  well-known  facts  before 
us  respecting  the  laws  of  animal  devel- 
Nature  also  se-  opmeut  when  the  same 
covery  of\he "  ^'^^  applied  to  creatures  in 
^'^^-  domestication,      it     would 

seem  that  the  extension  of  the  principle 
to  all  animated  nature  ought  to  have 
been  long  since  discovered.  But  such 
was  not  the  case.  Until  the  last  half  of 
the  current  century  it  appears  not  to 
have  been  suspected  that  the  very  in- 
.stincts  of  animals  themselves,  in  a  state 
of  nature,  are  as  effective  in  producing 
differentiation  and  a  development  of  va- 
rieties, though  perhaps  not  so  rapid  and 


tangible  in  results,  as  are  the  .skill  and 
persistency  of  the  breeder.  Investiga- 
tion has  shown  that  there  is  a  natural  as 
well  as  an  artificial  law  of  sexual  selec- 
tion ;  that,  indeed,  all  animated  nature 
is  pervaded  with  an  instinct  which,  un- 
der various  forms  of  manifestation, 
works  out  at  length  the  same  or  analo- 
gous results  with  those  secured  by  intel- 
ligent breeding.  The  habits  of  animals 
in  a  state  of  nature  have  been  so  well 
observed  and  the  results  generalized 
that  it  is  no  longer  to  be  doubted  that 
many  of  the  most  striking  differentia- 
tions and  varieties  in  animal  life  have 
been  produced  by  that  form  of  adapta- 
tion between  the  male  and  female  which 
goes  by  the  name  of  sexual  selection. 

A  few  examples  of  this  law  and   its 
results  in  the  arena  of  wild  nature  may 

suffice.         The     stronger   Examples  of  sex. 

males  of  almost  all  species  '^^^^^::^ 
of  animals  beat  back  the  f™n»- 
weaker,  and  become  the  progenitors  of 
the  next  generation.  Sheer  force  is  thus 
one  of  the  primary  elements  in  the  prob- 
lem. To  this  nature  lends  herself  a 
willing  servant.  In  the  case  of  all  the 
animals  bearing  deciduous  horns  there 
is  a  special  preparation  for  the  epoch 
and  fact  of  mating.  The  horns  are  for 
battle,  and  the  battle  is  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  female.  The  season  of  bat- 
tle and  of  procreation  having  passed, 
the  horns  are  cast,  and  for  a  while  the 
males  are  hornless;  but  with  the  ap- 
proach of  the  next  season  of  struggle  the 
horns  reappear,  expand,  and  harden  for 
the  fight. 

Meanwhile,  in  many  instances  the  fe- 
male of  the  species  in  like  manner  make 
choice ,  sometimes  most  per-  Both  sexes  and 
sistentlv,  of  certain  males.   ^L!f.T-f^.  =»,»» 

■>  '  choose  m  a  state 

In  some  cases  the  choice  is  of  nature, 
determined  by  size  and  strength  or  fleet- 
ness;   sometimes    by  color  or  form,  and 


MANNER    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— THE    TRUE   EVOLUTION. 


227 


sometimes  by  occult  dispositions  which 
it  has  been  hard  to  discover.  Among 
the  birds,  color  and  plumage  have  per- 
formed a  large  part  in  the  work  of  sexual 
selection.  Sometimes  it  is  the  male  and 
sometimes  the  female — generally  the  for- 
mer— which  is  the  most  highly  adorned 
and  developed  in  variety  and  extent  of 
plumage  and  brilliancy  of  hues.  But 
until  the  present  age  it  was  never  sus- 
pected that  these  strong  marks  of  peculiar- 
ity and  attractiveness  had  themselves 
been  produced  through  hundreds 
of  generations  by  the  preference 
of  the  females  for  the  most  beau- 
tiful among  the  males.  Every- 
where, from  the  hugest  forms  of 
life  now  existing  on  the  earth 
down  to  the  glowworm  in  the 
grass,  the  same  principle  of  sex- 
ual selection  exists  and  works 
out,  slowly  but  surely,  its  cu- 
mulative results  in  the  differ- 
entiation, establishment,  and 
perpetuation  of  the  varieties 
of  animal  life. 

Still  another  circumstance 
should  be  noted  as  bearing  a 
Occasional  sud-  part  in  the  produc- 
uL^l^ll:::x  tion  of  species, 
types.  This    is  the    occa- 

sionally sudden,  or  at  least  rapid, 
departure  of  offspring  from  the 
parental  type.  It  sometimes  happens 
(and  by  happening  we  do  not  mean  a 
work  of  chance,  but  only  that  the  causes 
of  the  phenomenon  are  imknown)  that 
a  newborn  animal  exhibits  qualities, 
features,  instincts,  and  modes  of  activ- 
ity so  widely  divergent  from  not  only 
the  immediate  parents,  but  from  the 
whole  ancestry  as  far  as  known,  that 
it  might  well  appear  that  a  new  species 
or  variety  had  been  produced  per  salt  inn. 

It  is  not  clearly  known  what  the  ulti- 
mate effects  of  these  sudden  departures 


may  be  in  the  general  economy  of  ani- 
mal life.  Some  observers  have  concluded 
that  such  phenomena  are 

,  111  Question  of  the 

anomalous,  and  that  the  pe-  results  of  this 
culiar  progeny  born  in  un-  p^^"°™«"°''- 
likeness  to  the  parental  stock  tends  in 
succeeding  generations  to  sink  back 
to  the  type  from  which  it  is  derived. 
Others  are  of  opinion  that,  in  some  cases 
at  least,  the  abnormal  form  perpetuates 
and  fixes  itself  as  a  new  variety,  or  at 
least  tends  to  do  so  until  it  is  counter- 


(r)   DEER    HEAD    WITH   ANTLERS   IN   THE    "  VELVET." 

acted  and  obliterated  b}-  the  countervail- 
inof  forces  of  breedino:  and  environment. 
Several  other  elements  besides  those 
enumerated  in  the  preceding  pages  enter 
into  the  struggle  for  life,  and  help  to 
constitute  the  general  doctrine  known  as 
the  survival  of  the  fittest.  This  doctrine 
is  the  key  of  the  theory  of  evolution. 
That  theory  we  are  now  ready  to  apply 
to  the  general  scheme  of  animated  na- 
ture, and  to  show  to  what  extent  and  in 
what  way  it  explains  the  phenomena  of 
ora:anic  life. 


228 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JU.VAV.Vn. 


In  the  first  place,  the  nomenclature  of 
science  should  be  noted  as  precedent  to 
Nomenclature  of  a  clcar  apprehension  of 
frtr^g^om  tS  the  subject.  Nature  is  di- 
the  individual,  vidcd  first  of  all  into  great 
groups  of  .sensible  facts  called  Kingdoms. 
There  is  a  Mineral  Kingdom,  constituting 
the  great  mass  of  visible  nature  ;  a  Veg- 
etable  Kingdom,   rising  therefrom  and 


(2)    UKER    HEAD    WITH    MATURE   ANTLERS 

fixed  as  we  have  .seen  to  the  earth  as 
its  basis  of  growth ;  an  Animal  King- 
dom, including  all  those  organic  forms 
of  being  which  rise  above  the  somewhat 
indefinite  horizon  of  plant-life. 

Kingdoms  are  divided  into  Orders,  or 
great  groups  of  facts  discriminated  from 
each  other  by  a  few  leading  and  general 
lines  of  demarkation.  Orders  are  di- 
vided into  Suborders;  these  into  Gen- 
era:   these    into  Species;    Species   into 


Varieties,  and  Varieties  into  Individuals. 
Besides  this  right  line  we  have  such 
words  as  Classes  and  Families  to  desig- 
nate certain  groups  in  the  order  of  de- 
scent; but  in  general  the  analysis  runs 
down  in  the  order  given  above  from 
Kingdoms,  the  highest,  to  Individuals, 
the  lowest  and  last  results  in  the  clas- 
sification of  the  forms  of  nature. 

In  the  foreeoinof  examination 

we  have  seen  in  general  how  the 

law     of     evolution 

Law  of  the  indi- 
WOrkS  m  the  pro-  vidualis  the  law 
1       ,.  e   ,-,         .        of  the  species, 

duction  of  the  in- 
dividual life.  This  part  of  the 
modus  operandi  has  been  deter- 
mined and  established  by  obser- 
vation and  experiment,  and  is, 
indeed,  so  amenable  to  the  com- 
mon experience  of  mankind  as 
to  admit  no  element  of  doubt 
or  uncertainty.  The  history  of 
every  organic  life  in  the  world  is 
common  to  the  whole  domain  of 
nature.  From  the  germ  to  the 
embryo,  from  the  embryo  to  the 
living  organism,  from  that  to 
maturity — such  is  the  one  history 
which  runs  uniformly  through 
the  whole  realm  of  organic  being ; 
that  is,  it  is  the  one  history  of  the 
individual  life.  The  question, 
then,  is  to  what  extent  the  prin- 
ciples which  govern  the  evolution 
of  the  individual  life  are  ap- 
plicable in  the  case  of  vai"ieties,  species, 
genera,  orders,  kingdoms,  and  finally  of 
universal  nature.  Have  or  have  not  the 
various  differentiations  from  common 
types  upwards  from  individual  to  specific 
and  then  to  generic  life  been  produced 
by  the  operation  of  the  same  laws  which 
have  developed  the  individual  from  its 
germinal  to  the  perfected  form? 

In  the  preceding  discussion  we  have 
seen  the  hints  and  outlines  of  the  widen- 


MANNER    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— THE    TRUE   EVOLUTION.       229 


ing  of  the  law  of  evolution  from  the  in- 
dividual to  the  variety.  We  have  seen 
Varieties  pro-  hoAV  Variation  is  produced 
SisbT^;^'-  in  organic  form,  instinct, 
of  variation.  ^nd  mode  of  activity  by 
the  agency  of  natural  and  sexual  selec- 
tion. "We  have  noted  the  manifest  and 
indisputable  evidences  of  the  results  of 
natural  selection  in  domestic  animals, 
and  further  on  in  the  free  arena  of  ani- 
mated nature  beyond  the  limits  of  man's 
agency.  Science  has  recorded  the  re- 
sults of  the  law  in  thousands  of  in- 
stances, showing  unmistakably  that  the 
variations  from  individual  types  into  va- 
rieties have  been  produced  by  the  forces 
which  are  common  to  the  whole  natural 
world  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  The 
question  arises  whether  the  law  extends 
still  further  and  is  sufficient  to  account 
for  the  difference  b}'  which  species  is  dis- 
criminated from  species  and  genus  from 
genus. 

It  has  been  the  particular  excellencb 
of  biological  inquiry  in  our  age  to  an- 
AJi  animate  na-     swer     this    question    with 


ture  a  variation 
&om  a  common 
type. 


some  degree  of  confidence. 


The  work  was  begun  with 
an  examination  into  the  relations  which 
one  species  of  living  organisms  bears  to 
another.  It  was  noted  by  Darwin,  and 
had  indeed  been  known  to  his  predeces- 
sors, that  some  of  the  so-called  species 
of  animals  and  plants  lie  much  nearer 
together  than  others  which  seem  to  be 
separated  by  a  wide  chasm.  Closer  scru- 
tiny showed  that  in  many  cases  it  was 
doubtful  whether  a  certain  species  so  de- 
fined should  be  classified  by  itself  as 
such,  or  should  rather  be  regarded  as  a 
variety  of  an  approximate  species.  Again 
it  was  found  that  some  of  the  so-called 
varieties  had  departed  so  widely  the  one 
from  the  other  that  they  might,  without 
straining  the  scheme  of  nature,  or  more 
properly  violating  the  diagrams  of  sci- 


ence, be  classified  as  distinct  species. 
Still  further  the  inquiry  was  pressed, 
until  the  principle  was  revealed  that  in 
all  probability  the  whole  scheme  of  ani- 
mated nature  is  only  one  vast  variation 
from  a  common  type. 

This   discovery  was  the   flash   of    ra- 
diance that  brought  in  the  new  concept 
of  universal  nature.     Un-  obliteration  of 
der  its  light  species  passed  ^^eutro^s  d1-'" 
away ;     genera     fled ;     or-  visions, 
ders    and    suborders    disappeared,    and 
nature  was  seen  to  be  one  vast  and  uni- 
versal scheme,  evolved  from  a  few  germs 
or  one  single  germ,  spreading  out  tlfere- 
from  like  a  tremendous  fan  with  widen- 
ing radii,  influenced  in  their  course  by 
the  same  laws  and  principles  of  develop- 
ment which  govern  the  evolution  of  the 
individual  from  the  life-cell  of  its  origin. 

The  development  of  this  new  concept 
of  organic  life  considered  as  a  whole  was 
largelv  the    work  of   Dar-  philosophy 
win.   inthehandsofothers,  ^^Itr^ttnd 

of      a      more       philosophical    the  inquiry. 

turn  of  mind,  notably  in  the  alembic  of 
Herbert  Spencer,  the  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion has  been  widened  and  applied  to 
nature  as  a  whole — has  been  systema- 
tized, illustrated,  and  confirmed  by  spec- 
ulative thinking,  until  it  has  become 
the  accepted  theory  not  only  underlying 
the  modern  science  of  biology,  but  sup- 
porting as  it  were  the  system  of  the 
universe. 

In  Darwin's    hands,    however,   evolu- 
tion was  held  with  scientific   fidelity  to 

the     facts     of     organic    life.    Darwin's meth- 

He  produced  and  gave  to  .^"u^i^^f:^;^ 
the  world,  in  his  Origin  of  rai  selection. 
Species,  a  scheme  of  the  evolutions  and 
movements  of  life  showing  the  tendency 
to  variation  and  specialization  of  func- 
tion upward  from  the  generic  pattern 
to  complete  individuality.  As  a  matter 
of   interest  to   the  general   reader,   his 


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MANXER    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— THE    TRUE  EVOLUTION. 


231 


diagram  is  here  repeated,  together  with 
a  summary  of  the  accompanying  expla- 
nation. The  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  etc., 
to  L,  represent  the  species  arising  from 
a  single  genus  of  living  organisms. 
Some  of  these,  as  for  instance  A,  rep- 
resent a  widely  diffused  and  varying 
species.  The  dotted  lines  arising  from 
A  represent  the  varieties  of  offspring 
produced  by  the  laws  of  natural  selec- 
tion. Some  of  these  are  preserved  as  a' 
and  m',  in  the  struggle  of  life,  while 
others  perish.  When  the  variations 
have  risen  as  far  as  the  horizontal  line  I, 
they  have  become  sufficiently  marked 
and  permanent  to  produce  what  is  defined 
as  a  variety. 

These  two  varieties,  a'  and  m',  are  now 
exposed  to  the  same  conditions  and  vi- 
cissitudes as  was  the  common  type  from 
which  they  sprang,  and  they  in  turn  be- 
gin to  vary  upward  in  the  direction  of 
the  dotted  lines.  Some  of  these  tenta- 
tive efforts  perish  and  some  survive,  un- 
til another  horizontal  line,  marked  II, 
is  reached,  by  which  time  the  departure 
between  them  has  been  greatly  aug- 
mented. So  oh  upwards  and  upwards 
until  at  last,  after  thousands  of  genera- 
tions, the  horizon  of  X  is  reached,  when 
the  forins  a'°,  f'°,  and  m'°  have  become  so 
widely  differentiated  as  to  constitute  pre- 
cisely identical  facts  in  nature  with  those 
represented  by  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  from  which, 
under  the  name  of  species,  the  inquiry 
began;  that  is,  varieties  have  become 
species. 

It  is  not  needed  to  enter  here  into  the 
elucidation  of  the  whole  scheme,  show- 
ing how  in  the  struggle  for  life  the  evo- 
lution of  varieties  and  species  is  now 
going  on  in  the  world  of  animated  nature 
under  the  operation  of  laws  which  by  fair 
inference  are  identical  with  those  where- 
by the  first  species  of  living  beings  came 
into  existence. 


The  first  great  principle,  therefore,  of 
the  hypothesis  of  evolution,  is  that  the 
life  of  any  given  species  of  Life  of  the  spe- 
living  beings  is  epitomized  ^S'thiTn^ 
in  the  life  of  the  individual  dividual, 
composing  the  constituent  unit  in  that 
species  or  variety.  The  sketch  of  the  life 
of  the  individual  from  its  germinal  state 
to  complete  development  has  alreadybeen 
given  and  need  not  here  be  repeated. 
The  principle  is  that  the  same  scheme 
of  life  is  applicable  to  the  species.  The 
doctrine  includes  the  hypothesis  of  a 
specific  germ  from  which  a  given  va- 
riety of  animated  beings  has  proceeded. 
Whether  these  germs  of  species  were 
already  variations  from  other  antecedent 
forms  which  were  ultimately  derivable 
from  one  point  of  origin,  or  from  several 
points,  is  a  question  too  difficult  and  ob- 
scure for  the  science  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. But  the  theory  is  that  the  lines 
of  all  life  whatsoever  converge  back- 
wards toward  a  common  point  of  de- 
parture from  which  all  varieties  and 
species  have  sprung  by  differentiation 
under  the  laws  of  natural  selection  and 
the  conditions  of  environment. 

These  deductions  of  biological  inquiry 
include  the  human  race  in  the  common 

scheme  with  the  rest  of  ani-    The  human  race 

mated  nature.  It  is  for  this  TuStn^LV 
reason  that  we  have  to  so  rai  history, 
considerable  an  extent  enlarged  upon 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  as  explanatory 
of  the  beginning  and  development  of 
man-life  on  the  earth.  The  theme  is  so 
vast  and  furnishes  so  many  suggestions 
of  interesting  inquiry  that  we  may  for  a 
moment  follow  it  to  some  of  its  most 
manifest  conclusions  and  results.  The 
life  of  man  is  at  the  very  least  ijitimately 
associated  with  the  other  forms  of  organic 
existence.  The  thread  of  humanity  is 
interwoven — albeit  a  thread  of  gold — 
with  the  vast  skein  of  animated  nature. 


232 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


and  the  human  miud  is  so  framed,  and 
especially  so  disciplined  in  our  age,  as 
to  find  perpetual  interest,  if  not  delight, 
in  the  application  of  those  general  laws 
by  which  the  race  is  bound  in  common 
destinies  with  the  correlated  forms  of 
life. 

In  the  first  place,  then,  the  theory  of 
evolution  teaches  that  man  himself  is 
the  descendant,  so  far  as  his  bodily 
organism  is  concerned,  of  a  lower  order  of 


along  their  own  lines  of  evolution.  The 
departure,  therefore,  between  any  exist- 
ing species  of  the  anthropoid  apes  and 
the  human  species  is  great ;  not  indeed 
so  great  as  the  fancies  of  many  contro- 
versialists and  some  alleged  biologists 
have  depicted,  but  yet  great.  The  chasm 
between  the  two,  or  the  full  measure  of 
departure,  has  been  produced  by  the 
divergence  of  each  from  the  common 
type  of  an  unknown  ancestry. 


PROGRESSIVE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MAX.— (i)  Evulition  Illustkated  with  Six  Skills  in  Ascending  Order. 


being.  This  ancestral  form  from  which 
the  human  kind  arose  is  not  to  be  con- 
what  evolution  ceived  of  as  an  ape  or  any 
h>rtt"e'sTent"  Other  existing  creature,  but 
of  man.  Q^jy   -jg   man,   with  lower 

capacities  and  manner  of  life  than  are 
now  possessed  by  the  race.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  higher  primates 
next  to  man  are  themselves  as  mtich  the 
work  of  evolution  as  man  himself.  They, 
too,  have  been  developed  and  specialized 


In  the  case  of  man  the  divergence 
from  the  common  ancestral  form  has 
been  ever  in  the  manward  Every  species  is 
direction,  and  in  the  case  of  evolved  from  its 

'  own  proper 

the  simian  the  divergence  original, 
has  with  equal  constancy  been  apeward 
in  its  course.  Since  the  divergence  of 
these  two  forms  of  life  from  the  common 
type,  there  never  could  have  been  pro- 
duced the  one  from  the  other.  The 
ancestral  form  merely  contained  the  po- 


MAXXER   OF   THE   BEGIXXIXG.—THE    TRUE   EVOLUTIOX.       233 


tency  of  each.  In  like  manner  \ve  may 
follow  backward  the  ancestral  line  of  the 
anthropoids  until  we  find  it  converging 
with  the  line  representing  the  lemuroids 
or  the  carnivores,  or  both.  "We  thus  see 
the  lines  of  the  higher  animal  life  com- 
ing together  at  some  point  in  the  remote 
past,  at  which  time  the  ancestry  of  all 
these  forms  existed  in  a  common  t3'pe 
from  which   divergence,  first  into  varie- 


and  unmistakable  indications  of  science 
the  whole  vertebrate  kingdom  of  organic 
forms  approximating  at  the  last  to  a 
common  type.  This  is  to  say  that  a 
single  ancestry  of  a  given  but  unknown 
form  at  one  time  contained  the  potency 
and  elements  of  all  the  multifarious  de- 
velopments which  have  since  taken  place 
in  the  widely  distributed  and  greatly 
divergent  vertebrate  animals  of  the  earth 


PROGKEsSlNK  DEVELc>Pi\IEXr  OF  MAN.— (2)  Evon  rioN  Illustrated  with  the  Six  Cokke!-po.\ding  Luixg  Forms. 


ties,  then  into  species,  and  finally  into 
genera,  occurred  under  the  long-contin- 
ued influence  of  natural  selection  and  its 
correlated  differentiating  forces. 

The  scheme  of  life  ma}-,  under  the 
deductions  and  principles  of  the  general 
Widening  of  the  law  of  cvolution,  be  fol- 
raS^vitri-  lowed  still  further  into  the 
phenomena.  illimitable  depths  of  the 
past.  "We  see  not  only  by  the  light  of  con- 
jecture and  hvpothesis,  but  bv  the  actual 
M.— Vol.'i— 16 


and  the  waters.  From  this  common 
form,  through  immeasurable  lapses  of 
time,  the  different  varieties  began  to  arise 
and  to  adjust  themselves  to  their  various 
environments  in  earth  and  air  and  sea. 

Aye,  more,  the  vertebrata  and  the  in- 
vertebrata  in  the  ultimate  biological 
analysis  approximate.  The  hint  and 
suggestion  are  to  the  efliect  that  these 
also  arose  from  a  common  type ;  that  the 
molusk,  too,  was  included  in  a  common 


234 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JlfA^VA'/Xn. 


ancestry  with  the  rest.  But  -whether 
this  latter  deduction  is  warranted  by  the 
facts — whether  all  the  genera  and  finally 
the  orders  of  animated  nature  may  be 
deduced  from  one  common  ancestral 
tvpe — is  still  a  hypothetical  question,  as 
is  also  the  still  larger  and  more  remote 
problem  of  the  derivation  of  all  animal 
and  vegetable  life  from  a  common  stem. 
It  may  be,  or  it  ma}'  not  be,  that  the  spe- 
cific beginnings  of  the  various  kinds  of 
organic  life  in  the  world  were  derived 
from  indej^endent  originals,  each  en- 
dowed with  its  own  inherent  powers  of 
evolutionary  development;  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  that  that  converging 
tendency  which  is  so  plainly  discover- 
able and  demonstrable  in  the  nearer  field 
of  view  is  universal  and  final,  bringing 
at  the  last  to  one  common  original  n// 
forms  whatsoever  of  living  organism  be- 
longing to  the  present  and  past  history 
of  our  globe ! 

The  problem  in  this  particular  is  again 
in  close  analogy  with  that  of  the  history 
Living  species  of  language.  We  know, 
ri:il7L^t  f'"-  instance,  that  six  of  the 
languages.  great   modern    languages, 

inclusive  of  their  slight  dialectical  devel- 
opments, have  all  been  derived  from  a 
common  original  under  the  influence  of 
linguistic  differentiation  and  adaptation 
to  the  thought,  purpose,  and  vocal  organs 
of  the  various  peoples  by  whom  these 
tongues  are  spoken.  Time  was  when 
the  potency  of  Italian,  French,  Proven- 
gal,  Wallachian,  .Spanish,  and  Portuguese 
was  all  bound  up  in  the  Latin  tongue  of 
the  classical  ages.  Thus  much  is  his- 
torically and  linguistically  demonstrable 
beyond  the  adventure  of  denial  or  skepti- 
cism. Again  it  may  be  i-easonably  said 
that  our  knowledge  is  complete  of  the 
ultimate  common  derivation  of  all  the 
Aryan  tongues.  It  can  not  be  doubted 
that  Teutonic,    Celtic,   the   Gra;co-Italic 


languages,  the  Iranic  tongues,  and  San- 
skrit are  ultimately  derivable  from  some 
common  ancestral  speech  lost  below  the 
horizon  of  tradition  and  history.  So  also 
we  know  that  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  the 
Aramaic  languages  are  the  descendants 
of  a  common  original. 

At  this  point  of  the  inquiry,  however, 
we  stand  before  the  general  problem  just 
as  the  biologist  does  in  his  Best  scientific 
study  of  the  origin  of  spe-  ^:^Tl^:^ 
cies  and  genera.  Thus  far  f°''  ^"• 
the  inquiries  of  each  have  led  to  the  be- 
lief in  a  common  origin  for  all  the  diver- 
gent forms  which  are  the  subjects  of  the 
investigation ;  but  the  lingiiist  has  not 
as  yet  been  able  to  discover  by  philolog- 
ical inquiry  a  point  of  common  depar- 
ture for  the  Semitic  and  the  Aryan  lan- 
guages. The  tendency  of  the  inquiry 
is  wholly  in  the  direction  of  a  common 
linguistic  original.  But  the  student  of 
language  is  obliged  to  supply  by  hypoth- 
esis the  materials  and  laws  of  a  study 
which  he  is  able  to  pursue  no  further  by 
the  light  of  ascertained  fact. 

So  also  the  biologist,  though  he  find 
all  .species  of  a  given  order  of  animals 
approaching  a  common  Probabie  deriva- 
type  in  some  prehistoric  ^Z^™!'"^ 
genus  from  which  they  all  few  germs. 
probably  arose,  is  obliged  to  follow  oth- 
erwise untraceable  lines  by  analogy  and 
hypothesis.  Still  more  fully  is  he  imder 
the  dominion  of  these  conditions  when 
he  attempts  the  ultimate  derivation  of 
all  living  things  from  one  common  orig- 
inal germ  and  type  of  life.  The  tend- 
ency of  inquiry  is  to  that  conclusion ; 
but  the  biologist  does  not  presume  to 
say,  as  of  definite  knowledge,  that  all 
living  forms  whatsoever  are  from  one 
original  ancestral  form.  He  proceeds 
no  further  than  to  .say  that  the  indica- 
tions of  the  whole  visible  field  of  inquiry 
are  in  that  direction,  and  that  the  scien- 


MANNER    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— THE    TRUE  EVOLUTION.       235 


tific  deductions  which  he  is  able  to  frame 
as  if  by  parallax  respecting-  the  tenden- 
cies of  life  beyond  the  visible  horizon 
lend  to  the  same  conclusion  of  a  common 
original  for  all  forms  of  organic  being. 
Further  than  this,  the  applications  of 
right  reason  to  the  ultimate  problem  are 
by  hypothesis  and  conjecture ;  not,  in- 
deed, visionary  and  unreasoning  conjec- 
ture, but  such  dim  conjecture  as  a 
knowledge  of  the  present .  and  past  his- 
tory'of  life  is  able  to  afford. 

We  may  thus  in  accordance  with  the 
theorv'  of  evolution  contemplate  a  lowly 
ancestry  for  the  human  race.  Exactly 
what  kind  of 
creature  that 
may  have 
been  from 
which  our 
species  erria- 
nated  on  the 
organic  side 
we  may  not 
know.  At 
least  in  the 
present  state 
of  knowl- 
edge the  an- 
cestral type  of  our  great  and  widely 
distributed  humanity  remains  in  the 
obscurity  of  dim  con- 
jecture. The  hypothesis, 
however,  is  strictly  agree- 
able to  what  we  know  from  scientific 
data  of  the  ven,'  first  conditions  and  as- 
pects of  man -life  on  the  earth.  We  are 
able  to  see  by  the  light  of  scientific 
truth  an  ancestral  type  of  mankind 
which,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  discover, 
differed  from  the  other  higher  primates 
in  this,  that  the  human  creature  was 
able  to  fashion  a  tool  and  to  kindle  a 
fire.  These  are  the  very  first  scientific 
indications  of  the  presence  of  man-life 
on  the  earth,  and   they  are  strictly  con- 


firmatory of  the  belief  of  the  emergence 
of  the  human  kind  from  some  lower 
form  of  ancestr}'  approximate  to  the  as- 
sociated orders  of  the  higher  mammalia. 
What  is  here  said  of  the  origin  and 
descent  of  the  human  species  may  be  re- 
peated of   all    the  other  or-   Present  inquiry 

ders    and    varieties.     The  1°°^^  to  man 

and  ms  evo- 

present  work  is  not  a  biolo-  iit'on- 
g}'.  It  is  not  the  purpose  in  this 
connection  to  dwell  unnecessarily  upon 
the  history  and  descent  of  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  animal  and  plant-life  on 
the  globe.  Our  work  is  essentially  hu- 
man,  and   only   incidentally  concerned 


Theory  indi- 
cates a  low^Iy 
ancestry  for 
mankind. 


JAW   BONE   OF  CAVE   MAX,    FOUND    AT   MOULIN    BY    BUICHER    DE    PERTHES,    1S63. — FROM  THE 

ORIGINAL   IN    PARIS   MUSEUM. 


about  the  correlated  varieties  of  life. 
But  so  much  of  the  question  as  possess- 
es a  human  interest  we  are  at  liberty 
to  follow.  The  particular  study  before 
us  is  the  manner  of  the  beginning  of 
man-life  on  the  earth,  and  the  aim  is  to 
set  forth  without  prejudice  or  unwar- 
ranted advocacy  of  either  the  two  gen- 
eral and  hitherto  conflicting  opinions 
with  regard  to  the  genesis  of  man. 

The  one  opinion  is,  as  we  have  shown 
in  a  former  part,  the  belief  in  an  imme- 
diate and  phenomenal  ere-  Restatement  of 


ation  of  the  specific  origi-  tJ'e  two  views 


of  human  de- 
scent. 


nals  of  the  various  kinds  of 

organic  living  beings  on  the  earth.     The 

other  is  the  belief  that  the  present  as- 


236 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKIXD. 


pects  and  forms  of  all  things  living  have 
been  produced  by  the  operation  of  sec- 
ondary laws,  such  as  we  now  find  efficient 
in  the  determination  of  other  phenomena; 
that  the  several  varieties  and  species  of 
living  organisms,  including  the  human 
kind,  have  been  evolved  through  great 
lapses  of  time  from  common  ancestral 
types  of  a  lower  and  simpler  kind  than 
those  now  existing  in  the  descendent 
species;  and  that  these  lower  and  sim- 
pler forms  were  in  turn  derived  from  a 
few  living  cells,  or  possibly  a  single  ger- 
minal origin  in  which  were  bound  itp  all 
the  possibilities  and  potencies  of  our  liv- 
ing universe. 

The  question,  as  we  have  said  and  re- 
peated and  emphasized,  is  one  of  modus 
operandi.     It  is  an  issue  relating  wholly 


to  the  iitciiincr  of  creative  processes 
Time  was  when  living  beings  did  not 
exist  in  our  sphere.  Time  The  question 
is  when  they  do  exist.  Thr^rdufil"- 
Therefore  time  was  when  andiofUfe. 
they  began  to  exist.  The  whole  question 
is  Iioiv  and  /;/  ivJiat  manner  the  living  be- 
ings inhabiting  the  globe  began  their 
career  and  have  been  brought  to  their 
present  aspects.  The  difference  between 
the  two  opinions  is  one  of  time  and  con- 
dition and  circumstance  rather  than  a  dif- 
ference of  fact.  These  unmistakable  and 
unquestionable  principles  relative  to  the 
great  inquiry  before  ns  can  not  be  too 
clearly  stated  or  too  much  dwelt  upon  it 
we  would  form  an  intelligent  and  dis- 
passionate view  of  the  history  of  life  and 
of  the  diverse  opinions  regarding  it. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


-Applicaxiox  ok  the  Doctrixe  to 
Max  axd  Nature. 


XDER  the  law  of  evo- 
hition  we  may  proceed, 
in  the  next  place,  to 
account  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  world.  The 
Larth  is  the  habitat  of 
man.  Doubtless  the 
other  worlds  are  in  like  manner  the  are- 
nas and  vast  fields  of  conscious  and  intel- 
ligent activity.  The  laws  and  processes 
by  which  a  world — our  own  world  in 
particular — is  formed  and  brought  to  the 
stage  of  habitability  must  ever  be  a  mat- 
ter of  prime  interest  to  every  reflective 
mind. 

The  world  gren'.  It  did  not  spring 
Our  world  the  into  existence  at  once,  but 
came  to  be  through  a  long 
series  of  intermediate 
stages  and  gradual  development.  There 
was  a  time  when  the  space  now  occupied 


product  of  evo 
lutionary  proc- 
esses. 


by  our  solar  system  was  doubtlessly  filled 
b\-  the  sun  and  his  concomitant  gases. 
Such  was  the  dift'usion  of  matter,  prin- 
cipally through  the  agency  of  high  heat, 
that  all  was  dispersed  in  a  form  of  at- 
tenuated matter  round  and  about  the 
center  of  what  was  to  constitute  the  sun 
of  .our  sj'stem.  From  this  point  two 
great  facts  are  to  be  considered,  namely, 
cooling  and  condensation.  With  these 
two  processes  nuclei  began  to  be  formed 
in  rings  of  matter  at  various  distances 
from  the  center  of  the  inchoate  system 
of  worlds. 

The  position  of  our  own  orb  was  indi- 
cated in  the  first  place  by  one  of  these 
semigaseous,      semifluid 

Primeval  condi- 

rmgs  of  matter.  In  course  of  tion  and  growth 

..  •  1       1    -LI        i-  of  the  earth. 

time — mcalculable    time — 
the  ring  condensed  in  one  part  and  be- 
came   attenuated    in    another.      It    then 


J/AXXER    OF    THE   BEGIXXIXG.—EVOLUTIOX  APPLIED. 


237 


broke  and  began  to  assume  the  globular 
form  under  the  general  laws  which  de- 
termine the  shape  of  free  matter  in  a 
fluid  condition.  Thus  the  process  went 
on  until  the  incipient  globe  became  a 
plastic  sphere,  having  a  determinate  or- 
bit and  drawing  to  itself  the  surround- 
ing matter — a  process  Avhich  has  not  yet 
wholly  ceased.  Through  long  cycles  of 
duration  the  formative  work  continued 
until  the  primeval  world  was  fixed  at 
last  in  its  earliest  geological  conditions. 
What  those  conditions  were  the  reader 
may  discover  by  special  study  in  that 
field  of  inquiry  which  relates  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  earth's  crust,  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  life,  and  the  orderly  progress 
from  the  priinordial  to  the  present  cos- 
mic condition. 

All  this  has  been  a  process  of  evolu- 
tion. The  planet  has  been  formed  by 
Prevalence  of       progressive      intermediate 

fn  planetfry  "'       stages,  by  the  aCtioH  of  SCC- 

formation.  ondary   laws    whereby  the 

former  nebulous  matter  coinposing  the 
earth  was  gradually  transformed  into 
that  fixed,  and  we  may  say  organic,  con- 
dition in  which  we  now  find  it.  The 
long-accepted  opinion  about  the  phe- 
nomenal creation  of  our  globe  within  a 
limited  period  of  time  has  given  place 
to  that  vast  and  orderly  concept  which 
contemplates  the  growth  of  all  worlds 
from  primordial  matter  up  to  a  completed 
stage  of  development. 

We  thus  see  that  not  only  the  animals 
and  plants  which,  as  it  were,  possess  the 
Animals  ana  Surface  of  the  earth,  the 
t:T^f^:iT  'lir,  and  the  waters,  but  the 
the  same  laws,  globe  itself  has  come 
into  its  present  form  out  of  the  past  eter- 
nity by  the  action  of  those  forces  which 
go  under  the  general  name  of  natural 
law.  Or,  if  we  turn  in  the  other  direc- 
tion and  begin  to  consider  the  results  of 
intelligence  in  our  sphere,  we  shall  find 


that  they  also  have  followed  analogous 
lines  of  development  from  a  germinal 
to  a  completed  and,  as  it  were,  organic 
being. 

We  have  already  seen  how  language, 
the  product  of  reason,  arising  from  the 
necessity  of  intercourse  Linguistic 
among  intelligent  beings,  fj^l^^^^^rof 
has  presented  in  its  history  race  evolution, 
a  complete  evolutionary  diagram.  The 
history  of  human  speech  has  been  a  his- 
tory of  ramifications  and  divergences. 
It  is  an  astonishing  fact  that  the  biolog- 
ical diagram  prepared  by  Darwin  as  the 
epitome  and  brief  chronicle  of  all  his 
study  may  be  taken  by  the  philologist 
and  used  to  illustrate  the  spread  and  de- 
velopment of  human  speech  without  the 
alteration  of  a  line !  In  it  we  have  pre- 
cisely the  same  phenomena  which  are 
everywhere  repeated  in  the  history  of 
language.  There  is  the  same  divergence 
from  a  simple  radical  into  such  varieties 
as  in  the  case  of  language  are  called  dia- 
lects; the  same  survival  of  some  of 
these,  that  is,  the  stronger  and  better; 
the  same  extinction  of  other  varieties ; 
the  same  fixing  of  the  better  forms,  and 
their  development  into  special  tongues. 

Even  among  the  existing  languages 
of  the  world  we  find  precisely  the  same 
struggle  for  life,  the  same  Languages 
natural  selection  on  the 
lines  of  fitness  and  adapta- 
tion. The  history  of  the  English  lan- 
guage from  the  times  of  King  Alfred, 
a  thousand  years  ago,  to  the  present 
time  presents  a  diagram  precisely  anal- 
ogous in  its  relations  to  the  other  ex- 
isting forms  of  speech  as  may  be  seen 
in  any  properly  constructed  scheme  of 
biology. 

The  same  is  true  of  all  those  institu- 
tions of  the  human  race  which  have  rea- 
son, convenience,  and  interest  as  their 
original  motives.     One  of  the  most  strik- 


struggle  for  life, 
and  the  best 
sur^-ive. 


238 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


tions  arise  in 
like  order  of 
growth. 


ing  and  conspicuous  of  these  is  the  in- 
stitution of  government.  Who  can  fail 
Human  institu-  to  discover  in  the  history 
of  the  governmental  forms 
adopted  by  the  liuman  race 
the  outlines  of  an  evolutionary  process? 
Of  a  certainty  there  was  a  time  in  the 
history  of  mankind  when  no  govern- 
ment existed.  Equally  certain  is  it  that 
at  the  present  time  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous facts  in  the  history  of  the  race 
is  the  governmental  form  of  society. 
There  was,  therefore,  a  time  between 
these  two  extremes  when  government 
began  to  be.  It  was  not  created  phenom- 
enally and  at  a  stroke  out  of  nothing, 
but  rather  arose  from  an  almost  undis- 
coverable  origin.  There  was  a  seed  of 
government — a  genn  ;  then  an  embryo, 
and  at  length  a  birth.  Then  there  was 
an  infancy,  a  childhood,  an  adolescence, 
a  tentative  and  adventurous  youth ;  at 
last  a  maturity — if  indeed  the  mature 
form  of  this  institution  has  as  yet  been 
reached  or  even  approximated. 

In  any  event,  the  progress  and  viodtts 
operandi  of  governmental  evolution  ai^e 
„  ,     facts      clearlv     discernible 

True  nature  of  ' 

the  evolution       among  the  elements  of  hu- 

of  government.  ,   .    ,  ^rr 

man  history.  i  rue,  it  re- 
quires a  high  grade  of  intelligence  and 
no  mean  measure  of  information  to  en- 
able the  possessor  to  analyze  and  follow 
the  process  by  which  the  governmental 
institutions  of  mankind  have  been 
evolved.  We  must,  in  the  first  place, 
discover  the  origin  and  point  of  depar- 
ture— the  time  and  the  conditions — from 
which  the  institution  of  government  has 
sprung.  We  must  note  some  primitive 
tribe  rising  gradually  into  the  conscious 
state  and  discovering  the  advantages 
which  might  be  gained  from  such  rudi- 
mentary civil  organization  as  the  leaders 
of  the  tribe  were  able  to  effect.  The 
work  would  begin  with  tentative  expe- 


dients. There  would  be  in  it  an  element 
of  force,  an  element  of  reason,  and  an 
element  of  authority.  The  last  named 
would  doubtless  arise  from  the  fact  of 
fatherhood.  The  fatherhood  of  the  fam- 
ily, a  purely  natural  fact,  would  extend 
to  the  fatherhood  of  the  tribe,  or  clan,  a 
partly  artificial  fact.  Force  would  arise 
from  the  mere  material  consideration  of 
strength.  The  strongest  would  begin  to 
rule.  The  strongest  man  would  in  the 
first  place  compel  the  weaker  to  bear  his 
burden,  to  draw  his  cart,  to  do  service  at 
the  door  of  his  hut.  The  strongest  of 
the  strong  men  would  do  the  same  for 
the  whole  village.  The  elenient  of  rea- 
son would  dovibtless  spring  froin  the 
action  of  several  minds  in  conspirac}- 
against  the  strongest.  The  strongest 
would  have  force  on  his  side.  The 
weaker  would  countervail  by  reason.  It 
may  not  be  far  from  the  truth  to  suggest 
that  the  first  check  and  counterpoise  in 
rudimentary  government  is  the  balance 
of  reason  and  force. 

After  government  had  once  been  in- 
stituted,   ill   however   crude    a   form,    it 

would  begin  to  adapt  itself    Governmental 

toconditions.  Therewould  '^^l^^lU, 
be  an  adjustment  of  the  environment, 
governing  fact  with  the  fact  governed, 
similar  in  all  particulars  to  the  adjust- 
ment of  a  living  organism  to  its  environ- 
ment. Many  tentative  efforts  would 
perish.  A  few  would  survive.  Those 
surviving  would  constitute  varieties.  In 
Egypt  one  of  the  varieties  will  become  a 
hierarchy.  In  the  valleys  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris  another  variety  will 
become  a  colossal  personal  despotism. 
In  one  part  of  Greece  a  third  will  be- 
come an  oligarchy,  and  in  another  part 
a  fourth  will  take  the  form  of  a  democ- 
racy. There  will  be  a  struggle  for  ex- 
istence, a  survival  of  the  fittest.  Some- 
times the  fittest  will  appear  in  the  form 


s 

3 

> 

C 

c 
< 

•z 

n 

2 


c 


?3 
> 


t=1 

t3 


240 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIND. 


of  a  military  empire.  This  will  break 
■up  in  catastrophe,  and  a  new  order,  half- 
chaotic,  will  supervene,  in  which  the 
seeds  of  many  things  are  present. 

From  this  state  ecclesiasticism  will 
issue  as  one  form,  feudalism  as  another 
form,  monarchy  as  a  third.  These  in 
turn  will  struggle  and  be  differentiated. 
Stages  and  as-  Some  elements  will  perish 
pectsinthe         wholly.     Others  will  perish 

development  of  -  -^ 

government.  in  part.  Others  will  sur- 
vive and  flourish  and  bear  unexpected 
results.  The  great  fact  called  the 
People  will  appear  as  an  intelligent 
force  under  the  law  of  evolution.  The 
people  will  itself  endeavor  to  become 
governmental.  It  Avill  struggle  as  a  liv- 
ing force  with  monarchy  and  the  expir- 
ing parts  of  feudalism.  Out  of  the  side 
of  the  people  will  spring  by  diiferentia- 
tion  many  distinct  forces.  One  of  them 
will  be  internationality ;  one  will  be 
communism. 

So  the  struggle  will  go  on,  some  for 
and  some  against  the  prevailing  form. 
Government  in  The  prevailing  form  will 
Lbeys^fhellw  ^^^  promoted  by  some  con- 
of  variation.  ditions  and  antagonized 
by  others.  It  will  shift  and  adapt  it- 
self somewhat  to  the  forces  which  play 
upon  it.  It  will,  in  a  word,  vary  and 
take  new  forms  and  exercise  new  or- 
gans just  as  the  individual  varies,  as 
the  variety  shifts,  as  the  species  as- 
sumes altered  jjowers  and  fixes  itself  by 
adaptation  and  adjustment.  The  insti- 
tution of  government  confonns,  as  lan- 
guage conforms,  and  as  every  kind  of 
biological  phenomenon  conforms,  to  the 
one  great  law  of  evolution . 

Take  the  case  of  that  large  fact  called 
Law.  We  here  refer  to  that  aggregate 
of  rules  and  principles  which  right  reason 
discovers  for  the  conduct  of  society. 
This  also  is  what  Lord  Bacon  might  have 
called  ' '  a  forthshowing  instance  "  of  the 


evolutionary  process.  Law  is  nut  made. 
This  is  to  say  that  it  is  not  produced  by 
the  wit  and  reflection  of  Law  also  an 
men.  Rather  is  it  a  pro-  X'^Vthe 
ductive  force  bringing  the  Roman  statutes, 
intellects  and  reasons  of  men  into  such 
activity  as  may  improve  and  formulate 
the  best  of  the  existing  codes  of  conduct 
into  still  higher  expressions  of  authority. 
Take  for  instance  the  law  of  Rome. 
Who  shall  declare  its  generation?  Who 
shall  find  its  germs?  Certainly  they 
existed  before  Rome  was  Rome.  The 
makers  of  the  Ten  Tables  did  not  pro- 
duce the  Roman  law.  The}"  wrote  on 
tablets  what  already  existed.  They 
would  fix  it  in  a  form  for  posterity ;  but 
the  transcript  would  not  hold.  The  Ten 
Tables  became  Twelve.  The  code  of 
the  primitive  republic  would  not  suffice 
for  the  great  republic,  nor  the  code  of 
the  latter  for  the  empire.  Behold  Jus- 
tinian's lawyers  working  at  the  problem. 
They  were  only  interpreters,  not  makers. 
They  were  striving  not  indeed  to  inake 
new  rules  for  human  conduct,  but  to  re- 
state and  summarize  those  which  were 
still  vital  and  operative.  It  was  a  part 
of  their  Avork  to  distinguish  between  the 
rules  which  still  existed  and  those  which 
had  petished ;  between  those  forms,  those 
varieties  which  had  survived,  and  the 
others  which  had  become  extinct.  Law 
as  well  as  government,  of  which  it  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  elementary  forces,  is 
itself  an  evolution — the  residue  of  a  con- 
flict between  the  different  principles  of 
civil  action,  embodying  the  survival  of 
whatever  has  been  found  best  adapted 
to  the  exigencies  of  human  society. 

This  society  is  itself,  with  all  of  its 
powers  and  capacities,  an  society,  uke  the 
evolutionary  product.  t^^^^^H'Zc. 
Who  created  society?  Cer-  adapts  itself, 
tainly  not  man.  It  has  grown  with  hia 
growth,  strengthened  with  his  strength, 


MAXXER    OF   THE   BEGIXXIXG.^EVOLUTIOX  APPLIED. 


241 


and  improved  with  his  improvement. 
That  society  exists  as  a  sort  of  frame- 
work and  continent  for  the  life  of  man 
and  his  activities  is  beyond  denial.  That 
there  was  a  time  in  the  past  when  it  did 
not  exist  is  certain.  That  there  was 
therefore  a  time  when  the  social  germ 
appeared  and  began  to  present  phenom- 
ena analogous   to   those    of   embryonic 


the  species.  Like  the  latter,  the  pri- 
mordial form  of  society  put  out  many 
branches.  Some  of  these  displayed  su- 
perior vitality  and  power  of  adaptation. 
Others,  being  weaker  and  ill-adapted  to 
conditions,  perished.  The  better  form.s 
survived  and  took  specific  features  which 
were  perpetuated  with  accumulating 
forces  to  succeeding  times.     There  was 


gtrminaL  =ocii;t\ 


life  can  not  be  doubted.  Henceforth 
the  social  evolution  was  in  the  likeness 
of  growth  as  it  is  exhibited  in  the  vege- 
table  and  animal  worlds. 

However  intangible  the  general  fact 
called  society  may  be,  it  nevertheless 
has  passed  through  successive  stages  of 
evolution  identical  with  those  which 
mark  the  progress  of  the  individual  and 


—  r'r.i.Mi  by  Madame  Paule  Crampe!. 


an  evolution  in   the  true   sense    of  the 

word  in  every   part  of  the  problem,  a 

natural  selection,  a  survival  of  the  fittest. 

Perhaps  the  fundamental  fact  in  the 

organization     of     society    '\Z    Marriage  the 

the  method  by  which  the  rJs°ui't^o°f°soTiai 
sexes  are  joined  for  the  in-  instincts, 
crease    and    preservation    of   the  race. 
Marriage  is  one  of  the  most  primitive 


24S 


GREAT  RACES   OF  2rAXKrXD. 


and  occult  forms  with  which  the  historian 
and  ethnologist  has  to  deal.  At  the 
present  time  marriage  is  a  vast  funda- 
mental institution  upon  which  society  is 
in  a  considerable  measure  founded.  But 
this  element  of  the  social  structure  is  it- 
self an  evolution.  The  law  of  its  pro- 
duction is  not  well  understood.  The  line 
in  general  appears  to  have  proceeded, 
in  remote  prehistoric  times,  from  the 
miscellaneous  mating  of  the  sexes  to  the 
present  form  of  monogamy  prevailing 
among  the  most  enlightened  peoples. 
The  intermediate  stages  seem  to  have 
been  first  polyandry,  and  afterwards 
polygamy.  This  is  to  say  that  the  social 
instinct  first  attempted  an  organic  devel- 
opment by  the  line  of  the  female.  She 
was  made  the  central  fact,  and  the  ethnic 
descent  was  drawn  by  way  of  her  for  the 
whole  tribe. 

Around  the  woman  and  on  either  hand 
w^re  arranged  the  men  of  the  tribe. 
Either  of  these  might  be  the  father  of 
her  offspring.  The  oft'spring  thus  had 
the  tribe  for  its  father  and  the  woman 
for  its  mother.  Nearly  all  the  races  have 
passed  through  this  stage  of  evolution. 
A  rude  code  of  marital  principles  was 
formulated  at  a  very  early-  stage  in  the 
history  of  every  inchoate  nation.  As 
late  as  the  times  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs 
the  remnants  of  this  code  were  still  oper- 
ative, for  it  was  not  only  the  privilege 
but  the  duty  of  the  brothers  to  take  the 
widow  of  one  of  their  number  deceased 
and  to  raise  up  children  by  her  line. 

With  the  mutation  of  things  another 
principle  of  sexual  union  appeared  and 
encroached  on  the  first.  This  was  polyg- 
Successive  amv,  or  an  attempt  to  es- 

Sment^'f'"  tablish  the  line  of  descent 
sexual  union.  wholly  by  the  male.  Here 
the  man  was  made  the  central  figure,  and 
many  women  were  associated  with  him 
for  the  multiplication  of  the  tribe.     The 


man  was  married  to  them  all,  or  rathel 
they  to  him.  Their  identity  was  lost  in 
a  single  family  stem  having  for  its  cen- 
tral principle  the  law  of  male  descent. 
Thus  the  evolution  proceeded  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  monogamy,  or  single 
marriage.  The  affinity,  or  rather  deri- 
vation,  of  the  latter  institution  from 
polygani}-  is  indicated  by  a  certain  pre- 
dominance which  the  male  still  maintains 
in  the  organization  of  the  family  and  the 
laws  of  descent.  He  it  is  who  in  general 
owns  and  controls  the  property.  He  it 
is  who  gives  his  name  to  the  offspring. 
He  it  is  who  still  constitutes  the  single 
line  of  descent  from  ancestor  to  posterity. 
The  tendency  in  the  present  age  to  per- 
petuate the  name  of  the  woman  in  the 
offspring,  and  to  establish  in  her  line 
equal  rights  of  inheritance  and  descent, 
are  evidences  that  the  law  of  variation 
and  adaptation  is  still  operative  in  deter- 
mining the  methods  by  wTiich  the  family 
shall  be  constituted  and  its  benefits  con- 
served. 

The  law  of  evolution  works  also  effec- 
tively in  determining  the  products  of 
the  human  mind.  All  of  Artistic  prod- 
the  arts  have  proceeded  rseb;"-"" 
from  this  common  source.  ^^°^- 
Observe  with  care  the  exact  correlation 
existing  between  the  development  of  the 
plastic  art  and  the  general  evolution  of 
the  civilized  life  of  man.  The  growth 
of  this  species  of  artistic  achievement 
may  be  completely  illustrated  in  the  his- 
tory of  a  single  human  life.  Note  with 
care  the  fir.st  attempts  of  the  child,  close 
to  the  borders  of  infancy,  to  create  the 
representative  forms  of  animals  and 
birds.  The  instinct  is  as  natural  as  the 
bodilv  functions,  such  as  breathing  and 
the  use  of  the  senses.  The  child  repro- 
duces in  clay  or  dough  the  form  of  his 
dog  or  cat.  It  is  the  infancy  of  art. 
We   may   see   it   far   away   among   the 


MAXXER    OF   THE   BEGIXXIXG.—EVOLUTIOX  APPLIED. 


243 


broken  potter}-  of  Cush,  or  among  the 
nibbish  of  the  silver-bright  halls  of  the 
Peruvian  Incas.  Note  well  the  charac- 
ter of  those  rude  figures  on  earthen  ves- 
sels, those  half-formed  effigies  of  reptiles 
and  birds  and  beasts  and  men  and  dei- 
ties Avhich  the  primitive  races,  in  far 
apart  quarters  of  the  world,  produced  in 
the  prehistoric  ages.  What  are  they 
but  the  works  of  the  infancy  of  the  race? 
What  are  they  but  the  ancient  ethnical 
prototypes  of  what  is  every  day  repeated 
by  the  children  of  the  civilized  life  as 
with  laughter  and  quaint  conceit  they 
build  up  in  mud  or  dough  the  images  of 
their  fancy  and  set  them  in  array  in  the 
goodly  child-museum  of  the  world  ? 

But  children  soon  arise  from  this  level 
of  infancy.  They  in  whom  the  artistic 
instincts  are  strongest  continue  in  more 
skillful  ways  to  reproduce  with  model 
and  plaster  the  objects  of  the  ideal  sense. 
There  is  thus  in  the  individual  life  a 
A'outh  of  art,  and  after  that  an  early 
manhood.  Still  later  there  is  maturity, 
and  at  length  the  silent  and  august 
chambers  of  some  great  collection  speak 
and  coruscate  with  the  splendors  of 
achievement. 

Precisely  so  in  the  progress  of  the 
race.  There  too  was  there  a  youth  of 
Childhood  of  art  artistic  development  rising 
youtrand  ^^  slowly  f  rom  the  quaintness , 
maturity.  absurdity,    and    grotesque 

outlines  of  the  works  of  childhood. 
There  too  was  there  an  evolution  into 
the  higher  form.  There  too  at  last  the 
survival  of  the  fittest  gave  to  the  world 
an  artistic  age  and  an  artistic  people. 
What  is  true  of  plastic  art  is  true  also 
of  the  art  of  the  brush  and  of  all  other 
arts  soever.  They  have  grown  from 
germinal  conditions.  They  have  sprung 
not  at  once  and  phenomenally  into  full- 
blown proportions  of  truth  and  beauty, 
but  have   come  to   such  state    through 


long  intermediate  stages  and  the  tortur- 
ous processes  of  natural  selection. 

So  also  of  the  correlated  forms  of  lit- 
erature. This,  even  as  art,  has  a  line- 
age as  remote,  an  ancestry  Literature,  also, 
as  olden,  as  the  beginnings  gfo^X^^/d  3^,. 

of      human     consciousness.    Tiiral  of  the  best. 

The  first  slight  excursion  of  human 
thought  and  its  corresponding  expres- 
sion in  some  rude  and  half-ejaculatory 
form  of  speech  marked  the  origin  of  all 
things  possible  in  the  subsequent  ages  of 
literary  development.  It  is  only  in  the 
present  time  that  a  true  concept  has 
been  gained  of  the  far-reaching  lines  of 
force  which  precede  the  delivery  of 
every  single  literarj-  product.  A  great 
poem  or  a  great  history  has  gathered  up 
in  it  much  of  the  vitality  and  reproduc- 
tive energies  of  the  preceding  ages. 

In  a  larger  sense,  each  literary  epoch 
is  the  product  of  an  intellectual  evolu- 
tion which  has  been  going  on  through 
centuries  of  time.  The  men  of  letters  in 
a  given  age  are  only  the  abstracts  and 
summaries  of  mental  forces  which  were 
operative  long  before  their  birth.  More- 
over, the  actual  literature  of  any  given 
epoch  is  but  the  better  residue  of  a  vast 
mental  waste  which  has  perished  in  ob- 
livion. Could  all  the  efforts  of  the  mind 
to  perpetuate  its  acti\'ities  in  the  form 
of  letters  be  recorded  in  a  diagram,  the 
student  of  that  mental  picture  would  be 
confounded  with  an  alternate  rush  of 
admiration  and  of  tears — admiration  for 
the  infinite  outreachings  of  human 
thought,  its  upward  struggle  for  expres- 
sion in  the  realm  of  song  and  story,  and 
tears  for  the  incalculable  waste  and  de- 
cay and  death  of  intellectual  endeavor. 

Each  national  literature  is  in  like  man- 
ner the  product  of  an  evolutionary 
process.  It  does  not  appear  at  once  and 
phenomenally  as  a  dream-born  blossom 
on  a  dream-planted  tree.    It  comes  rather 


244 


GREAT  RACES   OF  .VAXAVXP. 


after  long  ages  of  intellectual  growth 
and  adaptation.  Tnte  it  is  that  history 
Literary  prod-  has  left  but  little  record 
uctoieach  ^       j  j   ^      f    ^j^g   ccnturies 

race  has  its 

own  evolution  which  precede  the  coming 
of  letters  .  for  history  is  dependent  on  lit- 
erary expression  for  all  or  nearly  all  that 
she  has  been  able  to  save  from  the  wreck 
and  desolation  of  time.      But  we  know 


tion  of  traits  and  transmission  of  qualities 
from  age  to  age  as  are  discovered  in  the 
history  of  organic  life.  Lawo<diver- 
The  outline  of  the  evolution  f f"aTho1dsTn' 
of  any  particular  species  letters  as  in  ufe. 
of  literary  composition,  as  for  instance 
of  the  drama,  is  identical  in  its  principal 
features  with  the  diagram  which  repre- 
sents the  life-story  of  the  vegetable  and 


EVOLUTION   OF  WRn  INC.— Hiekoglvphics  Found  in  Cavekn  of  Rocky  Dell. 


that  the  preceding  ages  of  darkness  and 
barbaric  struggle  did  exist,  and  that  let- 
ters came  afterwards  as  the  bloom  and 
fruit  of  a  tree  which  had  been  nurtured 
through  many  ^-icissitudes  by  the  cniel 
but  skillful  hand  of  natural  .selection. 

In  the  history  of  letters  we  find  the 
same  divergence  from  a  common  ances- 
tral type,  the  same  establishment  of  va- 
riation and  species,  the  sa-.ne  accr.mula- 


animal  worlds  or  the  growth  and  diffu- 
sion of  languages. 

In  this  progressive  examination  of  hu- 
man products  we  rise  at  length  to  history 
itself.     The    tenn  is   used 

T^wo  meanings 

m  two  great  senses.     The  of  the  term 
first  includes  the  affairs  of     ^  °'^^' 
men ;    the    events  of   which   men    have 
been  the  creators  or  at  least  the  factors : 
the  aspects  and  conditions  which  human 


MANNER    OF   THE  BEGIXXLXG.—EVOLUTIOX  APPLIED.  245 


life  has  assumed  in  the  successive  ages 
since  the  rise  of  mankind  into  the  con- 
scious state  and  the  civilizing  purpose ; 
and  finally,  the 
causes  and  con- 
comitants of 
this  progress, 
the  general 
trend  and  bear- 
ing of  human- 
ity in  its  course, 
and  the  results 
and  probable 
destiny  of  the 
whole.  The 
other  sense  in 
which  the  word 
history  is  used 
is  the  literar)- 
transcript  of 
the  manifold 
human  p  h  e  - 
nomena  just 
described. 
History  is 
either  the  event 
or  the  account 
o£^  the  event, 
the  thing  done 
or  the  narrative 
thereof,  the 
drama  of  the 
great  arena  as 
it  is  actually 
enacted  or  the 
■written  and  as 
it  were  pictorial 
representation 
of  the  anteced- 
ents, aspects, 
and  denoue- 
ment    of     the 

struggle.  Of  course,  the  important  his- 
tory is  the  real  history ;  that  is,  it  is  the 
event  itself — the  event  with  its  causes, 
conditions,  and  results. 


The  career  of  the  human  race  from 
the  beginning  until  now  is  the  one  su- 
preme and  essential  history  of  which  all 


THE  FIRST  HISTORIANS. 
Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 

the  rest  are  but  fragments  and  reflections. 
But  in  whatever  sen.se  we  ma)'  consider 
the  subject  we  shall  find  that  this  sublime 
result  of  human  agencv,  this  combina- 


246 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


tion  and  concord  as  it  were  of  reason  and 
eternity  which  goes  by  the  name  of  his- 
Events  in  all  tory,  is  itsclf  the  result  of  an 
th:ev:iTtio°„a:^  evolutionary  process.  This 
law.  is   not  said  of   the  primal 

force  with  which  all  human  things  be- 
gan. Here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  origin 
of  life,  we  are  obliged  to  presuppose 
something  antecedent  to  the  beginning 
of  the  organic  form.  Time  was  when 
there  was  no  history.  Time  is  when 
history  is  the  one  great  fact  of  the  world. 
Time  was,  therefore,  when  history  began. 
This  is  to  say  that  there  was  an  origin 
of  events,  a  germ  of  potency  out  of  which 
they  sprang.  The  affairs  of  men  out  of 
such  original  point  of  departure  have 
arisen  like  living  organisms  by  differen- 
tiation and  the  struggle  for  life.  What 
is  an  event  but  a  survival?  How  many 
events  have  perished  in  the  inchoate  con- 
dition !  What  a  prodigious,  almost  in- 
finite, waste  there  has  been  of  human 
life  and  endeavor  in  the  work  of  discov- 
ering the  fittest  thing !  How  much  de- 
spair and  hardship  and  endless  rebuff  and 
suffering  have  attested  by  the  criterion  of 
failure  the  miscarriage  and  extinction  of 
the  fruitless  stems  of  human  purpose 
and  ambition ! 

The  real  historical  diagram,  could  the 
same  be  drawn  in  pictorial  form,  appre- 
Likeness  of  his-  ciable  to  the  sense  of  sight 
r^btKi  as  it  is  dimly  appreciable 
"®®-  to  the  understanding,  would 

be  but  another  example  of  the  biological 
tree.  Here  at  the  beginning  we  should 
have  a  single  line  of  departure  contain- 
ing the  whole  potency  of  the  human  en- 
deavor. A  little  further  on,  the  phe- 
nomena of  variation  and  divergence 
would  appear.  Certain  forms  of  human 
conduct  would  take  outline  correspond- 
ing to  the  varieties  of  living  organisms; 
but  these  forms  would  mostly  perish. 
Only  a  single  form  here  and  there  would 


survive  and  rise  and  expand  into  a  high. 
er  development. 

For  a  long  time  these  growing  and 
diverging  lines  representative  of  the 
progress  of  the  race  would  wind  and 
struggle  through  the  dark-  particular  as- 
ness  and  oppositions  of  P^^^f^f « 
the  prehistoric  ages.  At  Wstory. 
last  a  few  lines  stronger  than  the  rest 
fitter  than  the  rest,  would  rise  as  in 
itial  forms  of  national  life  above  the 
horizon  of  recorded  annals.  One 
people  would  depart  from  another. 
One  career  stronger  than  the  next 
would  push  it  aside,  overgrow  it,  sup- 
plant it.  vSome  events  would  expand 
and  enfold  others,  rise  into  new  aspects, 
bear  on  to  more  conspicuous  results. 
Nations  would  emerge  into  the  open  field 
of  primitive  history.  They  themselves 
would  begin  to  struggle  just  as  other 
species  of  living  entities  contest  for  place 
and  perpetuit}'.  Many  under  pressure 
of  adverse  environment  aVid  the  compe- 
tition of  the  stronger  would  dwindle  to 
extinction .  Others,  by  reason  of  strength 
and  favorable  situation,  would  as  it  were 
make  for  themselves  nutriment  out  of 
the  death  and  decay  of  the  lesser  sort, 
and  thus  rise  to  gigantic  stature. 

The  historical  vine  creeps  westward 
from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Tiber.  Na- 
tions  and    peoples    are    but   Races  and  na- 

the  outbranchings  of  a  com-  ;™,7„*f^\e 
mon  life.  The  Chaldees  immanvine. 
and  the  Assyrians  are  correlative  arms 
thrust  out  left  and  right  from  the  trunk 
which  carried  along  the  potency  of  the 
nations  of  Asia  Elinor.  There  is  a  Grasco- 
Italic  divergence  from  a  stock  which  we 
call  Aryan,  and  history  begins  to  babble 
of  Dorians,  ^olians,  and  lonians ;  fur- 
ther on,  in  clearer  language,  of  .Spartans, 
Athenians,  and  Macedonians.  What  is 
it  all  but  the  evolution  of  the  historical 
life  of  peoples  under  the  one  common 


MANNER    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— EVOLUTION  APPLIED.  247 


law  which  pervades  alike  the  world  of 
matter  and  the  world  of  consciousness 
and  reason? 

Look  at  the  environment.  After  the 
river  valley  the  peninsula  is  more  favor- 
Peninsuia  sue-  able,  as  the  scene  of  histor- 
ical evolution,  than  is  the 
island  or  the  continent.  It 
has  the  advantages  of  soil  and  stream 


ceeds  river  val 
ley  as  the  habi- 
tat of  man. 


in  the  projecting  parts  of  Western  Eu- 
rope. Britain  itself  is  as  much  peninsu- 
lar as  insular.  Denmark  is  a  peninsula ; 
so  also  Sweden  and  Norway.  Aforetime 
Indian  civilization  was  developed  in  the 
peninsula  between  the  bay  of  Bengal 
and  the  Arabian  sea.  Environment  aids 
the  diverging  forces  of  the  human  race 
in  the  struggle  for  existence.     The  peo- 


PROGRESS  FROM  INSTINCT  TO  REASON.— The  Fikst  Potters.— Drawn  by  Emile  li.iy.ird. 


and  forest  growth  and  the  proximity  of 
the  sea.  Generally  the  peninsula  is  fa- 
■  vored  in  mineral  deposits.  When  tribes 
drift  into  such  a  locality  they  begin  to 
flourish,  grow  strong.  Further  on  they 
multiply  and  conqiier.  Society  becomes 
organic.  Law  exists.  Government  is 
instituted.  One  such  locality  is  Greece; 
another  is  Italy ;  another  is  the  Iberian 
peninsula.      The  Celtic  life  develops  best 


pies  thus  promoted  rise  to  historical  im- 
portance, and  the  rest  fail  through  im- 
potency  of  ethnic  energy  or  by  conquest 
of  the  stronger. 

To  pursue  the  subject  along  the  lines 

of    its  multifarious    SUggeS-    Thought  itself 
tions  would  be  to  fill  a  vol-    evolutU.nary 

ume    with    illustrations   of  process. 

the  one  preva'iling  law.    Human  thought 

itself  is  an  exemplification  of  the  evolu- 


248 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKIXD. 


tionaiy  principle  at  work  among  the 
very  highest  forces  of  organic  life.  This 
is  not  to  say  that  thought  is  the  product 
of  material  energies,  but  only  to  offer  an 
explanation  of  the  modes  of  its  operation 
and  the  processes  in  virtue  of  which  its 
efficiency  is  attained  and  manifested. 
Here  again  the  same  formula  applies. 
Time  was  when  the  ancestral  fire-kind- 
ling, tool-shaping,  pot-making  progeni- 
tor of  human  kind  can  hardly  be  said  to 
have  thought  at  all.  Time  is  when  men 
think  to  the  uttermost.  The  excursion 
of  the  intellectual  powers  is  to  all 
heights  and  depths.  The  borders  of  the 
universe  are  reached  on  airy  wing.  The 
empyrean  is  scaled  as  though  it  were 
but  the  dome  of  a  cathedral.  The 
profound  abyss  is  fathomed.  All  worlds 
are  traversed  and  all  space  explored 
with  the  steady  and  unerring  flight  of 
thought.  ^Mystery  is  no  mystery  under 
its  analysis.  The  unknown  recedes  be- 
fore it  and  hides  behind  the  outer  cur- 
tains of  infinitude. 

But  it  was  not  so  in  the  beginning  of 
man-life  as  the  same  is  revealed  in  its 
Reflection  and      primordial  condition  by  the 

reason  spring         ^  .  .  . 

by  growth  from    explorations  of  science. 

sense  and  in-  ,_,  .  i        i  i  •    ■ 

stinct.  i  hen  the  dreamless,  vision- 

less,  and  unaspiring  creatiire  containing 
within  himself  the  jiotency  of  Hindu, 
Parsee,  and  Greek  ;  of  Roman,  Gaul,  and 
Saxon  ;  of  Mohammedan,  Jew,  and  Cath- 
olic; of  Frenchman,  Briton,  and  Ameri- 
can, thought  not  at  all,  or  thought  only 
in  such  sort  as  is  common  to  the  higher 
orders  of  speechless  animals.  Therefore 
the  time  came  when  men  bcnxii  to  think. 
There  was  an  origin  of  the  excursive 
and  reflective  powers  of  mind.  Xot  at 
once  and  in  a  marvelous  manner  did  man 
become  the  animal  that  thinks.  Not  in  a 
day  did  he  become  a  seer,  a  poet,  a  phi- 
losopher. Not  in  a  single  age  did  he  be- 
gin b}^  his  knowledge  of  things,  his  ap- 


prehension of  the  laws  of  causation  and 
consequence,  to  rise  to  power  and  great- 
ness in  the  arena  of  the  world.  Thought 
itself,  the  power  to  think,  began  to  grow 
by  differentiation,  by  struggle,  by  resist- 
ance, by  success,  by  adaptation  to  con- 
dition and  the  survival  of  what  was  best. 
The  human  mind,  with  all  of  its  sub- 
lime powers  and  capacities,  is  a  residue, 
a   descendant,    a  survival. 

The  present  hu- 

We     touch    here     upon      the    man  mind  a  sur- 

,  ,    ,.  ,      ,  vivalof  the  ages. 

close  correlation  between 
mind  and  organism.  The  manifestation 
of  mind  is  by  means  of  organic  structure. 
So  far  as  our  present  state  is  concerned 
we  discover  it  only  in  connection  with 
brain.  So  much  brain,  so  much  manifes- 
tation of  intelligence,is  the  rule  through- 
out animated  nature.  Men  are  graded 
up  or  graded  down  in  the  scale  of  being 
accordingly  as  they  do  or  do  not  possess 
a  highly  organized  nervous  system  and 
a  heavy  brain.  The  distance  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest  is  the  distance  from 
the  brain  of  the  Bushman  to  the  brain 
of  Cuvier.  This  is  said  of  the  iiianifes- 
tation  of  intelligence.  How  much  hid- 
den and  unrevealed  power  there  may 
be  in  man  it  is  not  our  province  to 
determine,  but  rather  to  note  the  forth- 
showing  of  his  intellect  and  will  and  pur- 
pose in  correlation  with  organic  structure. 
We  have  seen  above  how  organism 
fits  and  adapts  itself  to  environment; 
how  it  flourishes  under  some  conditions 
and  languishes  under  oth-  intellect  varies 
ers.  So  also  of  the  mind.  ^^.^^T-ftrr 
The  intellect  has  its  en-  ^abit. 
A'ironment.  It  varies  and  takes  new 
forms  of  activity  according  to  the  condi- 
tions under  which  it  is  placed.  The  best 
forms  of  intellect  survive,  and  the  poor- 
er forms  become  extinct.  Mind  is  dif- 
ferentiated into  varieties  and  species. 
There  was  aforetime  the  mythological 
mind  of  antiquity.     Clo.sely  allied  to  tbi" 


MANNER   OF   THE  BEGINNING.— EVOLUTION  APPLIED. 


249 


was  the  mirthful  and  artistic  mind,  such 
as  we  note  in  the  case  of  the  Greeks. 
Afterwards  there  was  the  mind  of  order, 
oppression,  and  authority.  There  have 
been  ages  in  which  the  credulous  and 
superstitious  mind  was  the  prevalent 
type,  and  other  ages  in  which  cruelty 
and  animality  were  the  prevailing  men- 
tal characteristics  of  peoples  and  races. 
There  have  been  pei-iods  of  speculative 
activity,  and  last  of  all  an  age  of  scien- 
tific acquaintance  with  the  phenomena 
and  laws  of  the  natural  world. 

Thus  the  mind  has  not  only  its  indi- 
vidual peculiarities  and  dispositions,  but 
Mind  struggles  also  its  Varieties,  its  species, 
f^ces'^^^'rs'""  its  genera.  Like  the  bod- 
developed.  ily  organism,  the  intellect 

has  had^  to  struggle  with  opposing  forces, 
with  the  shadows  of  doubt  and  darkness, 
the  trackless  wilds  of  uncertainty  and 
error,  the  battles  of  contingency  and 
fact,  with  powers  and  dominions  and 
systems,  the  wreckage  of  the  past,  and 
the  visionary  outlines  of  the  future. 
Hope  has  supplied  one  motive  and  fear 
another.  Happiness  and  hunger,  suffer- 
ing and  ambition,  the  satiety  of  things 
present  and  the  longing  for  things 
unseen,  mystery,  passion,  dream-born 
phantom,  syllogistic  formula  and  life 
and  death — all  these  have  contributed 
to  give  to  the  mind  not  only  its  moods 
and  current  phases  of  activity,  but  also 
its  permanent  fashion,  its  fixed  heredi- 
tary character,  its  outline,  and  even  its 
pictorial  details;  as  the  same  are  reflected 
on  the  magical  screen  of  the  world's 
literature  and  art. 

We  come  thus  to  the  border  land  of 
the  moral  nature  of  man.  wSuch  a  nature 
The  moral  na-  exists  within  him.  In  dif- 
lawVmres'f'  ferent  races  and  peoples  it 
and  survival.  has  a  Varying  degree  of 
development.     There  are  tribes,  such  as 

those  of  Central  Africa  and  they  whom 
M. — Vol.  I — 17 


Herndon  discovered  in  the  upper  valleys 
of  the  Amazon,  in  whom  the  moral  nature 
is  scarcely  more  than  a  possibility.  There 
are  races  in  which  this  high  sense  is  dom- 
inant over  all  the  other  human  powers. 
The  evolution  of  conscience  has  varied  ac- 
cording to  the  endless  fluctuation  of  con- 
ditions and  circumstances.  Among  the 
lower  races  the  moral  nature  gives  but 
an  uncertain  sound.  Its  voice  is  but  as 
the  voice  of  the  rain-maker,  the  conjurer, 
the  snake-charmer,  the  medicine  man 
of  the  savage  state.  With  the  higher 
peoples  liie  moral  harp  is  attuned  to 
nobler  harmonies.  B3'  these  the  laws  of 
right  and  wrong  have  been-'discovered. 
Here  the  difference  between  turpitude 
I  and  justice,  between  innocence  and 
virtue,  between  crime  and  righteous- 
ness has  been  found  and  measured  by  a 
standard. 

But  how  long  and  painful  has  been 
the  conflict  through  which  the  moral  na- 
ture of  man  has  passed  in  Reugions  are 
its  development!  The  ^^^J^tu^" 
evolution  ihcludes  every  the  races, 
variety  of  hardship  and  trial.  Who  can 
number  the  s^^stems  and  codes  of  moral- 
ity which  have  marked  the  various  stages 
of  human  progress  from  savagery  to  civ- 
ilization? As  the  condition  has  been,  so 
has  been  the  moral  standard.  Just  as  a 
given  people  has  been  evolved  out  of  the 
barbarous  condition,  just  as  it  has  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  a  higher  and  more 
salubrious  plane  of  activity,  just  in  that 
degree  has  the  moral  code  unfolded  into 
a  newer  and  better  life. 

Conscience  has,  on  the  whole,  been  cor- 
related with  the  other  elements  of  civil- 
ization.        Rectitude     as     a   conscience  and 

principle  of  human  conduct  d^*  of  s^ruggTe 
has   come  with  the  emer-  and  adaptation, 
gence  from  the  savage  state.    Justice  has 
been  established  in  proportion  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  other  elements  of  the 


MANNER    OF   THE  BEGINNING.— EVOLUTION  APPLIED. 


251 


Man  himself  a 
resultant;  an- 
thropomorpliism 
passes  a-way. 


higher  life  of  man.  Honor  and  truth 
have  been  regarded  according  to  the 
varj'ing  stages  of  physical  and  intellec- 
tual progress  with  which  these  ennobling 
qualities  have  been  connected  in  time 
and  dependency.  There  has  been  in  the 
domain  of  the  moral  life,  in  the  history 
of  the  moral  nature  of  mankind,  the 
same  struggle  and  warfare,  the  same 
differentiation  from  common  types  and 
standards,  the  same  phenomena  of  vari- 
ation into  specific  forms  as  we  discover 
among  the  living  organisms  of  the  nat- 
ural world  and  in  the  purely  intellectual 
progress  of  the  race. 

Finally,  man  himself  considered  as  an 
entity — -viewed  not  from  the  side  of  his 
orsfanic  being  but  more  largelv  as  a  liv- 
ing,  conscious  agent,  chief 
among  the  creatures  inhab- 
iting this  visible  sphere 
of  activity — is  a  residue,  a  result,  an 
evolution.  This  is  said  of  man  consid- 
ered as  a  whole  and  apart  from  his  par- 
ticular faculties  and  modes  of  action. 
Under  the  old  anthropomorphic  system 
of  belief  it  was  natural,  inevitable,  that 
man  should  be  regarded  chiefly  in  his 
causative  character.  He  was  viewed  as  a 
cause — as  an  originator  of  forces  and 
the  creator  of  things.  Such  a  judgment 
of  his  relations  to  the  world  in  which  he 
is  appointed  to  act  his  part  was  natural, 
almost  necessary,  as  the  first  opinion  of 
human  beings  respecting  themselves. 
Each  viewed  the  other  as  an  active  pro- 
ducingf  agfent.  Each  saw,  or  seemed  to 
see,  the  affair,  the  event,  arising  from 
the  human  hand  and  will.  It  was 
natural  to  conclude  that  all  the  visible 
conditions  of  life  were  the  results  of  the 
productive  energies  of  men.  They  were 
causes,  and  all  things  else  were  the  ef- 
fects of  their  cau.sation. 

The  man  was  thus  placed   first,   and 
civilization  afterwards.  Cities  and  states 


and  kingdoms  were  made  by  men.  Art 
and  letters  were  produced  by  men.  Great 
contests  in  the  senate  house  Relations  of  man 
and  greater  battles  in  the  *^ti^t™n,, 

o  to  progress  ana 

field  were  fought  by  men.  civilization. 
Pyramids  and  temples  and  sculptured 
monuments  Avere  done  by  men.  Impe-  ^ 
rial  dominion  was  achieved  by  man.  His 
were  the  ship  and  the  poem,  the  catapult 
and  the  aqueduct,  the  paradise  and  the 
pantheon. 

It  is  only  in  recent  times  that  a  larger 
view  of  the  principles  of  universal  causa- 
tion has  been  obtained.  The  under- 
standing has  at  length  taken  precedence 
of  mere  sense,  and  man  is  seen  in  a  dif- 
ferent relation  with  the  world  which  he 
inhabits.  He  is  himself  seen  as  a  result 
of  antecedents.  Not  that  his  poM-er  of 
causation  is  wholly  taken  away.  Not 
that  he  is,  under  philosophical  scrutiny, 
unable  to  influence  the  conditions  under 
which  he  lives.  Not  that  he  may  not 
deflect  somewhat  the  lines  of  force  which 
pass  through  him  or  by  his  side.  But, 
on  the  whole,  he  has  ceased  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  cause  of  the  things  that 
are  and  have  been.  He  himself  is  rather 
the  result  of  forces  that  were  operative 
long  before  the  beginning  of  his  con- 
sciovis  existence. 

These  forces  have  conspired  and  co- 
operated to  make  man  what  he  is.  This 
is  not  to  say  that  within  the  limits  of  his 

own  consciousness  he  is  not    spontaneity  of 

himself;  not  to  say  that  ^Tewco" 
he  is  deprived  of  spon-  of  his  nature, 
taneity ;  not  to  say  that  his  faculties  are 
under  control  of  a  fatality  above  him- 
self; not  to  say  that  his  own  direction 
through  the  intellectual  and  moral  sphere 
is  not  determinable  by  a  will  and  purpose 
of  his  own ;  but  rather  that  the  man  is, 
in  a  general  sense,  the  product  of  the 
age,  the  child  of  a  larger  destiny,  the 
offspring  of  a  paternity  whose  line  of 


252 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


descent  is  old  as  the  birth  of  the  human 
race. 

These  principles  are  true  of  the  man 
as  an  individual.  He  is,  on  the  whole, 
The  individual  what  he  is  by  the  condi- 
boundfrom  ^^         ^f  birth,  anccstrv,  as- 

birth  -with  fixed  '  -' 

Umitations.  sociation,  discipline, and  Op- 

portunity. No  man  can  change  his  race. 
He  is  not  consulted  as  to  the  ethnic  fam- 
ily to  which  he  will  belong.  He  is  not 
influential  in  determining  the  name  and 
classification  of  his  kindred.  He  is  thrust 
into  the  world  with  as  little  power  over 
his  origin  and  over  the  particular  condi- 
tions which  shall  determine  his  place 
and  opportunity  of  survival  as  though  he 
were  the  product  of  a  seed  transported 
across  continents  and  seas  and  planted 
in  strange  regions.  Here  is  the  Es- 
quimau in  his  hut,  and  yonder  the  native 
Australian  sheltered  by  his  half-formed 
tent.  One  is  born  in  a  palace,  another 
in  a  hovel.  One  is  taken  to  the  bosom 
of  a  Turkish  mother  as  she  lies  reclining 
on  the  rugs  of  a  harem  at  Ispahan.  An- 
other is  caught  up  and  borne  away  by 
the  swinging  camel  across  the  limitless 
desert.  A  third  beholds  the  light  froiu 
the  heart  of  the  roaring  metropolis  of 
the  British  nation,  and  a  fourth  begins 
to  be  in  a  cabin  on  the  skirts  of  the  clear- 
ing, where  the  corn  is  planted,  and  the 
robin  builds  her  spring  nest  in  the  ash 
tree. 

The  after  conditions  of  life  are  deter- 
mined for   the    individual    rather   than 
made  by  him.     It  is  said  that  great  war- 
riors are   born ;    but   none 

Genius  is  born, 

but  fashioned      are  born    in  other  than  a 

by  en-viroument.  ,.i  ,     rt^,  ,     , 

warlike  age !  The  poet  also 
is  said  to  be  born,  not  made;  but  if  the 
epoch  do  not  favor,  what  then?  If  the 
antecedent  forces  have  not  conspired 
to  produce  him,  what  then?  If  the  ma- 
terials of  great  song  have  not  been 
supplied  by  his  race  and  times  and  lan- 


guage, what  then?  If  his  physical  or- 
ganism should  fail — if  malignant  disease 
should  invade  or  vice  pervert  the  nature 
within  him,  what  then?  The  orator,  also, 
and  the  statesman,  the  philosopher  and 
the  man  of  letters,  are  each  and  all  in- 
debted to  the  combination  of  the  forces 
of  heredity  with  the  forces  of  environ- 
ment, to  the  temper  of  the  age,  and  even 
to  the  opportunity  of  a  great  event,  for 
the  development  of  their  powers  and  their 
intellectual  mastery  of  the  epoch  in  which 
they  flourish. 

As  already  intimated,  it  is  not  intended 
to  press  unduly  and  beyond  the  limits 
of'  demonstrable  proof  the  as  comes  the 
argument  for  theproduction  '^ZZt:^^.. 
and  shaping  of  the  life  cies  by  growth, 
of  man  by  the  operation  of  secondary 
causes.  But  that  he  is  in  large  measure 
a  result  of  conditions,  a  product  of  forces 
antecedent  and  superior  to  himself,  is  a 
proposition  too  plain  and  too  well  estab- 
lished by  indubitable  facts  to  be  confuted. 
What  is  true  of  the  individual  is  true  in 
a  larger  sense  of  his  kind.  The  different 
families  of  men,  the  races,  the  species — ■ 
if  so  we  call  them — have  in  like  manner 
come  to  be  what  they  are  by  the  action 
of  extraneous  forces;  that  is,  by  the 
coaction  of  extraneous  forces  with  the 
inherent  forces  of  life  and  growth. 

Of  a  certainty  a  given  variety  of  men 
can  not  be  made  exclusively  by  environ- 

ment.         A      type      can     not    Environment 

be  produced  simply  with  rcttn"o?hu":°' 
a  mold;  albeit,  there  must  mankind, 
be  something  to  be  cast  into  the  mold ! 
In  every  adaptation  there  is  an  extra- 
neous state,  condition,  or  fact,  and  an- 
other fact  or  force  brought  into  contact 
and  fitness  therewith.  It  Vere  too  much 
to  say  that  the  Esquimaux  are  the  prod- 
uct of  the  arctic  regions ;  that  the 
Turanians  are  the  progeny  of  the  Asiatic 
steppes ;    that  the  supple    Malay  is  the 


MANNER    OF    THE   BEGINNING.— E]'OLUTION  APPLIED. 


253 


offspring  of  the  cocoa-groves  and  soft, 
warm  air  of  Java ;  that  the  Patagonian 
is  the  product  of  the  peculiar  climate 
and  country  of  his  nativity.  But  it  is 
true  that  all  of  these  forms  of  human 
kind  are  typically  what  they  are  by  the 
influence  of  the  mold  into  which  they 
were  cast  by  ethnic  distribution  and  by 
the  forces  which  have  played  upon  them 
in  the  long  processes  of  tribal  and  na- 
tional development. 

All  men  are  men ;  but  the  deflection 
from  the  common  type  is  very  great. 
Man  a  resultant  The  departure  in  any  given 
u/a'nd  environ!  ^ase  from  the  original  pat- 
nie'it-  tern  must  be  measured  as 

a  resultant  from  the  combined  forces  of 
ethnic  heredity  and  environment.  The 
cranium  of  a  Flathead  Indian  is  still  a 
human  head,  however  much  it  has  been 
made  to  depart  from  the  normal  type  by 
pressure.  Among  savages  many  of  the 
bodily  organs  have  been  distorted  almost 
out  of  semblance  to  the  normal  parts 
which  they  represent ;  and  yet  they  are 
essentially  the  same.  Environment  and 
special  conditions  have  produced  the  ab- 
normality, but  nature  gave  the  material 
of  the  product. 

The  differentiation  of  the  races  of  men 
has  been  effected  along  certain  lines  of 
national  preference  and  appetency.  The 
Races  differen-  Aryan  peoples  have  been 
tiatedbynat-      ^^|^      explorcrs   of    nature; 

ural  preference  -r  ' 

and  appetency,  the  discoverers  of  causes. 
They  have  been  the  adventurers  and 
conquerors  of  mankind.  They  have  been 
the  makers  of  the  myth,  the  fable,  and 
the  song.  Further  on  in  the  evolution 
they  have  been  the  Avielders  of  great 
forces,  the  inventors  of  prodigies,  the 
subduers  of  the  natural  world.  From 
all  this  the  .Semitic  line  of  departure  is 
clearly  drawn.  To  the  Semites  belonged 
the  discovery  of  ancient  religions,  the 
recognition   of  almightiness  behind  the 


cloud  and  shroud  of  nature,  the  formu- 
lation of  systems  of  belief  and  ceremony. 
Later  on  we  discover  in  the  descendants 
of  these  the  skill  to  gather — as  quick- 
silver  gathers — gold  among  the  debris 
of  the  nations.  The  Hamites  were  the 
builders  of  the  ancient  world.  Behold 
the  pyramids,  the  tombs,  and  palaces  of 
Egypt  and  Chaldaea ! 

Among  modern  peoples  the  law  of 
specialization  has  worked  out  still  more 
wonderful  results.   The  dif- 

Extent  to  which 

ferent   races    are    special-  the  various  races 

J        1  ,  are  specialized. 

ized,  almost  as  so  many  or- 
gans, in  one  huge  body,  each  having  its 
function  in  the  universal  whole  of  the 
varied  life  of  man.  These  divergences 
in  powers,  capacities,  aptitudes,  and  ac- 
complishments have  been  produced  by 
the  same  law  of  variation  which  holds 
good  in  the  domain  of  animated  nature. 
The  Greeks  were  the  merchants  of  the 
classical  ages,  as  the  Tyrians  and  Sido- 
nians  had  been  before  them.  Observe  in 
this  fact  the  operation  of  two  forces: 
ethnic  energy  and  commercial  situation. 
There  was  an  adaptation  of  the  race  to 
the  place — of  the  people  to  the  oppor- 
tunity. 

So  in  the  case  of  Great  Britain,  The 
English-speaking  race  has  gone  forth 
into  many  situations.  The  Differentiation 
ethnic  force  is  sufficient  to  ^'X^lf::^' 
account  for  the  adventure,  pies  considered, 
and  adaptation  to  account  for  the  re- 
sults. The  great  problem  of  English 
civilization — the  problem  of  holding  in 
one  imperial  structure  of  societ}^  all  di- 
visions of  the  multiplied  m.illions  who 
speak  the  language  of  Alfred  and  Chau- 
cer— is  complicated  to  the  last  degree  by 
the  fact  that  the  commercial  and  seafar- 
ing and  warlike  character  which  was  so 
strongly  impressed  upon  the  original 
people  has  been  specialized  under  the 
law  of    environment   and  circumstance 


254 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


into  many  wide-apart  and  diverse  nation- 
al characteristics.  One  of  these  English 
tribes  holds  Australia ;  another,  seventy 
millions  strong,  occupies  North  Amer- 
ica; another  division,  in  rapid  process  of 
specialization,  dominates  and  will  at 
length  populate  Hindustan.  They  are 
surviving  branches  of  a  single  ethnic  tree. 
There  have  thus  arisen  varieties  or 
s/>eciis  of  Englishmen.  Specialization 
has  done  its  -work  until  the  original 
British  type  is  with  difficulty  discovered 
in  the  lumberman  of  Ontario,  the  miner 


of  the  Colorado  caiion,  the  ranchman  of 
the  Llano  Estacado,  the  sheep-raiser  of 
New  South  Wales,  and  the  opium  mer- 
chant of  Allahabad.  In  all  parts  the  law 
of  differentiation  and  growth,  with  the 
survival  of  the  best  forms  and  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  weaker,  has  prevailed, 
until  the  races  of  mankind  have  become 
specialized  at  the  extremes  of  the  human 
distribution,  even  as  the  organs  of  a  liv- 
ing body  have  been  brought  into  exist- 
ence and  efficiency  by  their  uses  and 
adaptations. 


Chapter  XIV.— Objections  Considered. 


E  have  thus  pursued  the 
theory  of  evolution  to 
the  full  limits  of  fitness 
in  a  work  such  as  the 
present.  We  have 
viewed  it  as  the  viodiis 
operandi  of  universal 
nature  and  of  man.  We  have  seen  it  ex- 
emplified, first  of  all,  in  the  laws  and 
processes  of  individual  growth,  whereby 
each  living  organisna  in  the  great  king- 
dom of  life  has  been  brought  by  strug- 
gle, fitness,  and  survival,  by  differenti- 
ation, growth,  and  exercise  into  the 
mature  and  perfected  form.  From  this 
starting  point  in  the  career  of  the  indi- 
vidual Ave  have  extended  the  study  to 
varieties  and  species  of  living  beings. 
Summary  of  de-  We  liave  obscrved  among 
presenrsta°g':f  these  the  Same  principle 
the  inquiry.  of  divergence,  develop- 
ment, and  adaptation  as  were  found  to 
govern  the  course  of  the  individual  or- 
ganism from  the  germ  to  the  perfection 
of  its  powers.  We  have  considered  the 
same  law  as  illustrated  in  the  growth  of 
the  world  and  our  associated  planets 
from  a  common  solar  mass  of  attenuated 


matter.  Further  on  we  have  applied  the 
theory  to  the  products  of  human  intelli- 
gence, such  as  language,  institutions, 
and  laws.  We  have  seen  that  these  also 
spring  out  of  primordial  conditions ;  that 
they  diverge  and  struggle,  survive  by 
fitness  or  perish  by  incongruity  with 
conditions  and  circumstances. 

We  have  noted,  in  the  next  place, 
how  the  law  holds  also  in  a  wider  and 
higher  sense  of  the  human  mind  itself 
and  of  the  moral  nature  of  man ;  and, 
last  of  all,  we  have  observed  the  appli- 
cation of  evolution  to  man  himself.  We 
have  considered  him  as  a  living  entity 
working  his  way  through  a  thousand 
tentative  efforts  to  the  maturity  of  his 
powers.  We  have  seen  that  in  general 
the  different  forms  of  human  life,  as  ex- 
hibited in  races  and  kindreds — spring- 
ing, as  they  did  spring,  from  a  common 
human  type — have  conformed  in  their 
movements  and  methods  of  development 
to  the  same  principles  which  seem  to 
prevail  throughout  the  whole  world  of 
organic  life,  and  indeed  in  universal  na- 
ture. It  now  remains  to  note  some  of 
the  objections  which  have  been  suggest- 


MAXXER    OF    THE   BEGLYXIXG.—OBJECTIOXS   COXSIDEKED.     255 


ed,  some  of  the  reasons  which  have  been 
urged,  for  the  rejection  of  the  theory  of 
evolution  considered  as  an  explanation 
of  the  phenomena  of  life. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  said  as  a  ground 
of  disbelief  in  the  hypothesis  of  evolu- 
Objected  that  tion  that  it  assigns  to  the 
linsatowiy  tumau  spccies  a  degraded 
origin  to  man.  origin.  The  doctrine  places 
man  in  his  genesis  and  development  on 
a  level,  so  to  speak,  with  the  beasts 
which  nature  has  made  prone  and  obe- 
dient to  their  appetites.  Man,  so  far  as 
the  testimony  of  his  consciousness  is  con- 
cerned, holds  himself  strorfgly  aloof 
from  the  rest  of  animated  nature.  He 
is  able  to  discover  in  himself  certain 
mental  and  spiritual  qualities  which  do 
not  affiliate  with  any  coixesponding  traits 
in  the  animals  below  him.  He  has 
hopes  and  fears,  aspirations  and  ambi- 
tions, musings  and  speculative  reveries, 
excursive  fancy  and  the  multiplication 
of  knowledge,  for  none  of  which  can  he 
find  a  parallel  in  the  mental  habits  of 
the  living  beings  around  him? 

Man  feels  instinctively  that  his  nobil- 
ity as  a  conscious  creature  lies  in  the 
Instinctive  sen-    measure   of  his  departure 

timentofmen         £  ^|  habitudcS      and 

respecting  tneir 

origin.  nature  of  the  beasts.     Any 

approach  to  them  in  his  thoughts  and 
manners  and  instincts  is  recognized  at 
once  by  himself  as  a  degradation  of  his 
nature  and  the  stultification  of  all  his 
better  parts.  The  assignment,  therefore, 
of  a  common  origin  for  his  own  species 
and  the  higher  orders  of  lower  animals 
appears  revolting  to  his  nobler  senti- 
ments. He  feels  that  his  race  is  scandal- 
ized by  attributing  thereto  such  a  gen- 
esis. For  this  reason  the  theory  of 
evolution  has  been  strongly  resisted  as 
inconsistent  with  the  high  estimate  which 
man  discovers  in  his  own  consciousness 
of  himself,  of  his  origin,  and  his  destiny. 


Such  a  feeling  in  human  nature  is  not 
to  be  put  lightly  aside.  Observe  with 
care  that  a  sentiment  of  suchbeUefit- 
thiskindmustitself.accord-  iZl^^^^^' 
ing  to  the  hypothesis  of  processes, 
evolution,  have  been  produced  in  man 
from  an  instinctive  germ  of  belief  devel- 
oped through  ages  of  growth  and  varia- 
tion, and  fixed  at  last  by  certain  con- 
ditions as  an  immutable  part  of  human 
nature.  The  existence  of  such  a  senti- 
ment and  belief  must  be  overcome  by 
right  reason  and  irrefragable  proofs  be- 
fore it  can  be  given  up  and  replaced  with 
a  totally  different  concept  of  the  origin 
and  primeval  state  of  human  kind. 

Let  us  approach  this  problem  with 
equanimity.  What  has  history  to  do 
with  the  small  prejudices  and  fluctuating 
opinions  of  the  current  age  ?  She  neither 
courts  them  nor  rejects  them.  She  views 
them  simply  as  a  part  of  that  vast  sub- 
ject-matter with  which  her  volumes  of 
majestic  lore  are  afterwhiles  to  be  filled. 
History  will  not  espouse  a  party  or 
range  her  forces  with  any  of  the  divi- 
sions of  human  society.  Rather  must 
she  hold  all  things  in  even  balance  if 
thereby  her  own  sublime  purpose  may 
be  fulfilled ;  for  she  knows  nothing  but 
right  and  truth. 

The  antipathy  of  man  to  a  lowly  orig- 
inal for  his  kind  is  natural.      We  must 
examine     the      sentiment,  istherepug- 
however,   and    discover,   if  ™i°S 
we  may,  whether  such  an  or  habitual? 
opinion  is  really  rational  or  only  habit- 
ual.     In  pursuing  such  an  inquir}-  we 
may  find  the  best  materials  of  the  argu- 
ment in   the   history  of   the   individual 
life  of  man.    This  is,  without  doubt,  suf- 
ficiently lowly.      The  beginning  of  an 
individual  life  is  obscurely  hid  among 
the  actions  ancj  coactions  of  matter  and 
force.     In  what  sense  can  it  be  said  that 
the  individual  man  is  created  ?    Certainly 


256 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIXD. 


not  in  the  sense  that  he  has  been  pro- 
duced in  an  adult  form  and  a  phenom- 
enal manner.  On  the  contrary,  every 
human  life  begins  in  obscurity,  deep  in 
the  inscrutable  recesses  of  a  microscopic 
germ.  Thus  much  is  not  theory,  but 
demonstrable  fact  indubitably  estab- 
lished by  universal  experience  and  at- 
tested by  all  the  criteria  of  science. 

Moreover,  the  first  stages  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  individual  life  of  man  are  in 
like    manner   obscure    and    obedient    to 


FCETI   OF   DIFFERENT    ANIMALS — SHOWING  THE   COMMON'  PLAN  OF   NATURE. 

(A,  A',  of  tortoise,  at  four  and  six  weeks ;  B,  B',  of  the  chick,  at  four  and  eight  days ;  C,  C 

of  the  dog,  at  four  and  six  weeks;  D,  D',  of  the  human  being,  at  four  and  eight  weeks.) 

merely  physical    law.     The   pattern   of 

the  human  creature  that  is  to  be  is  the 

.      ,  ,     same  as  that  employed  by 

Obscurity  of  the  .  . 

first  stages  ia  all  nature  in  producing  all  the 

animal  life.  i  •    i  r  /•         •        ,     i 

higher  forms  of  animated 
being.  The  living  creature  tha't  is  to  be 
is  not  discriminable  by  any  test  from  the 
correlated  orders  of  life,  and  is  depend- 
ent for  its  future  distinction  wholly 
tipon  a  differentiation  which  is  not  ap- 
parent at  the  beginning  of  existence. 
The  physical  life  of  man  is  thus  at  the 
first  a  series  of  phenomena  identical,  so 
far  as  science  has  been  able  to  discover. 


with  the  life  of  other  living  beings  of  a 
lower  order. 

Nor  do  the    evidences   of   difference 
rapidly     and     marvelously    appear    and 

multiply;    but   only  slowly.    Difference  of  hu- 

tediously,  and  without  man-  r^ai^^^p^t^ 
if  est  emphasis  of  purpose,  butsiowiy. 
The  embryonic  human  being  gradually 
dej^arts  somewhat  from  the  common 
type,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  unborn 
progeny  of  one  of  the  lower  animals. 
In  the  one  case  the  development  begins 
to  be  manward ;  and  in 
other  instances  horse- 
ward,  kineward,  dog- 
ward.  It  is  only  in  the 
latter  stages  of  prenatal 
existence  that  the  crea- 
ture containing  within 
itself  the  possibility  of 
man  begins  to  show  a 
marked  difference  from 
the  unborn  young  of 
other  species  of  animals. 
Even  at  birth  and 
after  birth  the  immatur- 
ity and  imperfection  of 
the  human  creature  are 
most  conspicuous.  His 
organs  are,  as  it  were, 
but  potential  suggestions 
of  what  they  are  to  be- 
come by  growth  and  development.  As  to 
intelligence,  the  new-born  -weakness  and 
being  has  none  whatever,  f.^nSlE; 
with  the  exception  of  those  cwid. 
animal  instincts  which  are  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  its  life.  Even  these 
are  by  no  means  highly  developed. 
Many  of  the  lower  animals  come  into 
the  world  with  capacities  and  instincts 
of  preservative  activity  far  superior  to 
any  exhibited  by  the  newborn  of  human 
kind.  As  to  physical  action,  a  like  infe- 
riority is  observable.  The  infant  of  the 
human  species  can  neither  rise  nor  sit, 


MANNER   OF   THE   BEGINNING.— OBJECTIOXS   CONSIDERED.     257 


neither  stand  nor  walk.  Perhaps  of  all 
things  living  the  young  of  the  human 
race  are  the  most  absolutely  helpless  and 
dependent. 

Nor  may  the  initial  evidences  of  ac- 
tivity in  infancy  be  regarded  as  indica- 
tive of  a  higher  order  of  life.  The  infant 
irrationauty  of  left  to  itself  sprawls  in  utter 
Srinn."  helplessness,  moving  its 
f^^^^-  limbs  in  a  lawless  manner, 

showing  no  evidences  of  adaptation  to 
the  necessities  of  its  being.  The  com- 
ing of  intelligence,  meanwhile,  is  exceed- 
ingly slow.  How  feeble  are  the  first 
movements  of  brain-power  and  intellec- 
tion !  For  many  months  language  con- 
sists only  of  ejaculatory  cries,  in  no 
manner  differently  vocalized  or  more 
significant  than  the  cries  of  birds  and 
beasts.  Observe  the  beginnings  of 
speech.  First,  the  organs  instinctively 
produce  monosyllabic  forms  without 
significance — mere  babbling  repetitions 
of  meaningless  sound.  Finally,  there  is 
the  faint  light  of  imitation.  At  last  the 
utterance  of  one  word  is  effected,  and 
after  a  month  of  effort  another !  What 
a  beginning  for  the  rushing  vocabularies 
of  Shakespeare,  Goethe,  and  Hugo ! 

Meanwhile'  the  bodily  functions  re- 
main under  the  dominion  of  instinct  and 
Evolution  of  the  animal  law.  The  Avonder 
p^ow^r^ircU-  of  ^^^alking  upright  is  at 
iioo'i-  length  accomplished.    The 

child  laughs  and  speaks,  and  (mar\-el  of 
marvels ! )  loves !  It  begins  to  be  ration- 
al; that  is,  human.  Hitherto  it  ha~ 
been  irrational ;  that  is,  animal.  Here- 
after reason  shall  more  and  more  arise 
and  assert  its  sway.  There  will  be  the 
waywardness  of  childhood,  the  efferves- 
cence and  folly  of  youth,  the  passion 
and  power  of  coming  manhood,  and  final- 
ly the  maturity  of  power.  But  how  few 
of  human  creatures  ever  reach  complete- 
ness of  individuality  and  the  perfection 


of  reason !  How  many  complete  theii 
career  on  a  plane  but  one  degree  above 
that  on  which  the  higher  orders  of  ani- 
mals  perform  their  instinctive  and  irra- 
tional parts  in  the  drama  of  life : 

What  we  are  here  to  consider  is  this : 
The  true  estimate  which  every  mature 
human  being  is  obliged  to  Estimate  that 

form  of  his  own  individual  "/'^.'^"stfo'™ 

of  his  own  Indi- 
an tecedents     and      history,    vldual  history. 

Man  is  constrained  to  accept  for  himself 
as  a  person  the  lowliest  of  lowly  begin- 
nings. He  is  obliged  to  recognize  the 
fact  that  his  own  genesis  as  a  living 
creature  has  been  not  only  in  close  anal- 
ogy with  the  history  of  animal  life  in 
general,  but  absolutely  identical  there- 
with. Ever)^  thoughtful  man  is  con- 
strained to  consider  himself  as  once  exist- 
ing potentially  in  a  mass  of  half-organic 
protoplasmic  cells.  He  is  obliged  to 
reflect  upon  his  embryonic  life,  upon  the 
fact  of  his  birth  into  the  world,  and  the 
insensate  animal  life  which  he  must  needs 
live  during  the  first  year  or  years  of  his 
existence  in  this  strange  arena.  He 
must  remember  himself  as  prone  and 
under  the  dominion  of  animal  instincts 
- — living  only  by  the  aid  of  the  life  and 
love  of  others.  He  must  see  himself  in 
that  far  estate  abased  to  a  condition  of 
intelligence  not  comparable  for  intelli- 
gence with  that  which  characterizes  the 
young  of  the  beasts  and  birds. 

But  with  what  sentiment  should  he 
regard  this  antecedent  and  irrational  por- 
tion of  his  career?  Certain-  with -what  sen- 
ly  not  with  shame  or  with  '^^.T:^^ 
a  sense  of  humiliation,  "self. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  reasons 
which  a  reflective  mind  may  discover  in 
all  this  for  a  justifiable  pride  in  the  de- 
gree of  departure  and  elevation  which 
the  mature  and  intelligent  being  has 
reached  from  the  lowly  and  unconscious 
state  of  infancy.  No  man  can  be  reason- 


258 


GREAT  RACES   OF  2LANKIND. 


ably  scandalized  with  the  thought  that 
he  was  once  a  babe  and  once  an  embryo. 
Rather  may  he  comfort  and  respect  him- 
self with  the  reflection  that  by  the  law 
of  evolution,  the  beautiful  processes  of 
unfolding  and  growth,  he  has  risen  to 
his  present  sublime  stature  from  so  ob- 
scure an  origin. 

Man  at  his  best  estate  walks  abroad 
and  surveys  all  nature.  He  knows  the 
Great  capacity  world  and  its  mysteries, 
of  the  human       rpj^^  outline  of  scas  and  con- 

mind  to  think 

and  know.  tinents  is  before  his  vision. 

The  deeps  are  his.  His  are  the  clouds, 
the  panoply  of  starry  sky,  the  infinitude 
of  systems  and  worlds  beyond.  Better 
than  the  material  landscape  is  the  world 
within  him.  Thought  is  his,  and  vision 
and  will  and  purpose.  Imagination, 
eagle-like,  sits  poised  on  the  vast  prec- 
ipice overlooking  the  chasm  of  the 
universe,  and  with  one  bound  springs 
forth  on  unfaltering  wing,  circling  the 
profound  abyss  from  shore  to  shore,  from 
the  boundless  past  to  the  endless  future. 
But  in  the  midst  of  this  exaltation,  this 
swift  review  of  himself  and  his  powers, 
he  is  constrained  evermore — but  without 
humiliation — to  remember  that  his  or- 
ganic life  began  low  down  in  the  obscur- 
ity of  an  almost  unknown  world,  amid 
the  occult  actions  and  coactions  of  mat- 
ter and  force,  even  as  all  other  organic 
life  begins  from  a  mere  material  cell. 

If  such  be  the  backward  look  of  the 
individual  life  and  consciousness,  re- 
No  rational  viewing  itself  in  the  light 
tt^iltir oT*  of  fact  and  discovering  no 
a  lowly  origin.  shame  or  degradation  in 
the  low  estate  from  which  it  sprang, 
what  shall  we  say  of  that  retrospect 
which  surveys,  the  life  of  the  species? 
Shall  any  man  feel  shame  on  account  of 
the  origin  of  his  species?  Do  scandal 
and  humiliation  hold  of  a  remote  and 
undiscoverable  ancestry  while   they  do 


not  hold  of  the  origin  of  the  individual  ? 
Shall  any  intelligent  being  feel  himself 
degraded  by  the  communal  divergence 
of  his  kind  from  the  great  stem  of  life 
far  away  among  the  mysteries  of  the 
prehistoric  world,  and  yet  feel  no  degra- 
dation in  the  fact  that  he  himself,  during 
the  first  weeks  of  his  organic  life,  was 
indiscriminable  from  the  young  of  an 
alligator?  If  the  puppy,  the  calf,'  and 
the  kid  have  larger  intelligence  and 
freer  use  of  faculties  at  a  corresponding 
stage  of  development  than  have  the 
children  of  men,  shall  he  who,  in  full 
maturity  of  powers,  reflects  upon  the 
fact  feel  a  sense  of  disgrace  and  abase- 
ment imder  the  belief  that  by  remote 
ancestral  descent,  extending  thousands 
of  years  before  the  dappled  dawn  of  re- 
corded history,  the  species  to  which  he 
belongs  came  by  differentiation  out  of 
the  side  of  that  great  stem  of  life  which 
contained  the  possibilities  of  all  ani- 
mated nature  ? 

On  the  contrary,  it  is  far  more  reason- 
able that  man  should  disregard  the  re- 
moter conditions  of   ethnic   More  reasonablo 

descent,  and  feel  the  deeper  t^ZlS^tf""^ 
interest  in  his  individual  our  species, 
history  and  the  history  of  his  immediate 
ancestry.  It  is  of  more  concern  to  man 
that  his  personal  genesis  should  be  a 
pleasing  fact,  as  reviewed  in  conscious- 
ness under  the  light  of  memory  and  re- 
flection, than  that  his  ancestors,  even 
within  the  limits  of  a  few  generations, 
should  have  been  possessed  of  certain 
undesirable  characteristics  of  body  and 
mind.  The  nearer  the  fact,  the  greater 
its  interest  and  importance.  All  things 
sink  away  and  fade  into  shadow  and 
cloud  in  the  far  horizon.  But  that  which 
touches  the  present  life  hath  more  of 
vital  interest. 

The  one  great  history  to  every  human 
being  is  the  history  of  himself.      Next 


MAXNER    OF   THE   BEGLVNINC—OB/ECnOXS   CONSIDERED.     259 


to  this  is  the  history  of  that  immediate 
past  wtich  he  may  still  see  in  retrospect 
Greater  impor-  or  by  parallax  reflected  in 
t^^df^du^^  the  pages  of  common  in- 
lif*^-  formation.  Further  on,  and 

of  less  concern,  is  that  remote  past 
which  must  be  recreated  by  the  skill  of 
the  historian  and  the  antiquar}'.  Least 
of  all  in  interest  and  attractiveness  is 
that  group  of  facts  that  lie  far  off,  dis- 
coverable only  with  the  glass  and  from 
the  mountaintop,  dimly  defined  in  the 
morning  of  days  and  seasons.  It  is  of 
less  disgrace  and  harm  to  a  man — a 
thousand  times  less  shameful  to  him — 
that  his  prehistoric  ancestor  should  have 
been  one  of  the  pithecanthropoids  than 
that  his  grandfather  should  have  been  a 
robber  or  himself  a  villain ! 

It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  the 
repugnance  of  enlightened  and  intelli- 
Repugnanceto  gent  peoples  to  the  notion 
of  an  ancestral  descent  of 
the  human  race  common 
with  that  of  the  other  orders  of  animated 
nature  is  habitual  rather  than  rational. 
It  is  a  matter  of  education  and  sentiment 
rather  than  a  judgment  or  a  valid  deduc- 
tion. Not  to  be  scorned  or  contemned  is 
this  sentiment,  so  jealous  of  the  honor 
and  character  of  that  primal  stock  from 
which  our  species  is  descended.  Never- 
theless, the  suggestion  that  our  origin 
was  the  common  origin  of  all  organic 
life  is  not  good  ground  for  the  repug- 
nance and  disdain  which  many  have 
shown  for  such  a  lowly  genesis.  The 
beginning  of  the  human  kind  may  have 
been  as  obscure  and  far  removed  among 
the  hidden  forces  of  physical  nature  as 
is  the  manifest  beginning  of  all  the  in- 
dividual forms  of  life.  But  for  that  rea- 
son such  origin  in  neither  case  is  just 
reason  for  disdain  or  for  the  sense  of 
shame.  So  far  as  these  sentiments  exist 
respecting    the    descent   of   our  species 


derivation  from 
lew  orders  not 
rational. 


from  a  lower  and  simpler  order  of  ani- 
mals than  man,  they  are  the  result  of 
views  and  beliefs  which  can  not  well  en- 
dure critical  analysis  or  the  higher  de- 
cisions of  reason. 

In  the  formation  of  the  opinions  which 
the  men  of  the  nineteenth  century  still 
hold,  or  hold  in  part,  rela-  BeUefinaGoid- 
five  to  the  beginning  and  f^^^geasaf- 

t>  &  fecting  our  opin- 

first  estate  of  man ,  the  tra-  ^°^^- 
dition  widely  disseminated  among  many 
peoples  of  a  Golden  Age  has  largely  con- 
tributed, ilost  of  the  civilized  or  half- 
civilized  nations  of  antiquity  entertained 
such  a  view  with  respect  to  the  prehis- 
toric epoch.  It  pleased  the  fancy  of  the 
pagan  peoples  of  the  Mediterranean  to 
reconstruct  a  former  condition  of  man- 
kind more  elevated  and  glorious  than 
the  current  age  of  semibarbarism  and 
unending  war.  This  dream  was  one  of 
the  prevailing  poetic  visions  with  the 
bards  of  the  Grasco-Italic  races.  They 
depicted  a  primitive  estate  in  which 
mankind  were  almost  as  the  gods.  The 
first  men  were  taller  and  stronger  than 
their  degenerate  descendants.  The  first 
men  lived  the  life  of  peace  and  happi- 
ness. The  first  men  were  wise  in  their 
kind  and  virtuous  in  their  lives.  The 
first  men  tilled  the  earth  and  walked 
abroad  as  philosophers,  gathering  the 
fruits  that  ripened  perennially  and  sit- 
ting at  evening  in  the  shade  of  cool  ar- 
bors where  they  discoursed  of  the  gods 
and  instructed  each  other  in  the  princi- 
ples of  dut}'  and  the  obligations  of  fra- 
ternit3\  Such  a  dream  hovered  about 
the  imagination  of  Greece,  and  even  the 
heavier  mind  of  Rome  was  invaded  at 
intervals  with  the  presence  of  this  de- 
lightful vision  of  an  immemorial  past. 

Doubtless  such  an  opinion  came  to  the 
Western  peoples  with  their  migrating 
ancestry  out  of  the  East.  The  Orien- 
tal nations  also  possessed  traditions  and 


\"NHi.\   I  11     THI-.   (,liI.Di:.\    Al.E. 


MANNER    OF    THE    BEGINNING.— OBJECTIONS   CONSIDERED.     261 


fables  of  the    golden   age.      With   the 

ascendency  of   Rome  such  a  notion   in 

varying  degrees  of  inten- 

Genesisofthe  .  . 

beiiefinapast  sity  was  widely  dissemina- 
age  o  go   .  ^^^  ^y  ^^^  pagan  conquests. 

With  the  incoming  of  Christianity — with 
its  acceptance  as  the  religion  of  the  state 
and  the  consequent  incorporation  of 
Hebrew  story  as  a  part,  even  the  foun- 
dation, of  the  new  theology — the  belief 
in  the  antecedent  greatness  and  perfec- 
tion of  mankind  was  still  further  ex- 
tended and  confirmed.  As  far  as  the 
new  faith  extended,  so  far  was  the  cur- 
rent interpretation  of  the  significance  of 
the  terrestrial  paradise  and  its  two  per- 
fect and  exalted  beings  accepted  as  the 
condition  from  which  the  human  race 
had  descended. 

The   belief   in   question   was  further 
strengthened  and  confirmed  by  that  un- 
fortunate epoch   in  human 

Effects  of  fhebe-  ^ 

lief  in  the  de-  history  known  as  the  Dark 
cadence  of  man.      ,  »  i.    xi     i.     i-  n 

Ages.      At   that    time    all 

things  seemed  returning  to  the  primitive 
chaos.  The  Roman  empire  broke  and 
fell.  Barbarism  came  in.  vSociety  was 
disorganized  and  went  to  ruins.  Dark- 
ness supervened  over  the  face  of  Europe. 
A  belief  well  calculated  to  destroy  the 
remainder  of  hope  arose  and  spread 
and  took  possession  of  all  minds.  This 
was  the  belief  in  the  decadence  of  man. 
It  became  the  prevalent  opinion  that  all 
things  were  falling  away,  and  that  not 
only  civilization  but  the  world  itself 
was  doomed  to  perish. 

For  several  centuries,  as  the  first  mil- 
lenium  of  the  Christian  era  drew  to  its 
Mediaevais  af-  close,  this  foreboding  and 
hens^no/f^'^'  gloomy  Spirit  hovered  over 
catastrophe.  the  human  mind.  Under 
its  influence  men  looked  back  afar  to  the 
primitive  estate  of  the  race  as  to  a  vision 
of  glory  and  exaltation.  The  present 
woe   was  contrasted  in  the   senses  and 


apprehensions  of  the  people  with  that 
far-off  and  beautiful  Eden  from  which 
the  ancestor  of  mankind  had  been  driven 
forth  in  exile  to  his  death.  All  these 
circumstances  tended  most  strongly  to 
fix  in  the  mind  a  deep-seated  conviction 
of  the  early  excellence  and  later  deca- 
dence of  the  human  race — to  extend  and 
perpetuate  the  pagan  traditions  which 
have  prevailed  in  many  parts  of  the 
world  respecting  a  primitive  golden 
age. 

As  the  nightmare  of  the  Middle  Ages 
passed  away,  when  it  was  seen  that  the 
world  and  the  race  of  man  Dogmatic  inter- 
had  not  perished,  but  that  P^rSm^ 
on  the  other  hand  there  progress, 
were  evidences  of  revival  and  restora- 
tion, the  new  and  hopeful  sentiments  of 
mankind  with  respect  to  the  present  and 
the  future  came  into  contact  with  the 
old  beliefs  respecting  the  methods  of 
creation  and  the  primeval  state  of  the 
human  species.  Meanwhile  the  creeds 
of  the  Church  had  taken  a  dogmatic  and 
inflexible  form.  The  interpretations 
which  had  been  placed  on  the  ancient 
oracles  were  held  in  all  things  to  be 
literal  and  exact.  When  the  new  as- 
tronomy appeared  it  was  confronted  with 
a  construction  of  the  Scriptures  which 
forbade  its  acceptance.  The  reading 
which  had  been  adopted  of  the  Book  of 
Genesis  made  the  world  the  center  of 
our  system  and  the  sun  and  moon  and 
stars  its  attendant  satellites.  To  disturb 
this  construction  seemed  to  the  men  of 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 
like  a  destruction  of  the  moral  order  of 
the  world. 

Every  branch  of  natural  science  was 
met  with  like  antagonism  and  resisted 
by  the  adherents  of  the  ancient  system. 
Geology  in  particular  was  assailed  as  un- 
mistakably contradictory  of  the  oracles 
of  tnith.     The   notion   of   an  extended 


262 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


natural  science 
have  been  an 
tagonized. 


duration  for  the  world — of  the  vast  eons 
of  time  which  had  been  required  for  the 
Au  branches  of  Orderly  production  of  our 
globe — was  denounced  as 
a  horrible  assault  upon  the 
divine  revelation  and  an  attempt  to  sub- 
stitute a  bible  of  atheism  for  the  true 
wisdom  of  the  Almighty.  For  espousing 
and  upholding  the  new  belief  many  suf- 
fered and  died.  From  the  date  of  the 
first  dawn  of  the  revival  of  learning 
each  new  stage  in  the  progress  of  scien- 
tific discovery,  each  new  concept  which 
man  has  gained  of  the  order  of  the  world, 
and  in  particular  of  the  history  of  life, 
has  been  resisted  and  resented  as  an  of- 
fense and  an  indignity  done  to  those 
sublime  standards  which  were  established 
aforetime  out  of  the  literal  construction 
of  the  ancient  records  of  both  the  chosen 
people  and  the  pagan  nations  of  an- 
tiquity. 

All  of  these  circumstances  must  be 
weighed  and  estimated  in  making  up  a 
Current  opin-  Current  judgment  with  re- 
f?o°:timatic  spect  to  the  value  and  ac- 
antecedents.  ceptabiUty  of  the  theory  of 
evolution.  That  this  theory  has  been 
repugnant  to  many  cherished  sentiments 
and  beliefs  can  not  be  denied,  and  ought 
not  to  be  neglected  in  considering  the 
general  question  at  issue.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  existence  of  such  opinions,  in 
so  far  as  they  are  merely  habitual  and 
not  the  products  of  right  reason,  ought 
not  by  any  means  to  prevail  against  the 
acceptance  of  a  larger  and  more  compre- 
hensive concept  of  the  history  of  life. 
Just  as  dogma  should  not  have  prevailed 
against  the  mathematics  of  Copernicus 
and  the  telescope  of  Galileo,  just  as  the 
narrow,  foolish,  but  long-established  the- 
ory of  the  phenomenal  creation  of  the 
earth  in  six  days  ought  not  to  have  pre- 
vailed against  the  new  geology  which 
fought  its  way  through   every  kind  of 


opposition  to  final  acceptance  as  the 
rational  explanation  of  the  order  and 
development  of  the  world,  so  a  possibly 
mistaken  notion  about  the  existence  of  a 
golden  age,  in  which  the  first  of  human 
kind  walked  and  communed  as  the  gods, 
ought  not  to  prevail  against  the  evi- 
dences of  science,  pointing  as  they  do 
with  unerring  finger  to  the  low  estate 
and  primitive  savagery  of  the  earliest 
creatures  of  the  world  worthy  to  take 
the  name  of  man. 

On  the  Avhole,  the  issue  between  those 
who  hold  the  theory  of  phenomenal  cre- 
ation and  those  who  accept  Real  issue  a 
evolution  as  the  law  of  uni-  ^^IT:!^ 
versal  nature  and  of  man  not  of  fact, 
is  a  question  of  vuthod  rather  than  a 
question  of  fact.  Life  has  appeared  on 
the  earth  at  some  iiine  and  some  place 
and  in  some  manner.  Life  did  not  al- 
ways exist  on  the  earth.  It  began  tc 
be,  and  it  now  is,  in  full  aspect  of  de- 
velopment. The  question,  therefore, 
can  be  no  more  than  this :  Hnv  did  life 
appear?  Hoiv  did  it  begin.'  Hoiv  did 
it  proceed  from  stage  to  stage?  Was 
the  apparition  immediate  and  phenome- 
nal, or  was  it  by  slow  degrees  and  evo- 
lutionary processes?  It  is  not  the  fact 
of  creation  but  the  inanncr  of  it  that  is 
involved  in  the  whole  controversy  which 
has  occupied  at  least  three  decades  of  the 
last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  All 
must  concede  that  organic  being  has 
come  to  pass  in  some  way.  The  diver- 
gence of  opinion  relates  only  to  the  man- 
ner and  not  to  the  essential  fact  of  a 
beginning  of  something  which  before 
had  no  existence. 

From  these  considerations  it  would  ap- 
pear that  the  controversy  in  some  expiana- 
question  has  been  unduly  ^^p^e^c^e's^rt  be 
exaggerated    and     fanned  accepted, 
to   an    unwarrantable    excess    of    heat. 
It  is  only  a  question  as  to  how  the  term 


MANNER    OF   THE   BEGINNING.— OBJECTIONS   CONSIDERED.      263 


creation,  or  the  primary  production  of 
life,  is  to  be  understood.  Men  are  con- 
strained, in  virtue  of  the  cause-seeking 
instinct  within  them,  to  form  some  con- 
cept of  the  manner  of  the  beginning. 
The  mind  demands  an  explanation. 
There  is  no  satisfaction  or  mental  rest 
without  some  reasonable  apprehension 
of  the  methods  and  circumstances  of  the 
origin  of  life.  More  particularly  the 
whole  question  seems  to  hang  about  the 
beginning  of  species.  For  some  reason 
the  obvious  origin  of  the  individual  life 
has  been  overlooked,  and  the  attention 
of  the  disputants  in  this  great  contro- 
versy fixed  on  the  occult  question  of  the 
beginning  of  species.  Why  it  is  that 
the  manner  of  the  origin  of  a  specific 
variety  of  life,  belonging  as  it  must  do 
to  a  remote  epoch  in  the  past,  should 
be  considered  of  greater  importance  in 
forming  a  correct  theory  of  the  world 
and  of  organic  being  than  is  the  nearby 
and  apprehensible  origin  of  the  individ- 
ual life,  is  one  of  the  strange  circum- 
stances in  the  intellectual  history  of  our 
century. 

As  to  the  adequacy  of  the  theory  of 

evolution  to  account  for  the  formation 

of   the  world  and   for  the 

Adequacy  of  the 

theory  of  evoiu-    mcthods  by  wliicli  the   in- 

tiou  considered,     j  •     •  i       i    •     -u  i  ^    ^ 

dividual  IS  brought  to  ma- 
turity there  can  be  no  doubt.  Between 
these  two  extremes  of  cosmogony,  in  a 
general  sense  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
individual  life  on  the  other  hand,  lies 
the  intermediate  question  of  the  genesis 
of  species,  and  in  particular  the  origin 
of  human  kind.  The  general  tendency 
of  scientific  investigation  has  been  to 
extend  further  and  still  further  the  law 
of  evolution  as  the  method  and  explana- 
tion of  the  phenomena  of  all  living 
forms.  To  affirm  that  the  inquiry  is 
complete,  and  that  evolution  is  the  one 
sole  explanation  of  all  the  varieties  of 


life,  and  of  the  stages  and  vicissitudes 
through  which  they  have  passed,  is  to 
affirm  more  than  the  present  state  of 
human  knowledge  would  warrant  or 
sustain.  To  affirm,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  the  law  of  evolution  applies  to  .so 
wide  a  cycle  of  phenomena  as  is  mani- 
festly the  case — that  in  general  it  suf- 
fices to  explain  the  modus  operandi  of 
creation  respecting  the  manifold  species 
of  animals  and  plants  which  hold  to  the 
earth  as  the  source  of  their  vitality ;  but 
that  the  law  breaks  when  it  comes  to 
the  human  .species,  and  leaves  the 
great  fact  of  man-life  as  something 
unaccounted  for  and  exceptional  to  an 
otherwise  universal  mode  of  action — is 
to  affirm  less  than  the  present  condi- 
tion of  human  knowledge  will  attest 
and  justify. 

Thus  much  is  certain,  that  the  battle 
of   dogmatic  and    scientific  opinion  re- 
specting the  manner  of  the  The  conflict  of 
beginning  of  life  subsides  scientific  and 

&  o  dogmatic  opin- 

into  silence.  It  has  already  ion  subsides, 
lost  its  clangor  and  .sharpness.  It  sinks 
into  a  mild  and  conciliatory  debate.  The 
alarm  which  prevailed  for  a  season 
among  the  timid  folk  of  the  ancient 
camping  ground  al.so  subsides  and  is  suc- 
ceeded by  returning  confidence.  It  is 
seen  that  the  world  stands  fast  and 
that  the  moral  order  of  the  world  is  not 
disturbed.  Perhaps  the  acerbity,  the 
violence,  of  them  who  attack  the  existing 
interpretations  of  man  and  nature  cools 
into  a  rational  .satisfaction  over  the  chang- 
ing concept  of  the  beginning  and  devel- 
opment of  organic  life.  The  glowing 
coals  of  anger,  fanned  not  a  little  by  the 
aeitation,  cover  themselves  with  the 
white  a.shes  of  peace.  It  has  always 
been  so  in  the  intellectual  warfare  of 
mankind.  It  is  not  true,  as  many  sup- 
pose, that  the  moral  deeps  are  broken 
up  by   these   disturbances  of  the  Intel- 


264 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


lectital  world.  After  the  conflict  is 
over  there  is  always  the  return  of  har- 
mony, the  blessings  of  sunshine,  the 
betterment  of  mankind.  There  is  a  re- 
newal of  the  hand-clasp  of  fidelity,  and 
mutual  congratulations  of  the  contend- 
ing parties  that  the  inscriptions  on  the 
obelisks  of  truth  and  right  are  still  clear 
and  .sharp  as  on  the  morning  of  the 
first  day. 

This  better  condition  of  the  mind  in 
our  age  comes  of  the  gradual  acceptation 
of  the  new  truth  and  the  gradual  aban- 
donment of  the  old  error.  It  comes,  in 
large  measure,  also,  of  concession  and 
of  the  willingness  of  the  human  mind  to 
be  taught  in  things  not  known  before. 
It  comes  of  the  necessary  approxi- 
mation of  views  to  that  common  ground 
which,  while  it  is  not  the  ground  occu- 
pied by  mediaeval  scholasticism  and  mod- 


ern dogma,  is,  on  the  other  hand,  not 
the  ground  of  an  atheistic  materialism. 
It  is   rather  that   point   of 

,  .         Approximation 

View  which  accepts  an  orig-  of  the  opposing 
inal  creative  power  as  the  °p'"'°"^- 
productive  energy  whereby  the  begin- 
nings of  all  life  are  to  be  accounted  for 
and  explained,  but  at  the  same  time 
recognizes  the  evolutionary  processes 
which  are  manifestly  at  work  among  all 
existing  forms  as  the  explanation  and 
method  of  growth  whereby  the  living 
species  of  organisms  have  been  brought 
from  their  germinal  to  their  perfected 
state.  Under  these  two  general  con- 
cepts the  life  of  man  may  be  assigned 
to  its  true  place  as  the  supreme  fact 
connected  with  our  sphere.  For  the 
present  it  suffices  to  say  that  creation 
is  a  fact,  and  evolution  its  universal 
method. 


in 


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fnvl  l^tonb. 


Primitive  Estate  of  the  Human  Race. 


BOOK    III.-PRIMEVAL    MAN. 


Chapter  XV.— Divkrs  Aspects  oe  Barbakic  Liee. 


T  is  the  i^urpose  in 
this  book  to  present 
as  much  as  is  known 
relative  to  the  prim- 
itive condition  of  man- 
kind in  several  quar- 
ters of  the  earth.  The 
progress  of  historical  science  and  archae- 
ological research  has  now  made  us  famil- 
iar with  many  aspects  of  the  early  life 
of  man  hitherto  imknown.  It  is  pos- 
sible, with  our  present  light,  to  make  a 
tolerably  accurate  picture  of  the  social 
Essential  inter-  phenomena  of  several  peo- 
t'toS^H  J        pies  i n  those  stages  of  their 

mtoDaroaric  x  o 

conditions.  development  which  lie  com- 

pletely beyond    the   horizon    of    formal 
history.       Nor  can  it    be    doubted    that 

such    reconstruction   and  revival  of  the 
M.— Vol.  I— 18 


primeval  conditions  of  our  race,  passing 
from  the  state  of  absolute  unconscious- 
ness into  the  semiwaking  of  the  early 
dawn,  will  prove  of  the  keenest  interest 
if  only  the  work  be  patiently  and  sym- 
pathetically performed. 

It  must  be  understood  at  the  outset 
that  the  beginnings  of  civilization  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world  are  exceedingly 
diverse  in  their  aspects  and  Diverse  aspects 
tendencies.  Nothing  can  °r,^:  e^\^'^;:f 
be  more  striking  than  the  Ufeofman. 
contrasts  which  the  early  races  of  men 
present  to  the  student  in  their  methods 
and  peculiarities  of  development.  In- 
deed, hardly  any  two  of  the  primitive 
tribes  of  men  wrought  in  the  same  man- 
ner or  with  the  same  results.  Their 
work   in  attempting  to  construct  their 

265 


266 


GREAT  RACES   OF  31ANKL\D. 


social  forms  was  as  various  as  the  con- 
ditions of  the  primeval  world  in  which 
they  struggled  for  existence. 

From  these  considerations  it  will  be 
necessary  to  an  adequate  understanding 
Varying  activi-  of  the  primitive  condition 
tiesofraaninthe     f  mankind  to  sketch,   in 

struggle  for  ex-  ' 

istence.  the      following      chapters, 

several  distinct  phases  of  the  social  and 
economic  life  of  man  as  we  see  the  same 


forest,  with  his  rude  implements  and 
utensils,  and  becomes  a  man  of  the 
woods,    a    roving    hunter. 

Savages  of the 

traversing  hill  and  thicket,  woods  and  sea- 
eating  the  mast  of  the  oak 


and  the  beech  tree,  living  by  the  haz- 
ards of  migration  and  tribal  warfare. 
Still  again,  he  gathers  his  little  group 
around  him  on  the  shingly  shore  of  the 
northern  seas.     He  rakes  from  the  sand, 


WAN   IN  THE  AGE  OF    I  HE  CAVE  BLAK.— Drawn   by  tm.le  Ljjartl. 


obscurely  outlined  along  the  far  horizon 
of  traditional  history.  In  one  quarter 
of  the  world  we  shall  see  the  newborn 
man  take  to  the  caverns  for  a  habitation 
and  defense.  We  shall  see  him,  with 
huge  clubs  in  his  hands,  fighting  like  a 
giant  with  wild  beasts,  sometimes  crush- 
ing their  skulls  and  sometimes  himself 
torn  to  death  by  their  tremendous  fangs. 
In  another  quarter  man  takes  to  the 


where  the  receding  wave  has  been,  the 
shellfish  left  there  by  the  tide.  These 
he  breaks  and  devours  for  his  subsist- 
ence. He  builds  him  a  tent,  and  con- 
structs simple  implements  for  the  gather- 
ing and  preparation  of  his  food.  He 
heaps  up  around  him  the  waste  of  his 
rude  methods  of  life,  the  debris  of  his 
half-savage  industry,  until  his  tent  is  on 
a  shell  mound,  mixed  with  broken  frag' 


PRIMEVAL   MAN— DIVERS  ASPECTS   OF  BARBARIC  LIFE. 


267 


ments  of  his  utensils,  and  bearing-  thus 
to  future  ages  the  sole  evidence  of  his 
existence  and  manner  of  life. 

Still  again  we  see  the  primitive  man 
driving-  piles  in  the  margin  of  the  moun- 
Primevai man  tain  lake  and  building  a 
se'i" a  home  oTer  pl^tform  upon  them,  and  on 
the  water.  this    platform,    above    the 

water,  rearing  rude  huts,  from  which  he 
reaches  the  shore  by  a  flattened  log  or 
other  simple  means  of  transit.     Here  he 


herds  dri^•en  from  place  to  place  on  the 
plains  of  the  East,  as  the  spring  line  of 
verdure  fluctuated  over  the  landscape 
like  the  shadow  of  a  cloud. 

Again,  we  note  those  who    built  for 
themselves  abodes  of  mud  and  bitumen. 
We  see  the  low-lying  plain  Barbarian 
with  its  cubical  houses  of  ^^°^Z^^l^^I 

or  sun-Dakea 

clay   or    sun-dried   bricks,  bricks. 

and  are  surprised  to  observe  that  what 

some  primitive  tribes  of  the  Orient  did  in 


ASPECTS  OF  BARBARIC  LIFE— Hl't  of  Ostiaks.— Drawn  by  Durand  Brager. 


is  comparatively  safe  from  the  attacks  of 
the  wild  beasts  with  which  he  finds 
himself  otherwise  unable  to  contend. 
Through  the  rude  slabs  in  the  floor  in 
his  dwelling  he  also  drops  into  the  water 
his  broken  implements  of  peace  and  war ; 
and  these  vestiges  of  a  primitive  and 
peculiar  form  of  life  are  taken  from  the 
mud  in  our  own  century  to  bear  witness 
of  one  of  the  strangest  aspects  of  prim- 
itive history.  As  to  the  so-called  pa- 
triarchs of  antiquit}^,  their  well-known 
method  was  that  of  keepers  of  flocks  and 


the  dawn  of  their  nationality  thousands 
of  years  ago,  the  Arizonian  races  of 
Southwestern  North  America  have  re- 
duplicated, in  every  particular,  in  their 
attempted  emergence  from  barbarism. 
In  all  the  central  regions  of  the  New 
World  the  Red  Man  will  invite  us  with 
his  wigwam  to  scrutinize  his  manners 
and  customs  and  to  note,  not  without 
sympathy,  his  hopes  and  aspirations. 

Far  to  the  north  the  frozen  ice  huts 
appear,  with  their  stunted  but  resolute 
inhabitants  braving  the    rigors    of   the 


268 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JfAXKLXD. 


frigid  zone,  kindling  the  fires  within 
them  and  without  from  the  same  heavy 
carbonaceous  elements  furnished  by  the 
monsters  of  the  deep.  All  these  and 
many  more  are  the  peculiarities  of  pri- 
meval life  which  will  demand  our  atten- 
tion in  the  the  present  book. 

It  can  but  be  of  interest  in  this  con- 


would,  under  the  influence  of  instinct 
correlated  with  their  environment,  adopt 
almost  identical  methods  in  their  strug- 
gle for  existence  and  progress,  and 
present  a  common  type  of  development ; 
but  the  facts  are  utterly  at  variance 
with  this  hypothesis.  To  the  casual  ob- 
server, indeed,   it  would  seem  that  the 


A_>PECI<  OF  BARBARIC  LIKE. -Search  for  the  Pk,  ll>.--I  ira',Mi  1  v  Rio 


thus  differen- 
tiate in  manner 
OfUfe? 


nection  to  discuss  briefly  the  question 
ivh}'  it  is  that  such  radical  differences 
"Why  do  savages  existed  among  the  primi- 
tive tribes  of  men  in  their 
methods  of  organizing 
themselves  into  societies.  What  were 
the  causes  of  so  great  divergences  in 
the  earl}'  life  of  man  ?  It  would  be  in- 
ferred, a  priori,  that  all  semibarbarous 
peoples  in  their  emergence  from  savagery 


diverse  methods,  the  opposing  manners 
and  customs,  and  the  contradictory  in- 
stitutions of  primitive  mankind,  were 
the  work  of  caprice  rather  than  of  rea- 
son and  order.  A  closer  study  of  the 
problem,  however,  will  doubtless  show 
that  in  this  also,  as  well  as  in  all  other 
elements  of  human  history,  law  has 
been  the  dominant  principle  and  reason 
the  guiding  light. 


270 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JfAXKLYD. 


Doubtless  the  first  great  cause  of  the 
divergences  noticeable  in  the  begin- 
nings of  civilization  between  the  meth- 
ods  of  one  tribe  or  family  of  men  and 
those  of  another,  is  the  varying  influences 
First  cause  the  of  nature  reacting  upon 
reactions  of  na-     ^j^^  human  frame  and  fac- 

ture  on  humau 

faculties.  ulties.       The    aspects  and 

conditions  of  the  external  world  are  far 
removed  from  regularity.  Every  region 
has  its  own  climate,  its  own  aspect  of 
earth  and  sky.  As  to  the  earth  itself, 
its  surface  is  variable  in  the  last  degree. 
The  soil  has  different  potencies.  The 
water  distribution  passes  through  all 
grades  from  scarcity  to  abundance,  from 
the  blistering  desert  to  the  dripping 
humidity  of  rainy  islands.  The  surface 
in  some  parts  spreads  out  on  a  dead 
level  of  valley  or  plain,  and  anon  rises 
into  hill  and  cliiT  and  mountain.  The 
running  streams  are  eqi:ally  irregular  in 
their  disposal.  Some  regions  have  the 
rivers  as  the  basal  fact  in  their  consti- 
tution, while  in  others  the  range  of 
highlands,  the  rocky  ridge  or  snow  peaks 
scattered  at  intervals,  are  the  fundamen- 
tal condition  of  geography.  Greater 
still  is  the  variation  of  heat  and  cold, 
from  the  rigor  of  the  hyperborean 
regions  to  the  furnace  of  the  tropics ; 
and,  if  possible,  the  differences  in  the 
electrical  and  magnetic  forces  that  girdle 
the  earth  and  impart  a  certain  nervous 
tension  to  all  animal  existence  are  even 
more  pronounced  and  remarkable. 

Under  these  varying  circumstances  of 
the  external  world  the  plants  on  its  sur- 
ManespeciaUy  facc  and  the  living  crea- 
rXS^flhe  tures  that  subsist  thereby 
natural  world,  fluctuate  and  change  in 
their  instincts  and  manner  of  life.  Par- 
ticularly does  that  supreme  animal 
called  man  fit  by  multifarious  adjust- 
ments into  his  changeful  environment. 
From  his  superior  and  more  refined  or- 


ganization he  is  especially  susceptible  to 
the  influences  of  the  external  world. 
More  than  any  beast  of  the  field  does  he 
sway  and  bend  and  conform  to  the  cli- 
matic exigencies  under  which  he  is 
placed.  In  him  the  sap  of  the  world 
circulates  almost  as  palpably  and  po- 
tently as  in  the  plant  that  fixes  its  roots 
in  the  soil.  In  him  every  varying  con- 
dition of  the  outer  world  is  reflected; 
and  in  him  the  very  tone  and  rhythm 
and  pulsebeat  of  universal  nature  find  a 
perpetual  echo  and  response. 

These  considerations  are  fully  borne 
out  by  an  actual  examination  of  the  prim- 
itive life  of  man  in  proc-  au  parts  of  civil- 
ess  of  development  under  ^^^^^^^ 
the  varying  conditions  of  conditions, 
nature.  Indeed,  no  stage  of  human 
growth  is  exempt  from  the  domination 
of  the  natural  world.  Every  part 
and  filament  of  the  garb  which  civiliza- 
tion wears  has  taken  its  form  and 
color  and  substance  in  large  measure 
from  the  material  elements  and  condi- 
tions under  which  it  is  woven.  It  can 
not  be  doubted  that  all  the  aspects  of 
the  life  and  endeavor  of  man  have  in 
them,  when  closely  scrutinized,  the  out- 
line and  semblance  of  physical  condi- 
tions caught  by  reflection  from  the 
external  forms  and  circumstances  of  his 
environment  and  home. 

So  palpable  and  powerful  have  been 
these  influences  of  the  external  world  on 
the  development  and  char-  Theory  of  en-sri- 
acter  of  the  human  race  that  ^erstretcted 
many  authors    have    been  too  far. 
disposed  to  make  them  the  be-all  and 
the  end-all  of  the   civilization  of   man. 
By  such  writers  the  theory  of  a  physical 
basis  for  all  things  has  been  confldently 
adopted ;   and  it  is  urged,  without  doubt 
or  hesitation,  that  even  the  highest  and 
most  spiritual  faculties  and  moods  of  the 
human    mind   are    resolvable    by   easy 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— DIVERS  ASPECTS   OF  BARBARIC  LIFE.       271 


process    into    elemental  parts  derivable 
from  nature. 

Under  this  hj-pothesis  man  is  regarded 
simply  as  a  plant  with  powers  of  lo- 
comotion and  consciousness.  True,  his 
feet  do  not  strike  into  the  soil.  He  has 
no  local  attachment  to  the  ground  out  of 
which  he  has  sprung;  but  like  those 
vegetable  anomalies  which  grow  freely 
in  the  open  air  or  water  without  the  for- 
mality of  roots  and  tendrils,  so  man,  in 


to  which  it  is  applied.  Nature  has,  in- 
deed, done  much  to  give  form  and 
fashion  to  the  various  and  divergent  as- 
pects of  human  life  ;  but  there  are  many 
differences  existing  in  the  methods  em- 
ployed by  primitive,  and  even  by  civilized, 
peoples  which  can  not  be  so  resolved  and 
explained.  Another  general  cause  comes 
into  the  field  of  vision,  and  that  is  the 
influence  of  innate  instincts  and  dispo- 
sitions in  mankind,  working  in  some  in- 


VARIABILITY  ILLUSTRATED  IN  MULTIPLE  YOUNG  OF  SAME  MOTHER.-Glinea  Pigs 


this  view  of  his  genesis  and  nature, 
grows  and  develops  into  conscious  life 
and  powerful  activity  by  the  mere  ab- 
sorption, from  his  free  surroundings,  of 
all  his  elemental  juices,  his  fibers,  and 
his  faculties. 

But  this  view  of  the  case  is  inadequate 
to  the  solution  of  the  problem.  The 
Ethnic  instincts   theory  of  a  physical  basis  of 

also  prevalent  in    „•  ,;i:       ,-  ■      i 

forming  man-  Civilization  IS  by  no  means 
'^^^-  to    be   rejected    as   a   chi- 

mera. It  is  simply  insufficient  of  itself 
to  explain  and  elucidate  the  phenomena 


stances  toward  one  end  and  in  others  to 
an  opposite  or  diverse  result.  That  such 
native  and  inherent  differences  do  exist 
in  human  kind  can  not  be  doubted,  and 
that  the  influence  of  the  same  has  been 
largely  potential  in  producing  the  va- 
rious aspects  of  early  civilization  is,  it  is 
believed,  susceptible  of  the  clearest 
proof. 

If  we  descend  into  the  germinal  con- 
ditions of  the  vegetable  world  we  find 
that  even  the  plants  are,  in  virtue  of 
their  own  nature,  impressed  with  great 


272 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIND. 


variations.     The  seeds  taken   from  the 
same  pod  and  planted  in  the  same  bed 


tinct  and  unmistakable  evidences  of  di- 
vergence  and   individuality.     If  we  go 


MIGRATORV  BARBARISM— Camp  of  the  Kergheez.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayaid. 


and  nurtured  under  identical  conditions 
exhibit  in  growth  and  development  dis- 


forward  one  stage  and  begin  an  exami- 
nation of  the  phenomena  of  animal  life, 


PRIMEVAL   MAN— DIVERS  ASPECTS   OF  BARBARIC  LIFE.       273 


we  find,  the  divergent  principle  still 
more  active  and  emphatic.  In  the  mul- 
Theia-wofvaria-  tiple  voung  of  the  Same 
enTof'^n^ron-  mother  we  have  the  varia- 
™^''*-  bility  of  nature  illustrated 

in  every  element  of  organization.  The 
color  is  different.  Some  are  black,  some 
are  parti-colored,  and  some  are  white. 


procreative  act,  developed  in  the  same 
matrix,  and  thrust  into  the  world  under 
identical  conditions,  are  more  than  ap- 
proximately alike. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  pointers  and 
setters  in  which  the  hunter  finds  so  great 
delight.  Never  yet,  perhaps,  have  two 
of  these  animals,  under  the  strictest  dis- 


^i;:M^MMMl 


SEDENTARV  BARBARISM.— House  of  Greenland  E-iqiimai'. 


Similar  variations,  though  perhaps  less 
pronounced,  will 'be  discovered  in  form 
and  function.  One  outgrows  the  other. 
One  is  of  superior  activity;  one  is 
hardier,  and  another  has  by  nature  a 
greater  longevity.  If  we  proceed  to 
scrutinize  the  instincts  and  dispositions 
of  the  group  the  differences  ai-e  still 
more  marked.  In  fact,  no  two  of  these 
living  creatures,  produced  by  the  same 


cipline  of  the  same  master,  been  devel- 
oped into  identity  of  method  and  char- 
acter.     The  law   of  animal   Animal  Ufenn- 
life  in  this  respect  is  sus-  .^^fshrs'"' 
ceptible  of  infinite  illustra-  divergences, 
tion.     Every  species  of  living  creatures 
is  still  in  a  state  and  process  of  differen- 
tiation imder  that  primal  law  of  evolu- 
tion  which    tends   to   individualize   all 
forms  of  life ;  and  as  we  ascend  in  the 


274 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JLIXA'/XD. 


scale  of  being  the  action  of  this  law  is 
constantly  increased  in  vigor  and  inten- 
sity. 

In  man  the  presence  of  the  divergent 
and  individualizing  tendencv  has  been 
In  man  and  cspeciallv    powerful    from 

XeTat^Tmvtr!  the  beginning.  The  primi- 
sity  prevails.  tivc  raccs  had  each  its  spe- 
cial instinct  and  individual  character.  No 
two  of  them  were  moved  by  the  same 
innate  impulses  or  the  same  conscious 
purposes.  The  ends  of  tribal  endeavor 
were  as  diverse  as  the  methods  employed 
to  reach  them.  And  it  is  the  existence, 
radically,  in  the  human  family  of  this 
difference  of  instinct  and  motive  that, 
combined  with  the  powerful  influence  of 
the  natural  world  reacting  upon  the 
sensitive  faculties  of  man,  has  produced 
the  striking  and  peculiar  differences, 
oppositions,  even  antagonisms,  which 
we  discover  in  the  primitive  history  of 
mankind. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  working  of 
these  innate  divergent  tendencies  in  the 
Migratory  habit  human  race,  take  the  great 
^I^'^r.  fact  of  tribal  migration.  In 
s"'=^s-  the    primitive    history    of 

the  world  no  other  fact,  perhaps,  has  so 
great  prominence  as  has  the  migratory 
disposition  exhibited  by  the  early  races ; 
•  but  the  working  of  this  instinct  was 
exhibited  by  them  only  in  part.  That 
is,  there  were  conservative  tribes  and 
radical  tribes  in  the  primeval  world,  the 
former  of  which  gave  no  sign  of  the 
migratory  impulse,  while  the  latter 
were  swayed  thereby  to  the  extent  of 
having  no  other  history  than  that  of 
removal. 

A  closer  analysis  will  show  that  in  the 
same  tribe  the  migratory  disposition 
would  appear,  seizing  like  an  insupport- 


able passion  upon  some  members  of  the 
clan  and  household,  while  others  would  be 
exempt  from  its  influence.  A  division 
of  sentiment  would  appear  Themovingpas- 
among  these  unconscious  t^^!:^, 
folk  leading  to  a  radical  munity. 
difference  of  tribal  action  and  policy.  A 
break-i:p  among  the  family  would  ensue, 
a  part  drifting  away  under  the  action  of 
an  instinct  as  natural  and  inevitable  as 
that  which  drives  the  bee  swarm  from 
the  parent  colony  to  the  distant  forest. 
That  is,  in  a  given  household  some 
members,  born  under  identical  condi- 
tions with  the  rest,  would  feel  the  mov- 
ing passion  and  go,  while  the  rest,  un- 
swayed by  any  such  instinctive  motive, 
would  remain  in  their  native  seats, 
unable  even  to  appreciate  the  impulse 
and  disposition  which  had  separated 
their  kinsmen  from  them.  The  Orient 
is  to-da}',  in  some  sense,  a  residuum  of 
those  peoples  over  whom  the  migratory 
passion  was  never  dominant,  while  all 
Europe  and  America,  even  to  the  shore 
line  of  the  Pacific,  is,  in  a  like  sense, 
the  result  of  a  certain  innate  radicalism 
which  has  forced  the  moving  races 
further  and  further  onward,  until  at  last 
it  threatens  to  leap  the  greatest  of  the 
oceans  and  precipitate  itself  again  upon 
the  East. 

This  division  of  mankind  into  a 
migratory  and  nonmigratory  part  must 
have  been  based,  in  its  ultimate  analysis, 
upon  innate  differences  and  unconscious, 
unreasoning  impulses  in  those  original 
tribes  from  which  Asia  and  Europe 
have  alike  been  peopled.  Nor  can  it 
well  be  understood  how  the  influence  of 
the  external  world  can  adequately  ac- 
count for  the  true  genesis  and  primal 
workings  of  this  migratory  habit. 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— CAVE  DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


275 


Chapter  xvi.— The  Cave  Dwellers  ok  Europe. 


lONG  before  the  incom- 
ing of  the  first  Aryan 
peoples  into  Europe 
tribes  and  races  of  men 
were  already  diffused 
over  the  country.  Nor 
is  it  possible  for  us,  in 
the  present  state  of  knowledge,  to  pierce 
the  bottom  of  these  human  strata  and 


For  the  present,  archaeological  and 
ethnical  inquiry  has  reached  down  only 
to  this  epoch  when  the  aborigines  of 
Western  Europe  were  contemporaneous 
with  certain  extinct  species  of  animals. 
It  is  here  that  we  must  begin  our  inquiry 
relative  to  the  primitive  life  of  man  in 
those  parts  of  the  world  with  which  we 
are  most  familiar.     It  is  well  to  repeat 


IDEAL  LAXriSCAlE  OF  THE  AGE  OE  REPTILES —Drawn  by  Rioii 


find  the  actual  beginnings  of  the  life  of 
man  on  the  European  continent.  It  is 
now  clear  that  the  first  men  roaming 
Contempo-  about  in  a  state  of  savagery 

raneityofman  through  the  forCStS  of 
and  certain  ex-  » 

tinct  animals.  Denmark,  of  Germany,  of 
France,  and  of  Britain  were  contempo- 
raneous with  several  races  of  animals 
that  were  extinct  before  the  beginnings 
of  authentic  history. 


that  the  period  here  referred  to  is  an- 
terior to  the  time  when  the  first  Aryans 

the  Celts,    the  Italic  tribes,   and  the 

Teutones — made  their  first  inroads  into 
the  West. 

It  is  only  within  the  present  century 
that  our  knowledge  relative  to  primeval, 
man  in  Western  Europe  has  taken  a 
somewhat  definite  form.  Such  inquiry 
has  been  impeded  by  many  prejudices 


276 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


and  prepossessions  of  tlie  human  mind — 

many  beliefs  which  arc  no  longer  tenable 

tinder  the  lijjht  of  increas- 

Modern  leaders      .  °  o^i       i    1 

of  archaeological   ing  knowledge,    i  lie  labors 
nquiry.  ^^  several  eminent  archaeol- 

ogists and  ethnologists,  such  as  Sir 
Charles  Lyell  and  Sir  John  Lubbock  in 
England,  Messieurs  Tournal  and  Christol 
in  France,  Dr.  P.  C.  Schmerling  in  Ger- 
many, and  Professors  Steenstrup  and 
Nilsson  of  Sweden,  have  brought  the 
resources  of  their  genius  to  bear  upon 
the  problem  of  the  antiquity  and  prim- 
itive life  of  man,  and  have  succeeded  in 
reconstructing  the  primeval  conditions 
of  civilization. 


the  cave  dwellers  of  Western  Europe 
flourished.  If  we  examine  the  crust  of 
the  earth  alwve  those  strata  which  con- 
stitute the  so-called  age  of  reptiles,  we 
shall  find  the  same  to  be  divided  into 
two  great  layers,  the  lower  of  which  is 
called  the  Tertiary  and  the  upper  the 
Post-Tertiary  Period.  The  post-tertiary 
period  is  itself  composed  of  two  strata, 
the  lower  of  which  is  called  the  Post- 
Pliocene  and  the  upper  the  Recent,  which 
latter  embraces,  in  general  terms,  what 
is  popularly  called  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  These  two  periods,  the  tertiary 
and  post-tertiary,  cover  the  geologic 
age  of  mammals.     The  mammalia  are 


Post-Tertiary . 


Tertiary  Period. 


Recent 

Post-Pliocene  [Epoch  of  the  Cave  Men] 

Newer  Pliocene 

Older  Pliocene 

Upper  Miocene 

Lower  Miocene 


Pliocene 


Miocene. 


Eocene 


{  Upper  Eocene 
\   Middle  Eocene 


Cenozoic  Time — Age  of  Mammals. 


I 


Lower  Eocene 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE  TERTIARY  AND  POST-TERTIARY  PERIODS,  SHOWING  THE  GEOLOGICAL  PLACE  OF  THE 

CAVE  DWELLERS. 


In  the  present  chapter  it  will  be  the 
aim  to  present  the  leading  features  of 
Place  of  the  cave  tribal  life  as  the  Same  are 
mTnedbfg'er  iUustrated  in  the  story  of 
logical  data.  t^e  Cave  Dwellers  of  West- 
ern Europe.  There  was,  in  prehistoric 
ages,  in  many  parts  of  the  western 
European  states  a  race  of  men  of  a  low 
grade  of  culture  who  chose  the  caverns 
which  nature  had  hollowed  out  as  their 
abodes,  and  within  these  dreary  domiciles 
enacted  the  domestic  drama  of  their 
lives. 

It  is  desirable  to  note  the  geological 
epoch,  now  well  determined,  in  which 


conterminous  with  it,  having  first  made 
their  appearance  in  what  is  called  the 
Lower  Eocene  and  having  a  continu- 
ous existence  through  all  the  upper 
strata.  Chronologically  speaking,  the 
period  here  referred  to,  beginning  with 
the  bottom  of  the  tertiary  and  reach- 
ing to  the  present,  is  called  Cenozoic 
time.  The  above  diagram,  drawn  ac- 
cording to  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  will  show 
the  various  relations  of  these  strata  and 
the  place  of  the  cave  dwellers. 

It  must  be  understood  Avith  reference 
to  the  above  diagram  that  all  existing 
species  of   mammals   and  man  himself 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— CAVE   DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


277 


belong  to  what  is  called  the  recent,  or 
quaternary,  epoch.  There  were,  how- 
Man  belongs  to  ever,  several  species  of 
quaternary,"  g^cat  animals  formerly  well 
epoch.  known    in   Europe,   whose 

existence  as  distinct  varieties  reached  up 
from  the  pliocene  period  of  the  tertiary 
epoch  into  the  post-pliocene  era,  and  in 
that  era  ceased  to  exist.  It  appears  that 
certain  climatic  changes  took  place  in 


the  extinct  mammals  above  referred  to 
that  the  demonstration  of  this  early 
foiTn  of  existence  on  the  earth  has  been 
made.  The  jaroof  that  man  was  con- 
temporaneous with  several  varieties  of 
animal  life  no  longer  present  in  the 
countries  where  it  formerly  flourished, 
is  clear  and  irrefragable,  and  it  only  re- 
mains in  the  following  pages  to  deter- 
mine as  much  as  we  may  of  the  primi- 


lUEAL  LANDSCAPE  OF  THE  CRETACEOUS  PERIOD.— Drawn  by  Riou. 


Europe,  rendering  the  country  untenable 
to  these  forms  of  life. 

Now  it  is  in  this  post-pliocene  epoch 
that  the  cave  dwellers  had  their  career. 
It  was    at   the   time  when 


Extinct  mam- 
mals coVnhabil 
ants  with  man  in 


mais  coVnhabit-    the  species  of  animals  just 


Europe.  mentioned  were  still  prev- 

alent in  the  west  of  Europe  that  the 
cave  man  had  his  abode  there.  He  was 
their  companion  and  fellow  of  the  woods 
and  caverns ;  and  it  is  by  the  commin- 
gling of  the  debris  and  ruins  of  his  sav- 
age life  with  the  relics  and  vestiges  of 


[  five  condition   in   which   the   cave  man 
held  his  barbarous  fortunes. 

The  savage  races  of  men,  on  their  way 
from  the  low  condition  in  which  they 
are  still  found  in  absolute  savages  pass 
barbarity  to  civilized  peo-  :^:2:fl:<,ttT' 
pies,  pass  through  four  civiuzation. 
epochs  of  development.  These  are  de- 
termined by  archaeologists  chiefly  by 
the  character  of  the  implements  and 
utensils  which  are  fabricated  by  primi- 
tive peoples  in  the  different  stages  of 
their  progress.     It  had  been  found  that 


278 


GREAT  RACES   OF  3IAXKLXD. 


this  progress  is  uniform  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  that  when  barbarians  are 
discovered  in  a  given  stage  of  growth 
the  next  stage  may  always  be  inferred 
b}'^  the  general  law  which  governs  the 
evolution.  This  movement  forward 
proceeds  from  a  grade  of  life  but  little 
above  mere  animality,  and  ends  with 
the  emergence  of  the  tribe  into  full  his- 
torical activity. 

The  various  materials  which  the  races 


certain  varieties  of  rock  formation,  and 
by  simple  modifications,  or  even,  at  the 
first,  by  no  modification  at  all,  converts 
them  into  implements. 

The  materials  first  chosen  are  gener- 
ally flint  and  obsidian,  and  the  primitive 
stage  of  workmanship  consists  in  merely 
breaking  the  substance  into  shape.  It 
is  this  fact  of  breakage  into  form,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  other  methods  of  fabri- 
cation, that  marks  the  very  first  stage  of 


IDEAL  LANDSCAPE  OF  THE  PLEISTOCENE  PERIOD  (AGE  OF  MAN).— Drawn  by  Riou. 


of  men  have  employed  in  the  fabrication 
of  tools  and  utensils  are  principally  stone, 

Materials  em-         WOod,   boue,    hom,    COppCr, 

E'stmak-  bronze,  and  iron-in  the 
ing  implements,  order  named.  Among  civ- 
ilized peoples  the  latter  metal  is  refined 
into  different  forms  of  wrought  iron,  cast 
iron,  and  finally  the  various  grades  of 
steel.  The  primitive  man,  however, 
begins  with  stone.  He  takes  from  the 
ground,  by  a   sort  of  natural  selection. 


man's  development  as  a  tool-making 
animal.  Perhaps  in  no  quarter  of  the 
world  has  a  .savage  tribe  emerged  from 
barbarism  wnthout  employing  this  very 
obvious  method  of  producing  imple- 
ments. It  is  claimed  by  the  most  em- 
inent naturalists  that  man,  even  in 
the  most  rudimentary  stages  of  his  ev- 
olution, has  been  a  tool-making  and 
tool-using  animal,  and  that  he  is  dis- 
criminated by   this    fact — strongly   dis- 


'^  ■■"  ''  ■■''"' ' '— y^fTs- 


L 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  ORNAMENTS  USED  BY  PRIMEVAL  MAN,  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  THE  MATERIALS  EMPLOYEI>. 

I,  2,  Stone  and  wooden  weapons  of  New  Caledonians ;  3,  bone  skewers  ;  4,  harpoon  of  slag's  horn  ;  5.  copper  celt  ;  6,  carpen. 
ter's  bronze  chisel  ;  7,  bronze  dagger  with  iron  handle  ;  8,  iron  ornaments  of  Africans. 


280 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JLIXKLXD. 


criminated — from  the  highest  grades  of 
living  beings  below  him. 

No  animal  except  man  has  been 
known  to  make  or  to  use  a  tool.  That 
is,  the  conscious  design  of 
doing  so  has  never  been  ob- 
served in  the  most  supe- 
rior specimens  of  the  lower  grades  of 
animal  intelligence      The  monkey,  the 


Man  the  tool- 
making  and 
club-thro^iring 
animal. 


this  accidental  and  instinctive  employ- 
ment of  clubs  and  missiles  and  the  con- 
scious fabrication  of  a  tool  lies  a  great 
gap  in  intelligence — the  gap  between 
the  instinct  of  the  inferior  and  the  con- 
scious reason  of  the  superior  creature. 

Man,  then,  begins  his  career  as  an 
artisan  by  the  making  of  tools  and  im- 
plements from  the  flinty  forms  of  rock. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  FLINT  IMPLEMENTS  BY  PREHISTORIC  MAX.— Drawn  by  F.mile  Bayard. 


ape,  the  ourang,  the  gorilla,  and  the 
chimpanzee  are  all  in  some  sense  club- 
using  and  club-throwing  animals.  They 
grip  and  swing  missiles  with  obvious 
design  to  a  certain  end ;  but  in  doing  so 
they  merely  seize  what  accident  has 
placed  within  their  reach,  and  there  is 
no  single  instance  recorded  in  which  an 
animal  has  been  known  to  adapt  a  stick 
or  stone  to  any  intended  use.     Between 


He   soon   discovers  that  this  substance, 
by   a   little    skill,   may  be  broken   into 
forms  approximatelyadapt-  Artisanship  be- 
ed    to    his    wants.      Prog-  ei»J  with  the 

&      making  of  tools 

ress  begins — progress  in  and  weapons, 
the  selection  of  materials  and  progress 
in  the  methods  of  forming  his  utensils. 
But  for  a  long  period  breakage  is  the 
general  method  which  he  employs,  and 
this  fact  of  fracture  in  the  fabrication  of 


PRIMEVAL   MAN— CAVE   DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


281 


tools  is  the  essential  feature  by  which 
the  first  stage  of  human  development  is 
characterized. 

This  first  epoch  is  called  the  old 
Old  stone  age  stone  age,  or,  if  we  em- 
marks  first  stage     j         ^j^      scientific   term 

m  human  devel-    r      J 

opment.  given  thereto  by  natural- 

ists, the  palaeolithic  age — a  term  derived 
from  the  Greek  roots  sig- 
nifying the  same  thing.  It 
is  impossible  to  determine 
for  how  long  a  period  a 
savage  tribe  will  remain  in 
this  primitive  stage  of  ev- 
olution. Doubtless  the 
palaeolithic  era  of  devel- 
opment is  never  precisely 
the  same  in  time  in  the 
case  of  any  two  barbarous 
tribes,  but  the  process  is 
the  same.  The  time  re- 
mains indeterminate. 
Another  fact  of  great  im- 
portance to  be  noted  is  that 
this  primeval  epoch  of 
human  growth  has  ap- 
peared at  different  times, 
in  different  quarters  of  the 
earth,  as  already  said.  It 
is  highly  likelj' — almost 
certain — that  all  existing 
peoples  have,  in  their  rudi- 
mentary condition,  passed 
through  the  old  stone  age 
as  the  first  phase  of  their 
growth  into  a  national  life ; 
but  at  what  era  this  oc- 
curred in  the  case  of  any 
given  family  of  men  it  is  impossible  to 
determine. 

The  chronology  of  such  a  development 
Chronology  of  Can  uot  be  ascertained  or 
^po'Sdeter.  adjusted.  In  One  quarter  of 
minabie.  the   earth   a   savage    tribe 

will  be  found  at  the  present  day  in  the 

palaeolithic  state  of  growth.     In  another 
M. — Vol.  I — [9 


quarter  this  epoch  of  emergence  from 
barbarism  has  been  passed  a  century, 
even  several  centuries  ago,  and  in  others 
we  must  look  back  through  many  ages 
if  we  would  discover  even  the  hint  of 
such  a  stage  of  evolution.  This  is  to  say 
that  the  development  of  savage  life  is 
never  synchronous  among  the  different 


PAL.EoLUHIC   FLINT    IMPLEMENTS,    FROM    HOXNE. 


races,  but  that  such  development  is  as 
various  in  time  as  it  is  in  place.  The 
process  has  been  going  on  for  many 
thousands  of  years  and  is  still  going  on, 
under  our  own  authentic  observation,  in 
many  parts  of  the  unreclaimed  conti- 
nents and  barbarous  islands  of  the  seas. 
While  this  want  of  contemporaneity  is 


282 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JElXAVXn. 


an 


embarrassment  in  the  construction  of  I  forward  from  one  stage  of  his  develop, 
tribal  history,  it  is  a  great  advantage  in  ment  to  another.  In  the  South  Sea 
the  actual  comprehension  of  the  methods  I  islands  the  natives  have  been  watched 

in  the  act  of  con- 
st r  u  c  t  i  n  g  old 
stone  imple- 
ments, and  the 
process,  withal, 
is  very  different 
from  what  might 
have  been  sup- 
posed.  The 
savage  takes  a 
small  block  of 
flint  between  his 
naked  feet  and, 
pressing  it  into  a 
certain  position 
w  i  t  h  his  toes, 
drops  upon  i  t 
endwise  a  long 
pestle  of  wood 
in  such  way  as  to 
spall  off  a  splinter 
from  the  side. 
The  stroke  is  re- 
peated,  and 
another  spall,  or 
"  flake  ,"  s  o 
called,  is  thrown 
off;  and  so  on 
until,  by  careful 
chipping,  the 
arrowhead  or 
spearpoint  or 
whatever  it  is  is 
broken  into 
shape.  Doubt- 
less this  simple 
process  has  been 
practiced,  w  i  t  h 
slight  modifica- 
tions of  method,  by  all  the    Habits  of  pHme- 

.     •,  c  4.1  11      val  man  discov- 

Savage  tribes  of  the  WOlld,    erable  in  his  ma- 


PRIMEVAL   MAN — CHASE  IN  THE  REINDEER    PERIOD. 
Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 


of  the  primitive  man.  We  are  able  to- 
day to  scrutinize  these  methods  and  to 
observe  and  note  the  actual  processes  by 
which     the    tool-making     animal    goes 


terials  and  art3. 


and     douljtless     the    same 

manner  of  fabrication  will  continue  until. 


PRIMEVAL    MAN—CAVE   DWELLERS    OF  EUROPE. 


283 


by  the  spread  of  civilization,  this  primi- 
tive stage  of  humanity  shall  disappear 
from  the  earth. 

The  palseolithie,  or  old  stone,  age  at 
length  gives  place  to  a  higher  form  of 
manufacture — a  more  elegant  and  useful 
Neolithic  work-  method  of  makirig  utensils 
r/conSge^of  and  weapons.  The  primi- 
the  evolution.  ^iyg  man,  in  course  of  time, 
discovers  that  by  attrition  or  rubbing  he 
can  reduce  his  tools  to  a  more  elegant 
and  satisfactory  pattern. 
The  forms  which  he  has 
hitherto  attained  by  the  proc- 
ess of  breakage  and  chip- 
ping have  been  only  approx- 
imate to  the  ideal  forms 
which  he  has  had  in  mind. 
In  the  second  stage  of  his 
development  he  labors  to 
reach  a  correct  outline  by 
reducing  the  substance  on 
which  he  is  working  into 
proper  form  by  rubbing  or 
grinding  against  some  other 
material.  The  time  rela- 
tions of  this  discovery  also 
are  unknown ;  but  that  such 
a  transformation  from  the 
rough  or  broken  stone  im- 
plements of  primeval  man 
to  the  smooth  tools  and  uten- 
sils of  his  secondary  stage 
of  development  does  exist — has  existed 
in  the  case  of  every  tribe — is  clearly 
demonstrable.  Every  museum,  or  even 
small  private  collection,  of  ancient  stone 
workmanship  gathered  from  the  valleys 
of  the  European  rivers,  from  the  peat 
bogs  of  Denmark,  or  turned  up  by  the 
plow  in  the  open  fields  of  North  America, 
will  show  unmistakable  evidences  of  the 
change  which  has  everywhere  taken 
place  from  the  age  of  broken  or  chipped- 
off  fabrication  to  the  age  of  smoothed 
or  polished  manufacture. 


To  this  second  epoch  of  implement- 
making  archaeologists  have  given  the 
name    of    the    new  stone, 

,.^,   .  _,,  Relation  of  the 

or    neolithic,   age.      That  stone  epochs  to 
it    follows    the    older    and  "=^^  ^  geology. 

ruder  era  is  clearly  proved,  but  its  dura- 
tion, as  in  the  case  of  the  preceding 
epoch  of  broken  stonework,  can  never  be 
more  than  approximately  determined. 
The  relative  place  of  the  neolithic  era 
in  the  evolution  of  the  civilized  forms 
of  life  is  as  well  known  as  that  the 
age  of  mammals  succeeds  the  age 
of  reptiles  in  the  geological  his- 
tory of  the  earth.  Indeed,  all  of 
the  stages  of  human  evolution 
which  we  are  here  considering 
have  a  striking  likeness  and  anal- 
ogy to  the  successive  eras  in  the 


Stone  axes,  Ireland. 


Stone  celt  with  handle. 


EXAMPLES   OF   NEOLITHIC   WORKMANSHIP. 


geological  formation  of  our  globe.  The 
one  is  as  fixed  and  certain  in  its  laws  of 
succession  as  the  other,  and  we  should  no 
more  expect  to  find  a  deviation  from  the 
orderly  progress  by  which  the  savage 
man  proceeded  from  the  old  stone  to 
the  new  stone  and  from  the  new  stone 
to  the  subsequent  ages  of  his  develop- 
ment than  we  should  expect  to  find  the 
coal  measures  of  the  carboniferous  age 
on  top  of  the  chalk  beds  of  the  age  of 
reptiles. 

There    are   many  extraneous    proofs, 


284 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIXD. 


moreover,  that  the  half-barbaroiis  peo- 
ples of  the  world,  after  passing  into 
Complex  devei-  the  neolithic  age,  have,  in 
de^t  witwt  other  respects  than  that  of 
stone  age.  implement-making, entered 

into  a  wider  and  more  complex  develop- 
ment. It  is  not  only  in  the  making  of 
tools  that  the  savage  man  on  his  way  to 
larger  and  more  rational  activities  dis- 


Since  most  of  the  metals  of  the  earth 
exist  in  the  form  of  ores,   which  hide 
their  actual  contents  from  Great  span  be- 
the  unskilled  eye  of  barba-  ^ro^aXge 
rism,ithashappenedamong  ofmetais. 
all  the  primitive  races  that  the  discovery 
and  manufacture   of  stone   implements 
has  preceded  by  many  long  stages  the 
production   of    metallic   forms.      In    the 


PRIMEVAL  MAN. — Founders  of  the  Age  of  Bronze.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 


plays  his  increasing  skill.  All  the  ele- 
ments of  his  progress  are  correlated  and, 
in  some  sense,  kept  even  with  his  rate  of 
growth  in  the  mere  matter  of  manufac- 
turing his  wares  and  weapons.  His  ex- 
pansion is  in  all  directions,  and  it  is  easy 
to  discover  by  evidences  deduced  from 
other  sources  the  general  course  which 
he  is  pursuing  toward  the  civilized  con- 
ditions of  life. 


cases  of  silver  and  gold,  which  exist  na- 
tive in  the  earth — or  at  least  the  gold — 
they  have  never  been  found  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  justify  the  primitive  man 
in  the  attempt  to  make  implements 
therefrom.  These,  from  the  rarity  of 
their  distribution,  have  been  precious 
metals  from  the  first.  They  were  so  to 
all  the  savage  races  who  first  posses.sed 
the  earth,  and  have  continued  so,  even 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— CAVE   DWELLERS    OF  EUROPE. 


285 


in  the  powerful  civilization  and  activities 
of  the  present.  Among'  other  metals 
copper,  and  even  tin,  also  existed  in  the 
native  form,  and  it  is  to  these  substances 
that  the  faculties  and  interest  of  the 
primeval  man  were  directed  when  he 
came  to  the  point  of  emergence  from  the 
neolithic  age.  He  had  now  wrought,  as 
much  as  might  well  be  done,  from  the 


faculties  might  find  a  freer  exercise. 
This  other  substance,  as  the  primitive 
historj-  of  man  has  now  demonstrated, 
was  copper — copper  first,  and  then  tin, 
or,  more  particularly,  a  mixture  of  the 
two,  called  bronze. 

Nothing  is  known  of  the  original  dis- 
covery which  seems  to  have  been  made 
in   many  quarters  of   the  earth,  of  the 


-MANNER-  OK  PREHISTORIC  PEORLES.— Feast  in  the  Age  of  Bkonze.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 


stone  materials  under  his  hand  by  the 
processes  of  breakage  and  polishing.  It 
is  evident  on  reflection  that  mere  stone, 
such  as  flint  or  sandstone,  will  only 
bear  a  certain  amount  of  artisanship. 
Whoever  would  attempt  to  go  beyond 
the  natural  limits  existing  in  the  nature 
of  these  materials  would  come  to  an  im- 
passable barrier.  He  must  turn,  per- 
force, to  some  other  substance  upon 
which,  in  virtue  of  its  own  nature,  his 


great  advantage  to  be  gained  by  com- 
mingling  a   certain    percentage   (about 
one  tenths  of  tin  with  na-  Art  of  com- 
five    copper.     Such  a  dis-  |°rcSof' 
covery,   however,    is   very  the  bronze  age. 
certain  as  a  fact  and  very  remote  in  its 
date.     It  is  now  known  that  the  material 
of  the  weaponry  of  the  Trojan  warriors, 
called  chalchys   in  the    Homeric  poems 
and  tradition,  was  bronze  and  not  iron, 
and  the  old  word  as  of  the  primitive 


286 


GREAT  RACES   OE  JELVA'LVD. 


Latin  race  signified  the  same  thing.  At 
any  rate,  the  succession  of  an  age  of 
bronze  to  the  neolithic  age  is  a  fact 
well  established  in  archaeology.  The 
barbarous  and  now  warlike  peoples  of 
the  prehistoric  world  made  the  great  dis- 
covery of  a  hard  and  tenacious  metallic 
compound,  out  of  which  they  could  manu- 
facture at  will  substantial,  effective,  and 
even  beautiful  implements  so  greatly 
superior  to  those  which  they  had  hith- 
erto employed  as  to  constitute  an  epoch 
in  their  civilization.  This  discovery  of 
bronze  was  accompanied  with  many 
advances  in  the  life  and  manners  of 
the  people.  New  customs  were  intro- 
duced ;  the  family  was  better  organized, 
and  we  contemplate  the  beginnings  of 
a  rude  society.  So  the  third  stage  of 
the  human  evolution  which  we  are  here 
considering  Avas  that  in  which  the  half- 
barbarous  peoples  of  the  primitive  world 
passed  out  of  the  new  stone  age  into 
the  age  of  bronze. 

The  inquiry  naturally  arises  in  this 
connection  why  it  is  that  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  earth  the  barbarous  peoples 

seem  to  have  passed  direct- 
No  intervening  .... 

ages  of  copper  ly  from  the  neolithic  into 
the  bronze-making  age  of 
development.  Why  was  it — why  is  it — 
that  the  primitive  peoples  did  not  pass 
through  a  clearly  defined  age  of  copper 
or  an  age  of  tin?  Why  should  the 
great  leap  have  been  made  from  so 
primitive  form  of  life  as  that  exhibited 
in  the  new  stone  age  into  the  com- 
paratively complex  and  highly  devel- 
oped activities  of  the  age  of  bronze? 
Bronze  is  a  composite  metal.  We  see 
from  the  perfect  composition  which  we 
find  in  the  implements  which  have  come 
to  us  from  the  age  of  its  early  manufac- 
ture that  the  ancients  understood  per- 
fectly the  percentage  of  the  different 
metals,  and  this  knowledge  would  pre- 


suppose a  long  series  of  trials  and  ex- 
periments. True  it  is  that  in  some 
quarters  of  the  world,  particularly  in  the 
peat  measures  of  Denmark  and  along 
the  shores  of  the  great  lakes  in  North 
America,  many  copper  implements  have 
been  discovered.  But  these  finds  have 
been  so  irregular  as  rather  to  disprove 
than  to  establish  the  existence  of  an  age 
of  copper.  It  would  seem  that  the 
primitive  man  has  only  produced  tools 
and  utensils  of  copper  when  he  could 
not  procure  the  necessar}^  tin  to  make 
the  compound.  In  general,  the  fact  re- 
mains, archseologically  and  historically, 
that  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  habitable 
globe  the  various  races  have  leaped  at 
one  stride  from  the  making  of  smooth 
stone  implements  to  the  manufacture 
and  use  of  bronze.  What  theory  may 
be  advanced  to  account  for  this  remark- 
able fact  in  the  prehistoric  development 
of  mankind  ? 

It  has  been  suggested  in  answer,  and 
with  much  show  of  probability,  that  the 

introduction    of    metals   for   Reasons  why 

tools  and  weapons  is  co-  '^i:i:°:^^r' 
incident  in  tribal  develop-  age  of  stone, 
ment  with  the  beginning  of  the  age  of 
aggression  and  conquest.  This  is  to 
say  that  when  men  have  once  discov- 
ered and  used  the  metals  they  are  at 
that  stage  of  tribal  life  in  which  the  lust 
of  war  and  conquest  begins  to  be  felt  as 
a  dominant  passion.  As  a  result  of  this, 
when  the  discovery  of  bronze  has  once 
been  made,  and  a  knowledge  diffused  of 
its  great  superiority  over  either  of  the 
component  metals  of  which  it  is  consti- 
tuted, a  bronze-bearing  soldiery  would 
at  once  spring  into  existence.  Owing 
to  the  higher  development  and  aggres- 
sive instincts  of  this  soldiery,  conquest 
in  foreign  parts  would  very  soon  ensue, 
and  with  this  conquest  would  be  carried 
into   distant   regions    a    knowledge    of 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— CAVE   DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


287 


bronze  and  of  the  method  of  its  manu- 
facture. This  rational,  even  probable, 
explanation  has  been  offered  for  the  im- 
mediate succession  of  the  bronze  age  to 
the  age  of  stone.  Tribes  and  races 
still  engaged  in  the  fabrication  and  use 
of  flint  implements  and  weapons  would 
be  at  so  great  disadvantage  in  compari- 


glimpses  of  the  actual  historical  move- 
ments   of   men.     The    heroic    conflicts 
which  we   see   in   the  far  Historical  con- 
horizon,  the  sack  and  pil-  sc'o^sness  be- 

■r  gins  -with  the 

lage  of  Troy,  the  early  and  ^e  of  bronze, 
shadowy    movements    of    mankind    in 
Asia   Minor,   in    Hellas,    and   in    Italy, 
bring  us,  at    least  in  tradition,  into  the 


Egj'ptian  knife. 


Bracelets,  Switzerland. 


Bronze  hairpins,  Switzerland. 
EXAMPLES  OF  BRONZE  WORKMANSHIP. 


\   \ 


Copper 
spearhead. 


Son  with  a  bronze-bearing  nation  as  to 
be  easily  overrun,  and  with  this  conquest 
the  knowledge  and  practice  of  bronze 
manufacture  would  immediately  follow. 
However  this  may  be,  the  age  of 
bronze  has  everywhere  succeeded  the 
neolithic  age  in  the  development  of 
civilization.  It  is  in  this  age  that  we 
generally     catch     the     first      authentic 


age  of  bronze,  and  it  is  safe  to  regard 
this  epoch  in  the  evolution  of  man  as 
the  substratum  of  authentic  history. 

After  a  long  period  in  bronze-making 
and  bronze-using,  the  pre-  „, 

^  ^  The  age  of  iron 

historic  tribes,  or  perhaps  succeeds  the 

,         ,  -,  ..  epoch  of  bronze. 

we  should  now  say  nations, 

pass  into  the  age  of  iron.     Iron,  except 

in  the  fomi  of  meteorites,  does  not  exist 


288 


GREAT  RACES    OE  .-\rAXKTXD. 


in  the  native  state.  For  this  reason  its 
discovery  as  a  metal  happens  late  in  the 
history  of  man.  The  extraction  of  iron 
from  the  ore  is,  moreover,  exceedingly 
difficult  even  \vith   the  powerful  appli- 


Sweden, 
EXAMPLES    OF   IRON   WORKMANSHIP. 


ances  of  modern  metallurgy\  The  man 
of  antiquity  was  unable  to  produce  the 
requisite  heat,  and  even  had  he  been 
master  of  an  adequate  temperature  he 
could  not  have  conjectured  by  a  priori 
reasoning    that    such    a    substance    as 


metallic  iron  might  be  expected  to  issue 
from  the  rust-colored  stone  constituting 
the  ore. 

Doubtless  the  discovery  was  accidental. 
Indeed,  traditions  exist  to  this  effect.    It 

has  been  handed  down  that 

a       European 

Evolution  of 
discovery         of    ironwork  in  pri- 
1  .,      meval  Europe. 

iron  by  smelt- 
ing   occurred   in    Bohemia 
within  the  historical  period. 
However  this  ma}^  be,   we 
have    unmistakable    proofs 
that  somewhere  in  the  early 
dawn    of    the    Grseco- Italic 
development     in     Southern 
Europe     the    discovery     of 
the    process    of    extracting 
iron  was  made  and  the  fab- 
rication      of       implements 
therefrom     begun.       The 
Greeks,  at  least  of  the  post- 
Homeric    epoch,    had   a 
soldiery  bearing  iron  weap- 
ons, and  it  appears  that  the 
Romans  from  the  first  faint 
limnings  of  tradition  armed 
themselves,  for  both  offense 
and  defense,  with  the  same 
heavy  and  enduring  metal. 
In  short,  the  age  of  iron  is, 
roughly  speaking,  the  age 
of    authentic    history. 
Though  the  ancient  Egj'p 
tians      were      unacquainted 
with  iron,  and  thoug-h  the 
extent  of  its  use  among  the 
Assyrians  and   Babylonians 
has  not  been  clearly  deter- 
mined, the  fact  remains  that 
in  general  terms  the  manufacture  of  iron 
implements  has  been  a  circumstance  co- 
incident with  the  historic  development 
of  our  race.    We  are  now  and  have  been 
for  some  three  thousand  years  in  the  age 
of  iron,  and  it  would  seem  that  we  are 


PRIMEVAL   MAN— CAVE  DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


289 


destined  to  continue  in  the  same  epoch 
until  by  a  new  evolution  we  shall  pass 
into  the  age  of  aluminum. 

This  somewhat  extended  digressive 
study  of, the  four  principal  erasof  devel- 
CavedweUers  opment  through  which  the 
«ve^fthe^Snro-  ^aces  of  men  have  passed 
pean  races.  J]  j^g  been  made  necessar}'  in 

order  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
true  place  of  the  cave  dwellers  of  West- 
em  Europe.  They  were  men  of  the 
old  stone  age.  Their  implements  were 
all  palaeolithic.  They  flourished,  or  at 
least  lived,  in  an  age  before 
the  art  of  grinding  and 
polishing  utensils  of  stone 
had  been  discovered.  This 
is  to  say  that  they  present 
the  most  primitive  type  of 
mankind  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  Xor  is  it  likely 
that  ethnologists  and  an- 
tiquarians will  ever  be  able 
to  deduce  from  the  prehis- 
toric shadows  a  form  of 
human  life  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  life  of  the 
lower  animals  than  is  that 
which  we  are  now  to  ex- 
amine. 

The  story  of  the  investi- 
gation of  the   cave  dwell- 
ings in  Europe  is  full  of  interest.     The 
Interest  of  the     Care  and  zeal  with   which 
^irifcaer'    the  work  has  been  carried 
^™^-  forward  will  always  elicit 

praise  from  those  who  are  concerned  to 
know  the  true  story  of  the  human  race 
on  the  earth.  As  early  as  1825  the  at- 
tention of  antiquaries  began  to  be  called 
to  the  fact  of  the  mixed  remains  of  men 
and  animals  in  various  caverns  which  had 
been  explored  for  other  than  scientific 
purposes.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
1833   that  the   distinguished  antiquary, 


upon  the  consideration  of  scholars  the 
unmistakable  lessons  which  the  caves 
had  revealed  to  him  and  his  colaborers. 

The  caverns  in  question  exist  in  many 
parts  of  the  Continent  and  of  England. 
They  abound  in  Southern 
France  and  along  the 
borders  of  Belgium.  They 
are  dark  grottoes  in  limestone  rock,  and 
seem  in  nearly  all  cases  to  have  been 
selected  by  the  cave  men  because  of  the 
narrowness  and  defensibility  of  the 
openings.    In  many  instances  the  mouths 


Character  of  the 
caves  inhabited 
by  primeval 
man. 


Dr.  P.  C.  Schmerling,  of  Belgium,  forced 


MAN  CAVERN  IN"  GALEINREUTH,  BAVARIA. 

of  the  caverns  have  been  found  closed  by 
the  very  stones  which  the  rough  inhab- 
itants rolled  and  pushed  into  place  as  a 
barrier  against  their  enemies.  The 
floors  are  generally  on  a  lower  level  than 
the  openings,  which  fact  has  led  to  the 
accumulation  of  thick  layers  of  mud  and 
debris  on  the  bottom.  Over  this  collec- 
tion of  earth}''  materials,  mixed  as  they 
are  with  the  relics  of  the  human  and  non- 
human  occupants  in  former  ages,  is 
nearly  always  spread  a  layer  of  that 
calcareous  substance  called  stalagmite, 
deposited  there  in  the  course  of  centuries 


290 


GREAT  RACES    OF  MANKIND. 


by  the  lime-saturated  exudations  from 
the  roof  of  the  cavern.  This  stalagmitic 
floor,  holding-  its  secrets  underneath,  is 
generally  quite  hard,  and  is  in  many 
cases  two  or  three  feet  in  thickness. 
The  cavern  here  described  is  typical,  but 
is  subject  in  different  localities  to  con- 
siderable modifications  in  its  character 
and  details. 

It  was  such  a  cave  dwelling  as  this, 
called  the  Cavern  of  Engis,  that  Dr. 
Schmerling  entered  and  explored  in  1 8 32 . 
Exploration  of     It  was  situated  near  Liege, 

the  Engis  cavern  ^^  ^j^g  junction  of  the 
by  Dr.  Scnraer-  ." 

liig-  ^leuse  and  the  Ourthe,   in 

Belgium.  The  story  of  the  exploration 
is  as  heroic  as  the  results  were  novel  and 
instructive.  vSchmerling  had  to  be  let 
down  into  the  cavern  by  a  rope  tied  to 
a  tree  outside.  He  was  obliged  to  slide 
in  order  to  gain  an  entrance.  Within 
it  was  as  dark  as  night.  The  explorer 
had  to  creep  from  one  apartment  to  an- 
other through  contracted  and  dangerous 
passages.  Into  these  spectral  vaults  he 
introduced  his  workmen.  Some  held 
torches  while  the  others  worked.  The 
floor  of  stalagmite  was  as  hard  as  marble. 
The  philosopher  was  obliged  to  stand 
hour  after  hour  with  his  feet  in  the  mud 
while  the  cold  exudations  from  the  roof 
of  the  cavern  dripped  on  his  head. 
Finally  the  stalagmitic  crust  Avas  broken 
up  and  the  materials  underneath  brought 
to  exposure.  Everything  was  done  un- 
der Schmerling's  personal  direction,  so 
that  no  false  statement  or  unfact  of  any 
kind  should  mix  with  the  results. 

The  results  were  marvelous.  Human 
skulls  and  indeed  Avhole  skeletons  were 
Carefulness  of  found  ill  the  clay  and  muck 
Iwfduc-  under  the  floor  of  stalag- 
mite. And  to  make  the 
discovery  more  astounding,  the  bones  of 
several  species  of  extinct  animals  were 
found  intermingled  with  those  of  men  ! 


the  investiga- 
tion 
tions. 


It  was  noted,  moreover,  and  established 
to  a  demonstration  that  the  human  parts 
and  the  animal  parts  were  in  such  jux- 
taposition and  relation  as  to  prove  the 
coincident  lodgment  and  preserv'ation  of 
the  remains.  Every  fact  tending  to 
throw  light  on  the  discovery  was  care- 
fully recorded  by  vSchmerling,  and  in 
the  following  year  he  piiblished  a  trea- 
tise announcing  as  a  scientific  truth  the 
contemporaneous  existence  of  man  and 
the  mammoth  in  Western  Europe. 

A  second  digression  is  here  desirable, 
relating  in  this  instance  to  some  changes 
which  have  taken  place   in  significance  of 
the  fauna  of  the  continent  '■^::::r^::T^,. 

since  the  close  of   the    plio-    an  climate. 

cene  era  of  geology.  It  appears  that 
certain  transformations  have  occurred  in 
the  climate  of  Europe  which  have  made 
the  country  untenable  to  several  species 
of  animals  formerly  prevalent  therein. 
About  seventeen  varieties  of  mammals 
have  disappeared  since  the  old  stone  age. 
These  embrace  several  species  of  heavy 
pachyderms  and  quite  a  number  of 
smaller  animals,  nearly  all  of  which  have 
their  habitat  either  in  the  tropics  or  in 
regions  much  more  tropical  than  any 
part  of  Europe.  That  these  species  for- 
merly abounded  on  the  continent  is 
clearly  demonstrable.  That  they  could 
not  possibly  exist  under  present  climatic 
conditions  is  also  tnie ;  from  which  it 
seems  clearly  established  that  a  great 
change  toward  frigid  conditions  has 
taken  place  in  the  European  countries. 
This  change,  doubtless,  is  the  very  fact 
Avhich  has  caused  the  extinction  of  the 
animals  referred  to  and  the  perpetuation 
of  the  varieties  now  existing.' 


'The  theory  of  the  existence  of  a  tropical  condi- 
tion in  the  northern  hemisphere  in  the  age  preced- 
ing the  last  glacial  epoch  of  our  planet  may  now 
be  considered  as  a  demonstrated  scientific  truth. 
See  the  discussion  of  the  subject,  p.  ante  57. 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.—CAVE  DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


291 


Tlie  seventeen  species  of  mammalia 
which  have  thus  been  extinguished  by 
the  \'icissitude  of  cHmate  are  as  follows : 
Species  of  ex-  The  cave  bear;  a  second 
as'^olfa't^^^th  '^■ariety  called  I  'rsiis  prisms, 
^^'°-  or   the  ancient   bear;    the 

cave  hyena ;  the  cave  lion ;  the  mam- 
moth ;  another  species  of  the  genus 
Elcphas,  called  the  old  elephant;  the 
haiiy  rhinoceros;  two  other  species  of 
rhinoceros ;  the  hippopotamus ;  the  musk 
ox;  the  Irish  elk;  the  wild  horse;  the 
g-lutton;  the  reindeer;  the  aurochs,  or 
European  bison ;  and  the  urus,  or  primi- 
tive ox.  It  is  thought  by  naturalists 
that  some  of  the  species  hei^e  enumer- 
ated have  perpetuated  themselves  in  de- 
flected varieties  of  the  original  until  the 
present,  but  the  rest  are  manifestly  and 
indubitably  extinct.  Yet  all  of  these  ani- 
mals were  prevalent  in  the  old  stone  age, 
and  it  is  the  testimony  of  the  cave  dwell- 
ing' that  man  was  their  contemporary 
and  competitor  for  occupancy. 

Dr.  vSchmerling  continued  his  investi- 
gations in  other  limestone  caverns  and 
Evidence  cumu-  "with  the  .Same  general  re- 
\^::^::r^^lf  s^lts.  in  at  least  four  or  , 
primeval  man.  fi^g  of  the  cavcs  near  Liege 
he  found  unmistakable  proofs  that  they 
had  been  used  for  dwellings  in  the  pre- 
historic ages.  Evidences  of  the  manner 
of  life  of  the  primitive  barbarians  of 
"Western  Europe  accumulated,  and  fact 
was  added  to  fact  in  illustration  of  the 
conditions  under  which  man  contended 
with  the  laws  of  his  environment  before 
the  iirst  peoples  of  the  Aryan  race  had 
found  a  footing  in  the  countries  this 
side  of  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine. 

Before  proceeding  to  note  the  partic- 
ular contents  of  the  various  European 
cave  dwellings,  and  to  elucidate  their 
significance,  it  will  be  proper  to  enu- 
merate some  of  the  principal  caverns 
which  have  been   explored.     The   Bel- 


gian government  finally  undertook  the 
work  begun  by  Schmerling,  and  in  1867 
sent  out  a  party  of  scien-  sketch  of  the 
lists  under  direction  of  the  ™ost  important 

cave  dwellings 

naturalist,   Dupont,  to  car-  of  Europe. 
ry   forward    the  investigation.     Several 
other  caves  like  that  of  Engis  were  ex- 
amined in  the  same  region  and  the  con- 
tents  transmitted    to    museums.      The 
cavern  of  Chaleux  yielded  in  addition  to 
its  animal  relics  a  vast  number  of  imple- 
ments, all  belonging  to    the  old    stone 
age.      That     of    Furfooz     was     almost 
equally    rich    in    prehistoric    materials. 
The  cave  called  Frou  du  Frontal  con- 
tained parts  of  thirteen  skeletons.     The 
opening   of   this   vault  was  still  closed 
with  the  block  of  sfone  which  the  cave 
men  had  used  to  barricade  the  entrance. 
The  grotto  of  Aurignac,  in  the  south  of 
France,    yielded    seventeen    prehistoric 
skeletons,  but  these  were  unfortunately 
lost  through  the  ignorance  of  the  mayor 
of  the  city.     In  the  department  of  Dor- 
dogne,     in     Southwestern      France,     a 
number    of  cave    dwellings    have    been 
explored   with    results    confirmator}-    of 
those  attained  elsewhere ;  and  in    con- 
nection   with    these    caverns    the    addi- 
tional   interesting  fact  was    noted    that 
artificial    chambers  connected  with  the 
natural  vaults  in  the  limestone  had  been 
excavated  and  used  by  the  primitive  oc- 
cupants. In  1858  the  philosopher,  Schaaf- 
hausen,  gave  to  the  public  an  account  of 
the    discoveries    recently   made    in    the 
limestone   cavern   of   Neanderthal,    be- 
tween Diisseldorf  and  Elberfeld,  includ- 
ing a  description  of  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable prehistoi'ic  skulls  which  schol- 
ars have  had  the  fortune  to  examine. 

Turning  to  England,  one  of  the  most 
important    of   the    caverns 

Exploration  of 

formerly  inhabited  by  men  the  man  caverns 

T^       . ,      of  England. 

as    Kent  s 


is   that   known 

Hole,    near    Torqua}-, 


in    Devonshire. 


292 


GREAT  RACFS   OF  .UAXKLYD. 


This  was  first  explored  by  the  scholar, 
MacEnery,  in  the  year  1825.  No 
publislied    account  of  the  resiilts,  how- 


(.Kull"    AMj    KUCK    shelter   of   BRUNIQUEI. — AN    Al 

Drawn  by  Riou. 

ever,  was  made  until  1859,  when  the 
relics  were  classified  by  Mr.  Vivian.  In 
1862,  a  remarkable  hyena  den  called 
Wokey  Hole,  near  Wells,  was  explored 


and  described  by  William  Boyd  Dawkins. 
Meanwhile  the  naturalist,  Goodwin- 
Austen,  had  reexamined  the  cav'ern  of 
^  Kent's  Hole,  and 
■_;iven  the  results 
in  a  memoir  to 
t  he  Geological  So- 
■  iuty.  In  1858 
I  )r.  Falconer  in- 
I'lirmed  the  saiue 
learned  body  of 
t  h  e  intere.sting 
iliscoveries  made 
:  )}■  himself  in  a 
;ive  dwelling  at 
lirixham,  also  in 
Devonshire ;  and 
afterward  a  Pro- 
f  e  s  s  o  r  Ramsay 
explored  the 
grotto  and  veri- 
fied the  former 
'  1  inclusions  r  e  - 
s[iecting  its  con- 
tents. 

Explorations 
\ere  next  carried 
into  distant  parts. 
In  the  grotto  of 
Maccagnone,  in 
Sicily,  Dr.  Fal- 
coner  made  dis- 
coveries in  the 
s;ime  general  line 
with  those  already 
recorded.  .The 
jieculiarity  in  this 
instance  was  that 
many  of  the 
relics  of  men  and 
animals  were 
found  aggluti- 
nated to  the  top,   or    roof. 

Peculiar  finds  in 

of  the  cavern,  where  they  the  grotto  of 

1      J  .        1       -  111    Maccagnone. 

had   seemingly  been   held 

in   place   by  the    action   of    water  tintil 


HE    OV    I'KIMIA'AI.     MAS. 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— CAVE  DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


293 


cave  life  drawn, 
from  three 
sources. 


the  precipitation  of  lime  had  cemented 
them  to  the  ceiling !  .Some  interesting- 
caves  have  been  explored  at  Gibraltar 
with  results  similar  to  those  enumerated 
above. 

It  is  thus  that  antiquaries  and  scholars 
have  become  acquainted  with  the  condi- 
niustrations  of  tions  Under  which  the  cave 
dwellers  of  the  prehistoric 
age  passed  their  existence. 
It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  the  illus- 
trations of  the  life  of  these  primitive 
barbarians  are  drawn  first  from  the  char- 
acter of  the  human  remains  themselves ; 
secondly,  from  our  knowledge  of  the 
animals  with  the  bones  of  which  the 
human  relics  are  found  interminorjed : 
and  thirdly,  from  the  character  of  the 
implements  and  utensils  which  the  cave 
men  left  with  their  own  skeletons  in  the 
clay  beds  of  the  caverns. — Let  us  look 
then,  first,  at  the  remains  of  the  cave 
men  themselves  and  compare  these 
human  relics  of  a  prehistoric  epoch  and 
people  with  the  like  parts  of  existing 
races. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  skulls 
which  has  come  to  us  from  the  time  of 
Characteristics  the  cave  dwellers  is  that 
:?theTng:s°"'  fo^^d  b)"  Dr.  Schmerling 
^^^'^-  in  the  limestone  cavern  of 

Engis.  A  cast  of  this  skull  has  been 
made  and  duplicates  distributed  to  the 
leading  museums  of  the  world,  and  the 
most  skillful  naturalists  have  passed 
upon  its  character.  On  the  whole,  it  is 
of  smaller  capacity  and  less  symmetrical 
development  than  the  average  cranium 
of  the  civilized  man  of  to-day.  It  is 
narrower  in  the  forehead,  and  gives  evi- 
dent indications  of  weakness  in  other 
respects.  But  still  it  is  of  better  capacity 
and  much  less  forbidding  than  might  be 
expected  in  a  case  of  a  prehistoric  inhab- 
itant of  a  cavern.  The  skull  plate  is  not 
especially  thick,  and  that  part  which  is 


supposed  to  indicate  animality  is  not 
more  protuberant  than  in  the  case  of 
many  skulls  of  existing  races.  Professor 
Huxley  has  candidly  remarked  that  ' '  It 
is  a  fair  average  human  skull,  which 
might  have  belonged  to  a  philosopher. 


'^'' "  ■         ■■  ''^'■■^'■■j^-:Sz 


i'"i.il. 


tiir    '■^■-'^''/■^.•.-'-■■?^fe 


THE   EN'GIS    SKILU 


or  might  have  contained  the  thoughtless 
brains  of  a  savage." 

Very  different  from  this,  however,  is 
the  skull  described  b}-  Schaafhausen, 
which  was  taken  from  the  cave  of  Nean- 
derthal, near  Diisseldorf,  in  Rhenish 
Prussia.     The   latter  is  so   exceedingly 


294 


GREAT  RACES    OF  MAXKrXD. 


gross  in  its  form  and  structure  as  to 
suggest,  almost  with  the  force  of  demon- 
stration, a  type   of  life  but  little   above 


ity  indicated  by 
the  Neanderthal 
skull. 


barons,  has  a  skull  at  all  comparable 
with  the  Neanderthal  in  its  small  ca- 
pacity, outward-slopingocciput,  and  great 

thickness    peculiar  animal- 

o  f      bone 
The     a  c 

companying  cut  of  an 
authentic  cast  will  suf- 
ficiently illustrate  the 
character  of  the  skull 
under  consideration. 

It  is  not  needed  in 
this  connection  to  enter 
into  details  respecting 
the  character  of  the 
other  parts  of  the  hu- 
man skeletons  which 
have  been  found  in  the 
cave  dwellings  of  Eu- 
rope. It  is  sufficient  to 
note  the  fact  that  in 
general  these  remains 
depart  somewhat  from 
the  highly  developed  and 

symmetri-    other  features 

c'al   forms  f. 'J!!  !^!'r°"' 

01  the  cave 


O  f        living    d-weUers. 

types  of  men,  and  verge 
off  unmistakably  in  some 
particulars  toward  the 
forms  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals. The  ai-ms,  for 
instance,  of  the  cave 
men  were  longer  than 
tho.se  of  existing  races. 
The  hands  also  shared 
the  elongation  of  the 
humerus  and  ulna,  and 
appear  to  have  had  less 
of  that  lateral  flexibility 
which  distinguishes  the 
human  hand  from  the 
that   of    the    beasts    of   the    field.     The  i  fore  paw  of  the  chimpanzee.    The  animal 


THE   NEANDERTIIAI,   SKULL. 


skull  is  almost  as  flat  and  thick  and  re- 
ceeding  as  that  of  a  gorilla.  No  man 
of  any  existing  race,  even  the  most  bar- 


quality  is  again  illustrated  in  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  under  jaws  of  the  cave 
men.     There  is  in  this  respect  a  con.sid- 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— CAVE   DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


296 


erable  departure  from  the  square,  light, 
and  symmetrical  lower  jaw  of  existing  1 
races.  The  teeth  also  of  the  cave 
dweller  were,  as  a  rule,  larger  and  more  , 
canine  than  the  human  teeth  of  the  pres- 
ent. The  shape  and  armature  of  the 
mouth  were  more  distinctly  carnivorous 
than  could  be  found  in  the  case  of  any 
living  species  of  men,  and  the  bones  of 
the  body  were,  as  a  rule,  stronger  and 
redder  and  armed  with  higher  processes 
for  the  attachment  of  muscles  than  we 
find  in  skeletons  of  the  historical  period. 
On  the  whole,  the  indications  derived 
from  the  bones  of  the  cave  dwellers 
point  convincingly  to  a  type  and  man- 
ner of  life  considerabh'  more  approx- 
imated to  the  mere  animal  existence  of 
the  creatures  with  which  these  prim- 
itive savages  contended  than  to  the 
highly  organized  bodies  and  refined 
characteristics  of  living  men. 

Something  has  already  been  said  of 
the  character  and  place  of  the  animals 
Extinct  animals  with  which  the  prehistoric 
associated  with  ^^.^g     associated      in 

man ;  the  cave 

bear.  Western  Europe.     It  is  now 

no  longer  doubted  that  he  was  a  com- 
panion of  the  mammoth  and  the  hairy 
rhinoceros  at  a  time  when  these  huge 
pachyderms  still  prevailed  in  the  coun- 
try. Of  all  the  animal  remains  with 
which  the  bones  and  implements  of  man 
are  associated  in  the  cave  dwellings  the 
most  numerous  are  those  of  the  cave 
bear.  Perhaps  not  a  single  cavern  in 
which  the  relics  of  human  life  have  been 
found  has  been  explored  without  the 
discovery  of  the  bones  of  this  extinct 
animal.  He  seems  to  have  roamed  ev- 
erywhere in  the  west  of  Europe,  and  to 
have  had  a  special  liking  for  those  lime- 
stone vaults  which  the  cave  men  chose 
for  their  dwellings.  The  bones  of  this 
Ursus  spclceus,  or  cave  bear,  indicate  that 
the  possessor  was  sometimes  killed  and 


eaten  by  the  cave  men,  who  dropped  the 
inedible  parts  on  the  cavern  floor.  But 
in  other  instances  the  bear  seems  to 
have  died  a  natural  death  in  the  cavern 
which  had  been  inhabited  in  the  same 
period  by  men.' 

The  second  of  the  extinct  animals 
with  which  the  cave  man  was  most  as- 
sociated was  the  cave  hyena. 

Cave  hyena  and 

The    bones    of    this   crea-  cave  uon;  their 

T         -.1      ^1  e   distribution. 

ture,  mixed  with  those  or 
man  and  with  palaeolithic  implements, 
are  plentifully  distributed  in  the  caverns 
which  have  been  above  described.  The 
animal  in  question  did  not  differ  very 
greatly  from  the  spotted  hyena  of  Africa 
and  Asia,  and  his  habits,  doubtless, 
were  of  the  same  kind  as  those  of  his 
prototypes. 


HEAD   OF   CAVE    BEAK. 


The    cave    lion,    scientifically   called 
Fclis  spclaa,  is  the  third  of  the  animals 
which  were  associated  with   the  prehis- 
toric man.      This  beast  was  much  larger 
and   stronger  than  modern  lions,  if  we 
I  except  the  great  beasts  of  Africa.     The 
i  ancient  animal  was  even  more  strongly 
'  discriminated  from  the  tiger  than  is  any 
existing  variety  of  lion.     The  primitive 
bea.st  roamed  freely  in  France,  in  Ger- 

'  It  is  almost  certain  that  the  cave  hear  of  the  old 
stone  age  was  the  progenitor  of  the  common  brown 
bear  of  Europe  and  .America.  The  skeleton  of  Ursus 
spelaus  is  somewhat  larger  and  stronger  than  the 
bone-frame  of  his  descendants,  and  his  jaws  and 
teeth  had  specific  characteristics  marking  him  as  a 
different,  or  at  least  more  primitive,  type  of  animal ; 
but  in  other  respects  the  naturalist  finds  little  to  dis- 
criminate the  ursus  of  the  cavern  from  his  modem 
representatives — little  except  the  size. 


296 


GREAT  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


many,  in  Italy,  and  in  vSicily,  and  his  re- 
mains have  been  known  and  classified 
since  the  seventeenth  century.  It  is 
thought  that  the  bones  of  the  same  ani- 
mal  have  been  found  at  Natchez,  on  the 
Mississippi,  a  fact  which  would  seem  to 
indicate  a  very  wide  distribution  of  this 
creature.  Other  varieties  of  the  genus 
Felis  also  existed  in  the  epoch  of  the 
cave  dwellers,  and  their  remains  are 
found  associated  with  those  of  men. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to 
the  contemporaneous  existence  of  man 
Great pachy-  and  the  mammoth.  Tliis 
derms;  restora-    creature  sccms  to  have  been 

tion  of  Elephas 

primigenius.  distributed  over  the  whole 
of  North  America  and  the  continent  of 
Europe    from    Land's    End   to   Siberia. 


SKETCH   OF   CAVE   BEAR,    DRAWN   ON   A   STONE 
FOUND    IN  XHli   CAVE  OF   MASSET. 

From  the  north  the  mammoth  crossed 
the  Alps,  and  his  remains  are  found  as 
far  south  as  Rome.  But  no  traces  of  this 
pachyderm  have  been  found  south  of 
the  Pyrenees  or  in  the  Mediterranean 
islands.  As  a  rule,  and  for  very  obvious 
reasons,  the  bones  of  the  mammoth  are 
infrequently  found  in  the  cave  dwellings 
of  Western  Europe.  As  already  noted, 
the  entrance  to  these  abodes  were  gen- 
erally too  narrow  to  admit  so  huge  a 
beast;  but  there  are  instances  in  which 
the  bones  of  man  and  the  relics  of  the 
mammoth  have  been  washed  by  water 
into  a  contemporaneous  deposit  in  the 
bottom  of  caverns.  In  other  localities 
the  skeletons  of  the  mammoth  or  parts 


thereof  have  been  found  in  close  and 
frequent  association  with  the  skeletons 
of  prehistoric  men,  and  in  such  localities 
the  age  of  the  deposit  can  nearly  always 
be  determined  by  the  presence  of  old 
stone  implements.  No  fact  in  natural 
history  seems  to  be  better  established 
than  the  coexistence  of  man  and  this 
so-called  Elcplias  priuiigeniiis  in  most  of 
the  Eurojiean  countries.  The  story  of 
the  discovery  of  the  hairy  mammoth  im- 
bedded in  a  mass  of  frozen  soil  in  Siberia 
is  well  known.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  century  this  remarkable  find  was 
brouQ-ht  to  the  knowledge  of  scientific 
men,  and  a  portion  of  the  animal  re* 
covered  from  the  dogs  and  wild  beasts 
to  which  it  had  been  abandoned.  The 
mammoth  was  a  huge  pachyderm  of  the 
elephant  order,  with  a  dark  colored  skin, 
covered  with  reddish  wool,  mixed  with 
long  black  bristles  stronger  and  coarser 
than  horsehair.  A  restoration,  from 
strictly  scientific  data,  of  this  great 
beast  of  primeval  Europe  has  been 
effected  by  Professor  Henry  A.  Ward, 
of  the  United  States,  and  doubtless 
the  monstrous  effigy  thus  produced 
fitly  represents  the  animal  as  he  Avas 
in  the  days  of  the  cave  men  of  Western 
Europe. 

The  bones  of  the  hairy  rhinoceros  are 
fotind  in    the    caverns  in    juxtaposition 

with     those    of     men.       But    other  animal 

like  those  of  the  mammoth,  Zt^^^t 
the  locality  best  suited  ^^'^• 
to  such  association  of  human  and  non- 
human  relics  are  the  drift  formations 
and  gravel  beds  of  the  open  country. 
The  remains  of  the  musk  ox,  or  more 
properly  the  musk  sheep,  now  limited 
in  its  habitat  to  arctic  America  and  Si- 
beria, are  also  found  in  union  with  the 
relics  of  the  prehistoric  inhabitants  of 
the  Continent,  and  even  of  England. 
Bones  of  this  animal  have  been  discovered 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.—CAVE   DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


297 


In  Kent,  on  the  banks  of  the  Severn, 
and  in  the  gravel  beds  of  Avon. 

The  hippopotamus  also,  that  is,  an 
extinct  variety  of  the  species,  prevails 
within  the  human  epoch,  and  the  relics 
of  this  animal  are  associated  with  those 
of  the  cave  dwellers.  In  at  least  four 
caverns  in  England  bones  of  the  ancient 
hippopotamus  have  been  found.  The 
caves  of  Durdham  Down,  Kirkdale, 
Kent's  Hole,  and  Raven's  Clifif,  in  Gower, 
have  all  yielded  specimens  of  this  ex- 
tinct beast  of  the  post-pliocene  era. 

The  reindeer  was  also  contemporary 
with  the  jjrehistoric  tribes  in  the  west  of 

The  reindeer  a        Europe.    He 

former  inhabit-       bglono-pd    to 
ant  of  Central         uciuugeu    LU 

Europe.  the    age    of 

bronze.  At  the  present 
this  animal  ranges  far  to 
the  north,  being  wellnigh 
limited  in  his  habitat  to 
Siberia  and  Lapland.  In 
America  also  he  beats  far 
up  to  the  arctic  regions, 
but  in  the  central  parts  of 
our  continent  the  caribou 
is  thought  to  be  an  in- 
flected variety  of  this 
same  species  of  rangerine 
stag  that  has  left  his 
remains  with  those  of  primeval  man 
in  France  and  England.  In  the  cav- 
erns of  Wales  more  than  a  thousand 
horns  of  the  reindeer  have  been  discov- 
ered, and  traces  of  his  existence  are 
everywhere  abundant  as  far  south  as  the 
Alps  and  the  Pyrenees.  Of  the  extinct 
animals  that  have  flourished  since  the  ap- 
pearance of  7nan  only  the  mammoth  and 
the  hairy  rhinoceros  seem  to  have  been 
older  species  than  the  reindeer.  The 
latter  appears  to  have  had  great  endur- 
ance, and  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  com- 
position of  Caesar's  Gallic  TFirr  the  animal 

still  roamed  in  the  Hercynian  forest — at 
M. — Vol.  I — 20 


least  such  was  the  information  brought 
to  Caesar.  The  primitive  man  captured 
the  reindeer,  feasted  on  his  flesh,  took  his 
horns  for  implements,  and  his  hide  for  a 
cloak ;  but  the  animal  was  not  domesti- 
cated in  prehistoric  times. 

More  noted  still  as  a  contemporary  of 
the  cave  dwellers  was  the  great  stag 
called  the  Irish  elk.     This 

Size  and  charac- 

was,  perhaps,  the  most  mag-  teristics  of  the 
nificent  animal  of  all  that 
we  are  here  considering.     He  grew  to  a 
stature  of  more  than  ten  feet,   and  an 
existing   pair   of    his   antlers   measures 
eleven  feet  from  point  to  point!     These 


MAMMOTH,    RESTORED. 

tremendous  horns  were  palmated  like 
those  of  the  American  moose,  and  the 
huge  creature  dashing  about  the  Irish 
peat  bogs  or  through  the  oak  woods  of 
Britain  must  have  been  terrible,  even 
sublime,  in  aspect.  His  remains  are 
frequently  found  in  the  peat  measures 
of  Ireland  and  on  the  Continent,  but  still 
more  abundantly  in  the  lacustrine  shell 
marl  underlying  the  bog  earth  of  the 
marsh  lands. 

Next  in  order  of  these  prehistoric 
animals  is  the  glutton,  called  in  Amer- 
ica the  wolverene.  He  appears  to  have 
been  a  contemporary  of   the   creatures 


298 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKFXD. 


aDove  enumerated,  and  in  many  places 

to  have  had  a  particular  association  with 

man.        But    more    impor- 

The  prehistoric  ... 

bison  of  Europe   tant  by  far  in  such  associ- 

and  America.  ^^^.^^^    ^^^    ^^^    aurOChs,    or 

European  bison.  This  animal  has  been 
long  extinct  in  France  and  England, 
and  yet  we  have  the  remarkable  fact  of 
his    survival    in   a   cognate   species    in 


gravel  yields  some  relic  of  this  heavy 
prehistoric  animal.  Oddly  enough,  his 
name  is  omitted  from  the  interesting  list 
which  Caesar  has  enumerated  as  inhabit- 
ing  the  Hercynian  wood  in  the  time  of 
his  invasion.  But  the  tradition  of  the 
aurochs  is  given  in  the  Niebelungen 
Lied  and  other  ancient  documents. 
It  seems  that  the  extinction  of  this  an* 


FEAST  IJL'RING   1  H  K  b-IMLH  OF  'I'HK  KK  INDhliR.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayaid. 


America.  The  bison  prisons,  or  old 
buffalo  of  America,  is  now  known  to  be 
a  more  ancient  variety  than  the  aurochs 
of  Europe,  and  yet  the  latter  was  con- 
temporary with  man  along  with  the 
mammoth  and  the  reindeer.  The 
aurochs  was  widely  distributed.  His 
remains  are  found  in  Scotland,  England, 
France,  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Poland,  Italy,  and  Russia.  Nearly 
every  bone  cave  and  bed  of  river-drift 


imal  is  traceable  wholly  to  the  aggressions 
of  civilization  and  not  to  any  vicissitude  of 
climate.        The    European 

Late  extinction 

bison  IS  said  to  have  been  of  the  European 

T.T      .1  T>  •      buffalo, 

.seen   m  JNorthern    Prussia 

as  late  as  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  it  is  believed  that  a  pre- 
carious existence  is  still  maintained 
by  the  species  in  some  uninhabited 
parts  of  Western  Asia.  An  interesting 
episode  is   furnished  in  the  fact  that  in 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— CAVE   DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE, 


299 


the  Polish  revolution  of  183 1  a  herd  of 
more  than  seven  hundred  bisons  which 
had  been  preserved  by  the  Emperor  of 
Russia  in  the  great  forest  of  Lithuania 
was  attacked  by  a  body  of  the  insur- 
gents, and  a  hundred  and  fifteen  of  them 
slaughtered.  A  remnant  of  this  herd 
exists  to  the  present  day  in  the  same 
forest. 

The  urus,  or  primitive  ox,  seems  to 
have  been  limited  in  his  ranee  to  the 
„      .  .  .     European        conti- 

Primitive  ox  of  '■ 

Europe;  Caesar's    nent.       No  traCeS  of 

description.  ,   .  .    ,  , 

his  existence  have 
been  found  in  America  and 
none  in  Asia,  but  remains  of 
the  animal  are  plentifully  dis- 
tributed in  England,  Scotland, 
Denmark,  France,  Germany,  and 
Sweden.  Bones  of  this  species 
have  been  discovered  in  North- 
ern Africa.  In  the  museum  of 
Lund  a  skeleton  is  preserved,  in 
one  of  the  vertebrae  of  which  a 
wound,  made,  as  is  believed  by 
Professor  Nilsson,  by  a  flint 
weapon,  is  plainly  traceable. 
Csesar,  in  the  sixth  book  of  the 
Gallic  War,  gives  a  full  account 
of  the  urus  as  follows :  "  Of  these 
animals,  there  is  a  third  species 
which  are  called  uri.  They  are 
in  size  only  a  little  inferior  to 
the  elephants ;  in  color  and  ap- 
pearance and  form  they  are  bulls. 
Great  is  their  strength  and  great  their 
velocity.  Nor  do  they  stand  in  dread 
of  either  man  or  beast.  The  inhabit- 
ants take  and  slay  them  by  skillful 
contrivance  and  pitfalls."  The  tradi- 
tion of  the  urus  is  also  preserved  in  the 
Niebelungen.  The  species  has  been 
like  the  aurochs,  especially  persistent, 
and  has  only  given  way  before  the  in- 
vincible pressure  of  civilization.  It  is 
said  that  wandering  groups  of  uri  were 


known  in  Germany  as  late  as  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  there  is  little  doubt 
that  the  wild  bulls  which  ran  at  large  in 
the  neighborhood  of  London  as  late  as 
the  twelfth  century  were  identical,  at 
least  in  descent,  with  the  uri  of  the  Con- 
tinent. Nor  would  it  be  possible  to  say 
to  what  extent  the  blood  of  the  extinct 
animal  courses  in  the  various  breeds  of 
cattle  at  the  present  time. 

Thus  we  see  that  while  some  of  the 


IHE    IRISH    tLK    (.MEGACEROS    HIEERNICl^S). 

prehistoric  animals  above  enumerated 
are  indubitably  extinct,  others  have  in 
some  sense  transmitted  someprehis- 
themselves  into  the  historic  "^^^^^^^ 
era.  The  mammoth  and  species, 
the  hairy  rhinoceros  long  since  ceased 
to  exist  in  the  countries  which  we  are 
now  considering.  But  the  cave  bear, 
not  unlike  the  grizzly  of  the  Yuba 
mountains,  has  doubtless  left  reduced 
varieties  of  himself  to  the  present  time. 
So  also  the  reindeer,  and,  as  we  have 


300 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


just  seen,  the  aurochs  and  the  primitive 
ox.  This  is  to  say  that  if  we  look  at 
the  current  of  prehistoric  animal  life  in 
Western  Europe,  and  consider  it  as  a 
river  flowing  over  a  plain  and  dividing 
into  multifarious  streams  as  it  flows,  we 
shall  see  some  of  these  streams  sinking 
anon  into  the  sand  and  disappearing 
forever,  while  others  maintain  for  a 
while  a  straggling  and  reduced  volume 
until  they  in  turn  disappear.  A  few 
currents  flow  still  further  and  are  found 
precariously  wandering  on  the  surface 
even  to  the  present  day.  The  main 
point  to  be  borne  constantly  in  mind  in 
this  connection  is  that  far  back  in  the 
midst  of  these  branching  currents  of 
animal  life  primeval  man  held  his  career 
as  contemporary  even  with  the  oldest 
divisions  of  the  stream. 

From  the  earliest  appearance  of  man 
on  the  earth,  he  seems  to  have  had  a 
Disposition  of  disposition  to  Subordinate 
man  to  domesti.  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  various  animals 

cate  wild  ani- 

niais.  with    which   he   has   been 

associated.  According  to  the  sacred 
writers,  he  was  to  have  "  dominion  over 
the  beasts  of  the  field  and  every  creep- 
ing thing."  Certainly  he  has  shown  a 
disposition  to  subdue  and  possess  a 
great  number  of  the  wild  creatures  of 
his  habitat.  His  success,  however,  has 
been  but  partial.  Some  of  the  animals 
have  spurned  his  control  and  escaped 
from  him.  The  struggle  for  masteiy  has 
gone  on  tintil  an  epoch  in  civilization 
has  been  reached  in  which  man  has 
given  his  energies  to  the  subordination 
of  the  forces  of  nature  rather  than  the 
forces  of  animal  life. 

The  disposition  to  tame  the  wild  crea- 
tures has  been  deflected  into  another  form 
of  activity.  The  present  conflict  of  man 
with  the  animals  tends  to  destroy  rather 
than  to  domesticate.  From  the  earli- 
est ages  of  history  and  tradition,  however. 


some  of  the  living  creatures  with  which 
man  has  been  associated  have  been 
tamed  and  Crought  under  ^    ,   ^ 

^  Early  date  of  the 

his  control.     Even  the  ar-  practice  of  do- 

,  ,        .      .  1    ■     !•  J  •    1    mastication. 

chasological  and  inferential 
sort  of  history  which  we  have  been 
developing  in  the  preceding  pages 
shows  conclusively  that  in  the  most 
primitive  condition  of  human  life  sev- 
eral of  the  animals  were  domesticated 
and  used  by  primeval  man  at  his  will. 
It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to 
note  Avhat  these  domesticated  animals 
were  under  the  dominion  of  the  cave 
dwellers  of  Western  Europe. 

First  of  all,  the  men  of  the  caverns 
had  tamed  the  dog  and  associated  him 
closely  with  their  abodes.'  It  appears 
that  wild  dogs,  to  say  nothing  of  wol- 
verenes,  abounded  in  some 

The  dog  the  first 

localities,  but  as  a  rule  the  of  the  domesti- 

.  1   •   1  cated  animals. 

canine    bones    which    are 
found  associated  with  those  of  men  are 
of     domesticated     animals,     and     their 
abodes  seem  to  indicate  that  the  cave 
man  Avas  accompanied  by  large  packs  of 


'  U  will  interest  the  reader  and  strengthen  his 
confidence  as  well  to  know  hmv  it  is  that  the  nat- 
uralist is  able  to  distinguish  the  bones  of  a  wild 
animal  from  those  of  one  domesticated.  To  the 
man  of  science  the  case  is  perfectly  clear.  The 
characteristics  of  the  wild  and  the  tame  skeletons 
are  so  well  marked  as  to  leave  no  doubt  whatever 
relative  to  their  respective  antecedents.  The  bone 
of  the  animal  under  domestication  becomes  smooth, 
and  the  channels  on  the  surface  through  which  the 
veins  and  arteries  and  nerves  are  distributed  become 
so  shallow  as  to  be  no  longer  traceable.  The  proc- 
esses and  spines  which  nature  has  provided  for 
muscular  attachments  are  at  the  same  time  reduced 
in  height  and  size,  and  the  whole  appearance  of  the 
bone  surface  becomes  as  distinctly  unlike  that  of  the 
corresponding  species  of  the  wild  animal  as  the  liv- 
ing aspect  of  the  domesticated  variety  is  unlike  the 
ferocity  and  vigor  of  his  untamed  kinsman.  The 
accompanying  cut  of  the  vertebrje  of  a  cow  and  of 
the  corresponding  part  from  the  back  of  a  buffalo 
will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  marked  difference  in 
the  bone  structure  of  wild  and  domesticated  ani- 
mals. 


PRIMEVAL   ^^AN.—CAVE   DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


301 


dogs.  He  used  them  not  only  in  his 
contests  with  wild  animals  but  also  for 
food.  The  canine  bones  which  are 
found  in  the  caverns  show  conclusively 
that  they  were  broken  and  sawed  open 
for  the  marrow  in  the  same  manner 
with  the  bones  of  other  species.  The 
goat  also  was  almost  universally  domesti- 
cated, but,  contrary  to  what  might  have 
been  expected,  the  sheep  in  many  parts 
was  still  abroad  with  the  wild  animals. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  any  inclosures, 
properly  so  called,  were  used  by  the 
cave  dwellers,  and  it  appears  that  sheep, 
by  their  native  instincts, 

Disposition  of 

certain  animals     are    less    disposcd    than 

to  domesticate.  .     .  .  ,  i  ,       i 

goats  to  accept  the  control 
and  protection  of  man — more  disposed 
to  straggle  off  and  revert  to  the  original 
type.  The  same  remark  may  be  applied 
to  the  cat  in  contradistinction  to  the  dog. 
The  former,  though  regarded  as  a 
special  pet  of  the  human  family, 
seems,  after  all,  to  form  only  a 
strong  local  attachment  for  a  given 
place,  but  very  little  attachment 
to  human  beings.  The  dog,  on 
the  contrary,  attaches  himself  to 
his  master,  and  not  to  any  partic- 
ular place.  He  follows  his  master 
to  the  end  of  the  earth,  and  cares 
but  little  for  his  own  kennel  as 
compared  with  his  master's  com- 
pany. It  seems  that  the  goat  has 
much  of  this  same  instinct;  and 
for  this  reason,  doubtless,  the 
prehistoric  barbarians  of  Western 
Europe  held  the  goat  almost  always  in 
domestication.  Though  sheep  were 
domesticated  and  used  for  both  their 
flesh  and  their  fleeces,  they  were 
nevertheless  Avild  animals  rather  than 
tame. 

The  same  classification  must  be  ap- 
plied to  the  primitive  cattle.  It  appears 
that  in  some  places  kine  were  at  least 


partly  domesticated,  but,  as  a  rule,  they 
ran  wild.  This  may  be  said  also  of  the 
swine  of  the  prehistoric  Many  beasts 
age.  It  is  in  evidence  that  ''^::^^^f  ^^ 
droves  of  domestic  pigs  races, 
were  owned  and  driven  from  place  to 
place  by  the  barbarians ;  but  for  the 
most  part  the  hog  had  his  native  lair  in 


PART   OF   THE   VERTEBRA   OF   A   COW. 


CORRESPONDING   PART   OF  VERTEBRA   OF  THE   BISON. 


the  forest,  and  was  very  little  subject  to 
domestication.  These  wild  swine  were 
frequently  pursued  and  captured  and 
used  for  food  by  the  cave  men,  as  is  at- 
tested by  the  broken  and  sawed  bones 
which  are  left  in  the  caverns  and  gravel 
beds.  As  for  the  horse,  he  also  ran 
wild,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  in  any 
part  of  Western  Europe,  at  least  in  the 


302 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MA.VAVXn. 


old  stone  age,  this  noble  animal  had 
been  reduced  to  domestication.  But  his 
flesh  was  eaten  in  common  with  that  of 
many  other  animals. 

As  a  general  fact  the  cave  dwellers 
were  exceedingly  carnivorous  in  their 
Eating  habits  of  habits.  This  is  the  One  char- 
the  aborigines  of  acteristic  of   their  method 

Western  Eu- 
rope, of  life  which  discriminates 

them  so  strongly  from  the  Aryan  house- 
folk  described  in  the  preceding  chapter. 


already  remarked,  the  marrow  of  the 
bones  was  sought  with  avidity,  and 
scarcely  a  single  fragment  was  left  un- 
explored for  this  delicacy.  In  the  rude 
life  of  the  cavern  the  bones  were  simply 
broken  or  crushed  by  some  of  the  heav- 
ier stone  implements  employed  by  the 
cave  dwellers.  But  the  more  approved 
method  was  to  cut  the  bone  longitudi- 
nally with  a  stone  saw.  Specimens  of 
this  work  are   plentifully  preserved   in 


HUNT  OF  THE  WILD   BUAR.— ilrawn  by  Kmile  Bayard. 


It  is  doubtful  whether  by  the  ruder 
type  of  the  cave  men  the  soil  was  culti- 
vated at  all.  They  availed  themselves 
of  many  vegetable  growths,  ate  masts 
and  roots  and  wild  fruits  of  the  woods, 
and  even  devoured  the  barks  of  trees; 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  rational 
cultivation  of  the  soil  was  practiced  or 
even  known  by  these  rude  barbarians. 
They  lived  for  the  most  part  on  the  flesh 
of  animals,  and  this  was  generally  torn 
from  the  skeleton  and  eaten  raw.     As 


nearly  all  the  principal  museums  of  the 
world.  The  bones  of  the  ox,  the  sheep, 
the  goat,  the  reindeer,  the  fox,,  the  wolf, 
and  especially  of  the  dog,  are  found 
treated  in  this  manner  in  the  debris  of 
the  caverns.  Nor  is  there  any  mis- 
taking the  purpose  and  intent  of  the  bar- 
barians in  this  work. 

We  have  now,  in  our  consideration  of 
this  archaic  type  of  man  in  Western 
Europe,  arrived  at  the  point  where  the 
implements  and  i:tensils  of  his  household 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— CAVE  DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


303 


may  be  appropriately  considered.     The 

one  thing  to  be  remembered  and  repeated 

■with  emphasis  in  this  con- 

Place  of  the  cave 

men  zoologically  nection    is    that    the     cave 
an  geo  ogica  y.  jj^,gijgj.g  flourished   in  the 

old  stone  age.  Only  in  few  instances  and 
in  peculiar  localities  does  this  primeval 
form  of  human  life  seem  to  have  ex- 
tended upward  from  the  palaeolithic  into 
the  new  stone  epoch,  and 
still  less  frequently  into  the 
age  of  bronze.  It  must  be 
constantly  borne  in  mind 
that,  on  the  zoological  side 
of  this  inquiry,  the  primitive 
man  of  the  western  parts  of 
Europe  was  allied  with  the 
extinct  species  of  animals 
described  in  the  preceding  ^^  3 'S<3 
pages ;  that  in  his  geological 
relations  he  held  his  career 
in  what  is  called  the  post- 
pliocene,  or  quaternary 
period,  and  that  in  his 
archaeological  relations  he 
was  associated  with  the  old 
stone  era.  We  come,  then, 
to  consider  some  of  the 
details  of  his  implements 
and  household  apparatus. 

The  utensils  and  weapons 
of  the  cave  men  were  made 
from  flint  and  analogous 
varieties  of  stone.  They 
were  broken  and  chipped 
into  form  after  the  rude 
manner  described  on  a  former  page. 
Extent  and  vari-  Those  who  have  givcu  lit- 
ety  of  prehistor-  ^|    attention  to  the  subject 

ic  implements  in  J 

museums.  and  have  seldom  visited  our 

museums  of  archaeology  can  but  be 
astonished  at  the  great  abundance  of 
old  stone  implements  which  have  been 
recovered  from  the  age  which  we  are 
here  considering.  In  the  museum  of 
Copenhagen,   for  instance,   there  were, 


;1 


^1 


!D( 


in  the  year  1864,  one  thousand  and 
seventy  flint  axes  aad  wedges,  two  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five  broad  chisels,  two 
hundred  and  seventy  hollow  chisels, 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five  narrow 
chisels,  thirty-three  hollow  narrow  chis- 
els, two  hundred  and  fifty  poniards,  six 
hundred  and  fifty-six  lanceheads,  one 
hundred  and    seventy-one    arrowheada^ 


A^>!^ 


;l^ 


■  '■^ 


xr  i'A 


PAL/EOLITHIC   DAGGERS. 


two  hundred  and  five  half-moon  shaped 
implements,  seven  hundred  and  forty- 
six  pierced  axes  and  ax  hammers, 
three  hundred  flint  flakes,  four  hundred 

!  and   eighty-nine   sundries,    three  thou- 

I  sand  six  hundred  and  seventy-eight 
rough  stone  implements  from  the  shell 

I  mounds  of  Denmark,  one  hundred  and 
seventy-one  bone  implements,  one  hun- 

I  dred  and  nine  other  bone  articles  from 


304 


GREAT  RACES   OE  jrAXKLYD. 


the  shell  mounds,  making  in  a  single 
museum  a  total  of  eight  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  ninety-eight  specimens 
illustrative  of  the  age  of  stone. 

The  Danish  museums  contain  an 
aggregate  of  about  thirty  thousand 
stone  implements,  and  these  are  but  a 
fragment  of  the  great  collections  of 
other  countries.  The  museum  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Academy  contains  seven 
hundred  flint  flakes,  five  hundred  and 
twelve  so-called  "celts,"  or  axes,  more 
than  four  hundred  arrowheads,  fifty 
spearheads,    seventy-five    scrapers    and 


""■^-sMKajjai 


PAI..1.11I.1  run:   AXES   FROM    THE   SHKII.    M'M  NIis. 

many  sling- stones,  hammers,  whetstones, 
grain-crushers,  etc.  The  great  museum 
of  Stockholm  contains  upward  of  fifteen 
thousand  specimens  illustrative  of  the 
weaponry  and  utensils  of  the  age  of 
stone.  Indeed,  in  all  parts  of  the  civil- 
ized world,  in  public  and  in  private 
collections,  vast  numbers  of  a  still  vaster 
aggregate  remaining  in  the  earth  of 
these  stone-made  relics  of  the  prehistoric 
times  have  been  gathered,  and  it  is  not 
to  be  doubted  that  other  museums  still 
more  capacious  could  easily  be  filled 
with  like  materials. 

Perhaps   the   most   important    single 


implement   used   by   the   primitive    in- 
habitants of  Europe  was  the  stone  ax. 

This    tool,    even    from    the    stone  axes,  and 

palaeolithic  era,  had  a  cer-  ^ZT^^"^' 
tain  rude  approximation  in  tiiem. 
shape  and  character  to  the  modern  ax 
of  steel.  But  the  stone  implement  was 
generally  fastened  to  the  helve  by  a 
much  more  primitive  method  than  that 
employed  in  the  case  of  metallic  axes. 
The  stone  ax,  after  having  been  chipped 
into  proper  form  from  a  block  of 
flint,  was  generally  inserted  in  the  limb 
of  a  tree,  broken  or  cut  off  to  the  proper 
length.  The  blade  was  fastened 
in  the  opening  by  the  binding 
around  of  strips  of  rawhide  or  the 
tendons  of  some  strong  animal. 
There  was  great  variety  in  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  implement  and 
equally  multifarious  uses.  The 
barbarian  seems  to  have  employed 
his  ax  for  everything.  When  we 
consider  the  rudeness  of  the  tool  and 
the  manner  of  its  mounting,  it 
seems  almost  incredible  that  it  could 
have  been  so  effective  in  the  hands 
of  those  who  used  it.  It  is  well 
known  that  these  prehistoric  people 
cut  down  large  trees,  sharpened 
heavy  piles,  and  accomplished  other 
astonishing  feats  with  their  rude  stone 
axes.  Doubtless  the  time  required  to 
do  such  work  was  considerable,  and  it 
is  known  that  in  many  cases  fire  was 
employed  to  assist  the  process.  The 
barbarian  used  his  ax,  as  already  in- 
dicated, to  split  or  burst  the  bones  of  the 
animals  whose  flesh  he  devoured  and 
whose  marrow  was  regarded  as  a  morsel. 
The  cave  dwellers  and  their  contem- 
poraries also  manufactured  Funt  knives, 
and  used    a  great   variety  a^f  the  manner 

»  J     of  their  pro- 

of   knives.     The   patterns  Auction. 

of  these  were  almost  as  variable  as  in 

the  case  of  modern  cutlery.     Sometimes 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— CAVE  DWELLERS   OF  EUROPE. 


305 


FLINT    ARROWrOINTS 
FROM   THE  BONE  CAVERNS, 


the  knife  was  double,  having  a  blade 
fixed  in  either  end  of  the  handle.  Gen- 
erally it  was  single  bladed,  and  in  a  great 
many  cases  had  no  handle  at  all.  The 
blade  was  produced 
from  a  flake  of  flint 
or  obsidian,  and  was 
chipped  into  form 
after  the  manner 
already  described. 
It  must  ever  be  a 
matter  of  astonish- 
ment that  the  sav- 
age man  of  the 
prehistoric  ages  was 
able  to  produce  such 
fine  effects  by  the 
mere  breakage  and 
chipping  of  such 
material  as  flint. 
Next  among  his 
implements  may  be  mentioned  the  chisels 
which  he  used  and  which  are  also  of  vari- 
ous patterns — some  narrow,  some  broad, 
some  hollowed  along  the  center  of  the 
shaft,  and  others  convex.  It  was  a  gen- 
eral peculiarity  of  these 
stone  implements  that  the 
cutting  edge  was  curvilin- 
ear, either  gibbous  or 
semilunar  in  shape.  This 
is  true  of  the  edges  of  the 
axes  and  chisels  and  adzes 
and  knives,  and  indeed 
nearly  all  lithic  implements 
and  weapons. 

Pei^iaps  no  complete 
enumeration  can  be  made 
of  the  tools  and  utensils  in 

use  among  the  prehistoric 

Great  variety  of  o  i 

prehistoric  tools  peoplcs  whosc  manner  of 
weapons.  Hfe  is  here  delineated.  The 
variety  was  weilnigh  as  great  as  that  in 
the  shop  of  a  modern  artisan.  There 
were  sledges  and  hammers  and  saws, 
wedges   and    celts,    spearheads,    arrow- 


heads, javelinpoints,  daggers,  poniards, 
many  varieties  of  cutting  instruments 
after  the  general  pattern  of  the  knife, 
scrapers,  picks,  many  kinds  of  hatchets, 
sling-stones,  weight-stones  for  nets  and 
fishing  lines,  harpoons,  awls,  lapstones, 
and  an  infinity  of  the  so-called  flakes. 
Nearly  all  the  varieties  here  enumerated 
can  be  seen  in  any  ordinary  museum  of 
antiquities,  and  the  beholder,  by  their 
inspection,  can  but  feel  himself  drawn 
near  to  the  prehistoric  race  of  men  by 
whose  hands  these  implements  were 
wielded. 

It  is  not  intended  in  the  present  work 
to  enter  into  the  details  of  archaeology. 

It  is  not    even    the    purpose    Manner  of  life 

to  give  any  elaborate  ac-  ^t^rnthTman 
count  of  the  slow  transfor-  cavems. 
mation  by  which  the  tribes  of  the  old 
stone  age  passed  by  evolution  into  the 
new  stone  age  and  thence  into  the  age 
of  bronze.  It  is  sufficient  to  note 
that  the  general  manner  of  life  of  the 
cave  men  and  their  contemporaries  was 
that  of  hunters  and  fishermen,  men  of 


FIXE   PAL,«OLITHIC   ARROWPOINTS. 

the  woods  and  stream.  Doubtless  it  would 
be  improper  to  speak  of  the  ' '  social  sys- 
tem "  of  a  people  that  had  no  society  at 
all.  The  cave  dwelling  would  seem  to 
indicate  an  exceedingly  solitarj^  life.  It 
appears  that  in  the  case  of  the  larger 
caverns  quite  a  band  of  the  barbarians 


306 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


lived  together.  The  abundance  of  bones 
and  relics  is  much  greater  than  we  should 
expect  in  the  case  of  a  single  family  or  i  can  be  immediately  replaced. 

The  care 


tool  was  of  so  great  importance  than  in 
a  modern  household  where  an  implement 


PREHISTORIC   MAN   OF  THE   NEOLITHIC   AGK. 
Drawn  by  Etnile  Kayard. 


even  five  families  in  the  same  abode. 
Nor  should  we  forget  that  what  we  may 
■call  the  waste  of  implements  would  be 
much  less  among  a  people  where  a  single 


which 
these  people  be- 
stowed upon  their 
utensils  is  well 
illustrated  in  the 
distance  to  which 
they  were  carried 
in  the  case 
of  migration. 
Nothing  is  more 
common  than  to 
tind  flint  imple- 
ments and  weap- 
ons at  a  distance 
I  if  hundreds  of 
miles  from  the 
quarry  whence  the 
material  was 
taken.  The  man 
o  f  antiquity  sought 
assiduously  for  the 
best  quarries  and 
ledges  from  which 
to  take  the  ma- 
terials of  his  man- 
ufacture, and  the 
old  pits  which  the 
prehistoric  folk 
dug  in  the  chalk 
beds,  in  order  to 
get  at  the  layers 
of  flint  under- 
neath, are  plen- 
tifully distributed 
in  parts  of  Eng- 
land and  France. 
There  appear, 
moreover,  to  have 
been  seats  of  man- 
ufacture, sometimes  in  connection  with 
the  quarries  and  sometimes  in  other 
places.  This  fact  would  indicate  a  rude 
sort  of  commerce  in  implements.     But 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— LAKE   DWELLERS   OF  SWITZERLAND. 


307 


over   and  above  this  circumstance  the 
fact  remains  that  the  barbarians  them- 
selves clunor  to  their  tools 

Care  taken  of  " 

utensUs;  places    and    weapons    with    great 

of  manufacture.     ^  .,  .     .       - 

tenacity,  carried  them  to 
great  distances,  and  only  parted  -with 
them  by  the  necessities  of  accident  or 
death. 

"We  are  thus  enabled  to  form  a  true 
concept  of  the  prehistoric  man  of  West- 
ern Europe.  In  stature,  he  is  believed 
to  have  been  considerabl}-  larger  than 
the  average  man  of  to-day.  His  bones 
have  greater  length  and  strength,  and 
his  proportions  indicate  a  rather  gigan- 
tic  form.     Doubtless  he   was  brutal  in 


appearance,  with  hair  growing  low  upon 
his  forehead  and  an  animal  leer  on  his 
features.  Whether  the  day-  stature  and  per- 
dawn  of  the  higher  senti-  sonai  character- 

*  isticsof  the  cava 

ments,  the  nobler  aspira-  "'a'l- 
tions,  had  as  yet  arisen  in  his  spirit  we 
can  not  know.  But  that  he  had  in  him 
the  potency  and  germ  of  human  great- 
ness, the  possibility  of  light  and  free- 
dom and  knowledge,  can  not  be  doubted 
or  denied.  He  was  the  gross  substratum 
of  that  human  life  which  even  in  the 
present  day  is  but  half-refined  from  bar- 
barism and  half-redeemed  from  the 
heavy  weight  of  brute  passion  and  ani- 
mality. 


Chapter  XVII.— Lakk  Dwellers  oe  Switzerland. 


HE  delineation  of  prim- 
itive life  given  in  the 
preceding  chapter  rep- 
resents but  one  of 
several  types  of  hu- 
man existence  in  the 
prehistoric  ages.  The 
men  of  the  caverns  were  a  single  branch 
of  the  barbarians  who  inhabited  West- 
em  Europe  in  the  old  stone  age.  It  is 
not  intended  in  the  present  work  to  de- 
scribe all  the  aspects  of  half-savage  life 
which  present  themselves  to  the  anti- 
quarian and  ethnologist,  but  to  discuss 
only  a  sufficient  number  of  the  primeval 
tribes  and  their  methods  of  development 
to  enable  the  reader  to  form  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  whole.  In  the  current  chap- 
ter we  shall  turn  to  two  or  three  other 
forms  of  aboriginal  European  life,  and 
present  them  in  the  light  of  what  is 
known  or  reasonably  inferred  concern- 
ing their  career.  First  of  all,  attention 
will  be  called  to  the  lake  dwellers  of 
Switzerland  and  other  similar  situations. 


It  must  be  known  that  the  bodies  of 
fresh  water  on  the  European  conti- 
nent  have  considerably  di-   General contrac- 

minished  in  area  and  vol-  rate^/artf^^ 
ume  since  the  age  of  the  Europe, 
mammoth  and  the  reindeer.  The  cir- 
cumference of  all  the  lakes  has  con- 
tracted, and  the  surface  has  sunk  to  a 
lower  level.  The  extent  of  this  dimi- 
nution has  been  much  greater  in  some 
localities  than  in  others.  The  fall  of  a 
few  feet  in  the  level  of  a  lake  will  some- 
times, owing  to  the  flatness  of  the 
shore,  expose  a  considerable  area  of 
land  that  was  hitherto  submerged, 
Avhereas  if  the  shores  be  precipitous,  a 
fall  even  of  many  feet  will  make  no  per- 
ceptible difference  in  the  position  of  the 
water  line. 

Both  of  these  conditions  have  occurred 
in  different  localities.     In  character  of  the 
some    places    around     the  ^f^^l.'^^^a""''* 
margin  of  lakes  acres  and  lakes, 
even  square  miles  of  territorj"  are  now 
dr\-  land  that  were  formerly  underwater. 


808 


GREAT  RACES   OF  .)rAXKfXD. 


More  frequently  this  recently  exposed 
strip  exists  in  the  form  of  marshland  or 
bog,  but  half  reclaimed  from  its  ancient 
submergence.  Wherever  the  lake  is 
situated  in  a  flat,  open  region,  this  con- 
dition of  a  fenland  border  exists  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  Lagoons  and 
marshes,  sometimes  grown  up  with  trees 
and  sometimes  covered  with  the  reeds 
and  grasses  peculiar  to  the  region  of  the 
bog,  will  be  noted  in  close  proximity  to  the 
lake  itself,  and  the  observer  will  readily 
note  that  the  addition  of  a  few  feet  to 
the  water  level  would  restore  the  lake  to 
its  primitive  borders  covering  the  low- 
lands. 

In  other  places,  particularly  in  the 
mountainous  regions,  the  water  line  of 
the  lakes  has  had  less  fluctuation.  Here 
the  waters  are  contained  as  in  a  cup  of 
stone,  and  the  rising  and  sinking  of  the 
lake  surface  has  widened  and  contracted 
the  border  line  but  little.  In  almost 
every  situation,  however,  some  fluctua- 
tion has  occurred,  and  even  a  single  un- 
usual season,  whether  it  be  of  rain  or 
aridity,  will  be  clearly  perceived  in  the 
narrower  or  wider  limit  of  the  lake. 
This  is  to  say  that  around  all  of  the 
fresh- water  bodies  is  a  debatable  shore, 
of  greater  or  less  extent,  which  has  been 
in  turn  submerged  and  uncovered  ac- 
cording to  the  humidity  or  the  dryness 
of  the  epoch.  More  particularly  has  the 
gradual  recession  of  all  superficial  waters 
into  the  inner  parts  of  the  earth  told 
upon  the  lakes,  especially  those  of  small 
extent,  in  reducing  their  area  and  depth. 

The  primitive  European  tribes,  at  least 
that  portion  of  them  which  we  are  now 
to  consider,  were  by  instinct  and  prefer- 
certain  primi-  ence  led  to  establish  them- 
tLriSerhSreT  ^^Ives  in  proximity  with 
for  residence.  great  Collections  of  water. 
The  advantages  of  such  situations  are 
obvious.     If  the  water  be  fresh  it  fur- 


nishes to  man  one  of  the  prime  essentials 
of  his  existence  and  many  conveniences. 
It  gives  him,  inoreover,  from  the  depths 
a  multitude  of  fishes,  easy  of  capture 
and  good  for  food.  If  the  water  be  salt, 
though  its  direct  use  by  man  is  impracti- 
cable, it  nevertheless  yields  him  a  great 
store  of  shellfish  and  many  valuables 
besides.  We  are  here  to  note  what  was 
done  on  the  margin  of  the  lakes. 

The  winter  of  1853-54  was  one  of  ex- 
cessive rigor  in  Europe,  but  of  small 
precipitation  of  rain  or  snow.  This  was 
followed  the  next  summer  by  a  season 
of  unusual  drought.  Since  Great  subsi- 
the  year  1674  no  parallel  f^^tie^in 
had  been  furnished  to  the  1853-54. 
draft  which  was  thus  made  upon  the 
volume  of  the  lakes  and  the  paucity  of 
the  return  which  nature  made  thereto. 
As  a  result,  the  level  of  the  mountain 
lakes  in  Switzerland  fell  off  many  feet, 
and  quite  an  area  of  the  bottom  was  ex- 
posed as  terra  firma.  It  was  here  that 
the  discoveries  were  made  by  the  anti- 
quary, Dr.  Keller,  and  other  explorers 
which  led  to  the  reconstruction  of  that 
type  of  prehistoric  communities  called 
the  Lake  Dwellings  and  Villages. 

In  different  ages  and  in  different  quar- 
ters of  the  world  men  have  frequently 
adopted  the  plan  of  con-  situation  of  the 
structingtheirabodesabove  LtounTS: 
the  surface  of  the  water  rodotus. 
near  the  shore.  The  plan  is  to  build  a 
platform,  supported  by  different  meth- 
ods, and  on  these  to  rear  the  huts  in 
which  the  people  lived.  Between  the 
platform  and  the  shore  communication 
is  easily  effected  by  some  narrow  struc- 
ture which  is  defensible.  In  the  fifth 
chapter  of  the  book  called  Terpsich- 
ore, in  Herodotus,  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph  descriptive  of  such 
dwelling  places.  The  author  is  describ- 
ing  the   manners  and  customs   of    the 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— LAKE   DWELLERS   OF  SWITZERLAND. 


809 


ancient  Paeonians :  ' '  Their  dwellings  are 
contrived  after  this  manner:  planks 
fitted  on  lofty  piles  are  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  lake,  with  a  narrow  en- 
trance from  the  main  land  b}^  a  single 
bridge.  These  piles  that  support  the 
planks  all  the  citizens  anciently  placed 
there  at  the  public  charge ;  but  after- 
ward they  established  a  law  to  the  fol- 
lowing effect :  whenever  a  man  marries, 
for  each  wife  he  sinks  three  piles,  bring- 
ing wood  from  a  mountain  called  Orbe- 
lus :  but  every  man  has  several  wives. 
They  live  in  the  following  manner: 
every  man  has  a  hut  on  the  planks,  in 
which  he  dwells,  with  a  trapdoor  closely 
fitted  in  the  planks  and  leading  down  to 
the  lake.  They  tie  the  young  children 
with  a  cord  round  the  foot,  fearing  lest 
they  should  fall  into  the  lake  beneath. 
To  their  horses  and  beasts  of  burden 
they  give  fish  for  fodder ;  of  which  there 
is  such  an  abundance  that  Avhen  a  man 
has  opened  his  trapdoor  he  lets  down  an 
empty  basket  by  a  cord  into  the  lake, 
and,  after  waiting  a  short  time,  draws  it 
up  full  of  fish." 

'  But  we  have  no  occasion  to  seek  for 
evidence  in  the  ancient  world  of  the  ex- 
t.ake  dweUings  istence  of  sucli  structurgs 
of  various  coun-  j^  ascribed    to 

tries  m  the  pres- 

entage.  the  Paeoniaus.     Dwellings 

over  the  water  are  constructed  and  in- 
habited by  existing  tribes  of  men.  The 
fishermen  on  lake  Prasias,  in  European 
Turkey,  build  their  cottages  over  the 
water,  and  the  town  of  Tcherkask  is 
constructed  above  the  current  of  the 
Don.  In  analogy  with  such  structures 
we  might  cite  the  buildings  of  the  peo- 
ple of  India,  which,  though  not  over  the 
water,  are  set  on  piles  several  feet  above 
the  earth.  The  same  kind  of  abodes 
are  found  in  South  America  and  in  the 
East  Indian  islands.  The  city  of  Borneo 
is  so   founded    and    built.     The    Dyaks 


have  their  houses  on  an  elevated  plat- 
form twenty  or  thirty  feet  high,  in  a 
long  row  above  the  edge  of  the  river, 
and  the  floors  are  so  constructed  that  all 
refuse  and  waste  materials  fall  through 
into  the  water. 

Switzerland  is  a  locality  specially  fitted 
in  its  geographical  structure  for  the  du- 
plication of   the   dwellings  Switzerland  fa- 
described     above    by    the  rJ'''"rii"tl!^'^ 

J  for  such  settle- 

Father  of  History.      The  ments. 

lakes  in  this  mountainous  region  have 
fluctuated  in  the  manner  already  de- 
scribed, and  it  was  on  the  borders  of 
the  lake  of  Zurich  that  the  first  impor- 
tant discoveries  were  made.  But  at  a 
later  date  explorations  around  the 
marshes  of  lakes  Constance,  Geneva, 
Neufchatel,  Bienne,  Morat,  Sempach, 
Inkwyl,  Moosseedorf,  and  others  have 
led  to  like  results.  A  very  ample  dem- 
onstration has  thus  been  obtained  of 
the  manner  of  life  of  the  primitive 
lake  people.  The  sites  of  more  tliait 
tzvo  hundred  settlements  constructed  as 
above  over  the  water  have  been  deter- 
mined and  described.  No  fewer  than 
twenty  prehistoric  villages  have  been 
found  on  the  shores  of  lake  Bienne ; 
twenty-four  along  the  margin  of  lake 
Geneva;  thirty-two  on  lake  Constance; 
and  forty-nine  on  lake  Neufchatel. 

It    was    between     Ober-Meilen     and 
Dollikon,  on  the  banks  of  lake  Zurich, 

that  the  inhabitants,  taking   Discoveries  on 

advantage  of  the  low  water  lf/,^,\toges  o. 
following  the  dry  sea-  Ireland, 
son  of  1854,  extended  their  gardens 
down  to  the  margin  along  the  new 
water  line.  They  built  a  wall  and  then 
filled  the  space  to  landward  by  dredging 
up  mud  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  lake  on 
the  water  side.  While  doing  so  they 
were  surprised  to  draw  up  vast  numbers 
of  piles,  or  at  least  the  lower  ends  of  the 
same,   which   had   in   some   prehistoric 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— LAKE  DWELLERS   OE  SWITZERLAND. 


311 


epoch  been   driven   down    through   the 
water.      Along    with    these    sharpened 
points     of     trees 
came  iijj  a  large 
variety   of   deer 
horn    and     stone 
im  plements  of 
primitive      work- 
manship.      The 
fact     that     some 
aboriginal  people 
had  inhabited  this 
shore    was     thus 
made   clear,    and 
scientific  explora- 
tions,   under    the 
direction   of    Dr. 
Keller  and  other 
antiquaries,   soon 
extended    and 
verified    the    dis- 
coveries. 

Before  proceed- 
ing    to     describe 
the    utensils   and 
weapons  revealed 
in   the    lake    bot- 
toms of   Switzer- 
land, it  is  proper 
to  note  the  anal- 
ogous    results 
attained    in    Ire- 
land.    The  man- 
ner of  over-water 
building    is    here 
somewhat   differ- 
ent   from     that 
practiced   by   the 
prehistoric  moun- 
taineers.   Among 
the  primitive  peo- 
ple inhabiting  the 
Irish    lake    coun- 
try the   plan   was    to    construct    a    pkit- 
form  on  the  water,  and  on  this  platform 
to  create  a  sort  of  artificial  island  upon 


which  houses  and  defenses  were  erected. 

The  name  given  to  this  floating  residence 


was  Crauiiog,,  aiui  ihe  rcmnaius  ul  such 
structures  are  easily  discoverable  to  the 
present  time 


312 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


The  crannoges  were  the  strongholds 
of  the  primitive  Irish  chiefs,  to  which 
Likeness  to  they  betook  themselves  in 

Highland  refu-     ^^.^^  ^^^    Highlanders 

gees ;  the  cran-  '  ^ 

noge  findings.  of  a  later  day  to  their 
castles.  These  prehistoric  seats  are  very 
rich  in  implements  and  weapons  and 
other  works  of  the  clans  by  which  they 
were  inhabited.  But  it  is  in  evidence 
from  the  discoveries  made  in  the  cran- 
noges that  they  are  of  a  much  later  date 
than  the  cave  dwellings  of  the  Continent 
or  even  the  lake  dwellings  of  Switzer- 
land. There  are  instances  in  which  the 
contents  of  the  Irish  crannoge,  as  for  in- 
stance that  of  Dunshaughlin,  have  been 
digged  up  by  the  wagon  load  and  dis- 
tributed on  the  shore  to  enrich  the  soil. 
In  the  support  of  the  platform  above 
the  water  on  which  the  habitations  of 
the   Swiss   lake  people  were  built,  two 

Methods  of  sup.  methods  were  employed. 
P°"'^s  the  ^1      ^^g^  ^^,^^  tQ  ^^^  ^ 

bw^ss  viUage 

platforms.  trees,  lop  the  branches  from 

the  trunks,  sharpen  one  end  of  the  same, 
and  drive  them,  with  many  others  of 
like  sort,  into  the  water  after  the  manner 
of  a  modern  pile  work.  On  the  upper 
end  of  these,  above  the  surface  of  the 
lake,  the  platform  was  laid  and  extended 
according  to  the  demands  of  the  village. 
The  other  method  was  to  heap  up  from 
the  bottom  of  the  lake  a  sort  of  rude 
stone  walls,  running  here  and  there, 
rising  to  the  surface,  and  furnishing 
support  for  the  platform.  But  this 
method  was  only  employed  in  the  more 
sequestered  waters,  for  the  exposure  to 
storms  rendered  this  variety  of  building 
precarious. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  bottom 
Fearof-«Tid  motive  in  selecting  such  a 
«inedthe\Toice  ^ite  and  in  building  a  vil- 
of  such  sites.  j^gc  or  evcii  a  single  house 
above  the  water  and  at  a  distance  from 
the  bank  was  the  prospect  of  gaining  a 


vantage  against  ravenous  beasts.  In  the 
primeval  world  this  was  always  a  serious 
question.  For  long  ages  the  beast  had 
the  advantage  of  the  man  in  the  struggle 
for  existence.  Heroes  whose  fame  is 
coextensive  with  the  traditions  of  man- 
kind became  such  by  their  successful 
warfare  with  wild  beasts.  Such  was 
Nimrod  and  such  was  Hercules.  After 
the  hero,  the  next  best  thing  was  an 
artifice.  Building  over  the  water  was 
an  artifice.  A  single  flattened  trunk 
reaching  from  the  platform  to  the  shore^ 
or  at  most  a  narrow  causeway,  was  easily 
defended,  and  bears  and  wolves  would 
hardly  swim  to  the  attack  of  men. 

It  appears  that  the  lake  villages  were 
numerous  and  extensive.  An  estimate 
has  been  made  by  the  antiquary,  Troyon, 
as  to  the  extent  and  popula- 

Number  and  ex- 

tions  of  these  settlements,  tent  of  the  Swiss 
The  largest  village  on  lake  ^  ® '"  ^^'^^' 
Geneva  appears  to  have  been  twelve 
hundred  feet  in  length  and  a  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  in  breadth.  Giving  to  each 
hut  a  diameter  of  fifteen  feet  and  allow- 
ing  one  half  the  space  to  be  covered,  the 
village  would  contain  three  hundred  and 
eleven  houses,  and  with  an  estimate  of 
four  persons  to  the  cabin,  we  should 
have  a  population  in  this  settlement  of 
twelve  hundred  and  forty-four.  The 
same  calculations  give  for  the  village  on 
lake  Neufchatel  a  population  of  nearly 
five  thousand.  Carrying  out  the  same 
estimates,  M.  Troyon  thinks  that  the 
lake  population  in  this  region  was  more 
than  thirty  thousand  at  the  time  when 
the  villages  flourished  in  the  age  of 
stone.   - 

By  the  backward  look  we  may  still, 
in  the  mind's  eye,  observe  the  process  of 
constructing  these  lake  habitations.  The 
first  thing  would  be,  of  course,  the  selec- 
tion of  a  suitable  site  on  the  water's 
edffe.      The  shore   must   be  accessible 


PRIMEVAL    MAX.— LAKE   DWELLERS    OE  SWITZERLAXD. 


313 


from  the  lake  and  the  lake  from  the 
shore.  A  forest  must  stand  near  by, 
Materials  em-  from  which  the  trees  are 
"^Zt^^eT^s  fe"^^'  ^^-ith  almost  infinite 
the  builders.  labor,  by  the  strokes  of 
stone  axes  and  the  assistance  of  fire.  It 
appears  that  these  primeval  men  woiild 
attack  the  tree  at  the  base  and  cut  it 


It    should  be   remarked   in   this    con- 
nection that  the   stroke  of  a  stone  ax 
in  wood  is  easily  distinguishable  from 
that  of  the  metallic  blade.  Distinction  in 
The    modern    steel    ax  l'i.T.°""^T 

by  stone  and 

struck  against  the  side  of  metallic  axes. 

an    angle,    makes    a 
That   is,   the   bottom 
of  the  cut  is  rectilin- 
ear.    In  the  case   of 
the    stone    ax,    the 
wound     is    always 
curvilinear    in    the    bottom. 
The    effect   of    the   blow   is 
rather   in   the   nature    of    a 


a   tree,    even    at 
straight    wound. 


AXES  OF  PREHISTORIC  MAX,  SHOWING  STAGES  OF  IMPROVEMENT  FROM  STONE  TO  BRONZE. 

1,  Swiss  stone  ax  with  handle  ;  2,  copper  celt,  from  Waterford  ;  3,  winged  celt,  fr<.>m  Ireland  ;  4,  socketed  celt,  from  1  reland  ;  5,  6,  7,  celts 

with  handles  of  different  patterns  ;  8,  bronze  ax,  from  Naples  ;  9,  bronze  ax,  from  Le  Puy. 


around  as  much  as  possible,  and  then 
burn  the  wounded  part  down  to  the  solid 
body.  Scraj^ing  away  the  charred  por- 
tions, they  would  then  cut  again,  until 
finally  the  tree  came  down.  Similar 
methods  were  employed  in  sharpening 
the  trunk.  Here  also  the  axes  were 
employed  and  fire  by  turns  until  a  rude 
point  was  obtained  suitable  for  driving 
in  the  mud. 

M. — Vol.  I — 21 


bruise,  the  wood  where  the  ax  falls 
being  scooped  out  in  a  furrow,  deeper 
in  the  bottom  than  at  the  edges 
of  the  cut.'  In  nearly  all  cases  the  piles 
supporting   the  platforms  of  the  S^v^ss 


'  It  is  claimed  that  no  measure  of  sharpness  which 
may  be  imparted  to  a  stone  blade  will  secure  a  rec- 
tilinear cut — like  that  so  e.isily  produced  with  metal- 
lic axes — in  the  wood  struck  with  such  blade  at  an 
angle ;  but  the  reason  for  such  difference  is  not  clear. 


314 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


lake  dwellings  bear  the  marks  of  stone 
and  not  metallic  axes,  and  in  nearly  all 
cases  the  process  of  sharpening  the 
trunks  has  been  assisted  by  the  applica- 
tion of  fire. 

How  it  was  that  the  primitive  ti'ibes 
adopting-  this  kind  of  structure  suc- 
Qnestionofset-  ceeded  in  raising  their 
^*oUhf  piles  on  end  and  driving 
houses.  them  into  the  lake  has  not 

been  ascertained.  But  the  unmistakable 
evidence  furnished  by  the  stumps  of  the 
piles  themselves  shows  that  they  were 
raised  in  some  way  and  driven  down. 
The  work  appears  not  to  have  been  truly 
done,  as  many  of  the  piles  stand  in  the 
mud  at  an  angle  and  others  appear  to 
have  been  bent  somewhat  from  their 
original  position  by  the  weight  of  the 
superstructure.  As  to  the  jjlatform,  it 
was  made  of  split  timbers,  rudely  framed 
together  on  the  top  of  the  piles,  and  no 
doubt  tolerably  firm  for  the  reception  of 
houses.  The  latter  appear  to  have  been 
circular  in  form,  made  somewhat  after 
the  manner  of  Celtic  huts.'  They  were 
chinked  between  the  cracks  with  small 
branches  of  trees  and  moss,  and  were 
pointed  within  with  mud.  As  compared 
with  the  cave  dwellings  described  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  it  can  not  be  doubted 
that  the  lake  houses  were  a  great  ad- 
vance, superior  in  comfort  and  safety, 
and  not  wanting  in  a  certain  picturesque- 
ness  of  situation  and  aspect. 

We  come  now  to  consider  the  evidences 
of  ancient  life  which  have  been  discovered 
General  charao-  in  the  lake  bottoms  and 
^o'lfectroni^th  peat  beds  over  which  the 
lake  villages.  villages  were  erected.  In 
general,  these  settlements  belong  to  the 
old  stone  age.  This  is  clearly  shown  by 
the  preponderance  of  rough  stone  im- 
plements which  are  found  under  them. 

'  See  the  colored  Plate  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  bgok. 


It  appears,  however,  that  the  lake  dwell- 
ei-s  continued  to  hold  to  their  position 
until  progress  was  made  into  the  new 
stone  age,  and  even  into  the  age  of 
bronze.  In  several  places  it  has  been 
demonstrated  by  the  plentiful  discovery 
of  utensils  and  weapons  of  bronze  that 
the  lake  villagers  had  advanced  to  the 
manufacture  and  use  of  this  metal.  In 
any  event,  all  of  these  stages  of  develojj- 
ment  were  anterior  to  the  epoch  of  the 
Romans,  and  therefore  to  the  daydawn 
of  history. 

If  we  glance  at  the  old  stone  imple- 
ments found  in  the  margin  of  the  Swiss 
lakes  and  in  the  peat  bogs  variety  of  the 
where  the  over-water  vil-  '^^^r^l^' 
lages  were  built,  we  find  ployed, 
them  to  be  of  the  same  general  pattern 
as  those  already  described  in  connection 
with  the  cave  dwellings.  It  has  been 
noted  that  the  Swiss  prehistoric  imple- 
ments, as  a  general  rule,  are  smaller  than 
those  used  by  the  cave  men.  This  is 
true  of  the  arrowheads,  the  spearpoints, 
and  the  axes.  The  material  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  these  tools  and 
weapons  was,  for  the  most  part,  flint, 
but  in  some  cases  rock  crystal.  It  has 
been  noted  that  spindle-whirls  of  earth- 
enware coexist  in  the  same  layer  with 
the  rough  stone  implements.  Other  ev- 
idences of  spinning  and  weaving  have 
been  discovered  in  the  same  situation, 
and  to  this  should  be  added  the  presence 
of  stone  mortars  and  balls  for  crushing 
corn.  Sir  John  Lubbock  has  recapitu- 
lated the  articles  found  under  a  lake 
village  in  the  peat  measure  of  Wauwyl 
as  follows :  Stone  axes,  forty-three ;  flint 
arrowheads,  thirty-six ;  flakes,  two  hun- 
dred; corn  crushers,  sixteen ;  hammer.?, 
twenty;  whetstones,  twenty-six;  sling- 
stones,  eighty-five ;  making  a  total  of 
four  hundred  and  twenty-six  articles  oi 
stone  recovered  from  a  single  bed. 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— LAKE  DWELLERS   OF  SWITZERLAND.      315 


ings  of  inter- 
change and  com 
merce. 


In  examining  these  relics  we  are 
again  impressed  with  the  fact  that  rude 
commei"cial  relations,  at  least  the  begin- 
nings of  traffic,  existed  in  the  age  of 
Signs  in  the  find-  which  we  speak.  Many 
of  the  implements  found 
around  the  vSwiss  lakes 
were  brought,  at  least  as  to  their  mate- 
rial, from  distant  localities.  Many  of 
the  flint  implements  are  known  to  have 
been  taken  from  the 
quarries  of  France! 
Some  are  found  that 
were  imported  from  the 
shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  is  impossi- 
ble to  tell,  however, 
whether  these  weapons 
and  utensils  were  carried 
by  trade  or  by  the  mi- 
gration of  tribes  to  the 
mountain  lakes  of  Swit- 
zerland. 

By  examination  of  the  stone  hatchet  with 
animal  remains  found 
under  the  lake  dwell- 
ings, the  inquirer  discovers  again  the  re- 
lations which  the  primitive  people  here 
held  to  the  lower  orders  of  life.  As  a  rule, 
the  prehistoric  men  ate  nearly  all  kinds 
of  animals  with  which  they  were  asso- 
ciated. The  skins  of 
beasts  were  the  principal 
articles  of  clothing,  and 
the  flesh  was  invariably 
stripped  away  for  food. 
We  note  in  the  case  of 
the  lake  dwellers  the 
same  appetite  for  marrow 
which  we  have  already 
noted  in  the  men  of  the 
caverns.  They  picked  out  of  the  hol- 
low bones  every  particle  of  the  con- 
tents, and  evidently  regarded  the  mar- 
row as  the  principal  delicacy.  The 
harder  and  better  bones  were  made  into 


SOCKET    AND 
HANDLE. 


CHIPPED    FLINT    AR. 
ROWHEAD. 


implements,  but  the  horns  of  the  deer 
were  the  principal  resource  in  this  line. 
From  these  were  made  the  handles  of  a 
great  number  of  other  implements,  and 
also  picks  and  awls  and  scrapers. 

In  some  cases  the 
attempt  was  made 
to  produce  a  cutting 
edge  from  bone. 
But  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  sub- 
stance this  could 
not  succeed.  Chis- 
els were  also  at- 
tempted, but  the 
material  lacked 
strength  and  solid- 
ity, and  the  tool  so 
formed  could  only 
be  applied  to  the  softer  substances 
bon  e  scraper  was  much  used  Use  of  bone  in 

,1       J  •  j:  1   •  1  •       the  fabrication 

mthedressmg  of  hides,  m  of  tools  and 
which  it  appears  that  all  of  weapons, 
the  primitive  Europeans  had  consider- 
able skill.  If  the  lake  dwellers  attempt- 
ed the  manu- 
facture  of 
wood,  it  does 
in  the  relics 
left  behind, 
however,  the 
of  wood    liber 


FLINT   HATCHET    FITTED 
WITH  stag's    horn  HANDLE. 


The 


not  appear 
which    they 
Doubtless, 
eas}'  decay 


would  in  part  account  for 

the     absence     of     utensils 

made    therefrom.       But    it 

appears,  on  the  whole,  that 

the  lake  men  preferred  the 

use    of  flint  and  bone  and 

horn.     It   has  been   noted 

that   tinder  was   employed 

by    the    lake    villagers    in 

the  production  of  fire. 

The  appearance    of  broken  fragment? 

of  pottery  in  the  lake  margins  and  peat 

beds  shows  conclusively  that  the  people 

of   the  age  which   we  are    here  consid- 


PICKAX   OF 
stag's   HiiKN. 


816 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKLYD. 


ering  understood  at  least  the  rudiments 
of  that  kind  of  manufacture.  Very  few 
Pottery  of  the  vessels  have  been  discov- 
iutneTs^the  '^^^^  ^^^hole,  but  many  in 
relics.  pieces.     These  all  indicate 

the  rudest  kind  of  work.  The  vessels  were 
evidently  misshapen  and  un.symmetrical 
in  design.  It  is  thought  that  the  pot- 
ter's wheel  was  unknown.  Nor  has  any 
evidence  of  furnace  heat  been  discov- 
ered in  the  imperfect  burning  to  which 
the  fragments  seem  to  have  been  sub- 
jected. Perhaps  an  open  fire  produced 
the  highest  heat  with  which  these  peo- 


hXllNCi'    MANUIAc   iiiKV 


pie  were  acquainted.  The  forms  of  a 
few  vases  have  been  determined  which, 
viewed  from  an  artistic  point,  are  clumsy 
in  the  last  degree.  It  is  noticeable  that 
the  earthenware  of  these  villagers  is 
without  feet  or  other  support  than  the 
unfinished  bottom  of  the  vessel.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  utensils  were  set  upon  the 
floor  or  on  the  soft  earth  where  there 
was  little  danger  of  breakage. 

Of  human  remains,  strictly  so  called. 
Scarcity  of  hu-  Only  a  few  have  been  dis- 
covered under  the  lake  vil- 
lages. Nor  might  it  be 
reasonably  expected  that  many  would  be 
found.     It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that 


man  remains  in 
the  lake  mar- 
gins. 


the  situation  has  been  much  less  favor, 
able  for  the  preservation  of  human  skel- 
etons, in  whole  or  in  part,  than  the  mud 
beds  under  the  stalagmite  in  the  cave 
dwellings.  The  free  action  of  water, 
the  access  of  fishes  to  any  bodies  that 
may  have  dropped  into  the  lake,  the 
movement  which  would  take  place  under 
the  wave,  and  the  change  of  tempera- 
ture, very  great  as  it  is  in  the  situation, 
would  account  for  the  destruction  and 
decay  of  any  bodies  that  might  have 
gone  to  the  bottom  through  the  village 
platforms.      It  is  likely,   moreover,  that 

the  lake  dwell- 
ers had  regular 
methods  of  sep- 
ulture. As  has 
been  already 
seen,  they  were 
considerably 
more  advanced 
in  the  human 
evolution  than 
the  cave  men, 
and  care  for  the 
bodies  of  the 
dead  is  one  of 
the  symptoms 
which  marks  the 
progressive  people  from  the  barbarians. 
Some  remains  of  men,  however,  have 
been  found  in  the  mud  of  the  lake  mar- 
gin in  such  relation  with  Bodily  forms  of 
prehistoric  relics  as  to  iden-  Ifetfmined'om 
tify  them  with  the  age  skeletons. 
of  stone.  Perhaps  a  half  dozen  skele- 
tons, including  the  skulls,  have  been  re- 
covered, and  from  these  a  fair  idea  of 
the  stature,  form,  and  characteristics  of 
the  lake  people  have  been  determined. 
On  the  whole,  they  were  not  as  tall  as 
the  Europeans  of  to-day,  but  the  skel- 
eton does  not  indicate  that  strong  ani- 
mal affiliation  which  we  have  noted  in 
the  men  of  the  cavern.     The  proportions 


I'OTTERY,  IN  THE  GLACIEK  l.AKUEN,  AT  LUCERNE. 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— LAKE   DWELLERS   OF  SWITZERLAND. 


317 


of  the  lake  dwellers  were  fairly  good, 
and  the  skull  shows  a  medium  capacity. 
Nor  is  the  configuration  specially  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  mountaineers  of  the 
present  time.  As  to  the  personal  as- 
pect of  these  people  there  is  nothing 
better  than  conjecture  to  guide  us.  AVe 
know  by  their  manner  of  life  that  their 
intellectual  horizon  was  exceedingly  lim- 
ited ;  that  they  had  the  carnivorous  hab- 
it, though  not  in  that  intense  degree 
peculiar  to  the  cave  dwellers;  that  the 
social  instinct  was  in  some  measure  de- 
veloped, as  is  shown  in  their  aggrega- 
tion in  village  communities,  and  that  the 
beginnings  of  agriculture  among  them 
were  sufficient  to  show  the  upward  tend- 
ency toward  a  higher  level  of  existence. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  cave  men,  much 
light  may  be  thrown  on  the  life  and 
Animals  with  manners  of  the  people  of 
which  lake  vii-      ^j_^g  i^i.g  villages  bv  noting 

lagers  were  as-  &  -  & 

Bociated.  the     animals    with    which 

they  were  associated  and  some  produc- 
tions of  the  soil  which  are  known  to 
have  been  economized.  A  large  list  of 
the  beasts  and  birds  and  fishes  peculiar 
to  the  era  which  we  are  here  discussing 
has  been  determined  by  naturalists,  and 
much  valuable  information  therefrom 
deduced.  The  prevalent  wild  animals 
were  the  brown  bear,  the  badger,  the 
marten,  the  wolf,  the  fox,  the  wildcat, 
the  beaver,  the  elk,  the  urus,  the  aurochs, 
the  European  bison,  the  stag,  the  deer, 
the  wild  boar,  the  marsh  boar,  the  pole- 
cat. The  domestic  animals  were  the 
horse,  the  ox,  the  goat,  the  sheep,  the 
dog,  and  the  common  swine.  In  the 
case  of  the  horse,  his  domestication  was 
but  partial,  and  the  demonstration  of  the 
existence  of  tame  swine  is  not  complete. 
It  will  be  noticed  at  a  glance  that  the 
wild  animals  here  enumerated  are  of  a 
.somewhat  later  epoch  than  those  asso- 
ciated   with    the    cave    dwellers.      The 


mammoth,  the  cave  bear,  the  cave  hyena 
seem  to  have  disappeared.  Perhaps  the 
Irish  elk  and  the  reindeer  at  no  time 
held  this  region  as  a  habitat. 

jMuch  ma}'  be  inferred  by  a  little  clear 
thought  relative  to  the  condition  of  the 
villagers  from  the  consider-  Manner  of  lake 
ation  of  their  domestic  ani-  h!;!?^!^.,!!^ 

mals.      Such  creatures  must    manifest  data. 

be  cared  for,  especially  in  winter.  They 
must  be  fed,  not  to  say  housed  against 
the  rigors  of  the  season.  Provisions 
and  shelter  would,  therefore,  be  neces- 
sary, and  people  who  make  such  provi- 
sion and  provide  such  shelter  could  not 
be  wholly  barbarous.  Closely  allied  with 
this  consideration  is  another  drawn  from 
the  discovery  of  various  grains  that 
were  used  by  the  villagers.  Many  speci- 
mens of  charred  cereals  have  been  found 
with  other  relics  of  this  ancient  life. 
Grains  of  wheat  have  been  recovered 
from  the  finds  at  !Meilan,  Moosseedorf, 
and  Wangen.  At  the  last  named  place 
the  antiquary  had  the  good  fortune  to 
discover  several  bushels  of  wheat  pressed 
together  in  a  lump,  the  grains  adhering 
in  a  mass.  The  appearance  of  the  wheat 
is  almost  identical  with  that  of  modern 
varieties  of  the  same  grain.  Many 
specimens  of  what  is  known  as  six-rowed 
barley  have  been  recovered  from  like 
situations,  and  it  will  interest  the  reader 
to  be  informed  that  this  variety  of  cereal 
was  still  under  cultivation  in  the  primi- 
tive days  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Alto- 
gether, three  kinds  of  wheat  have  been 
found  under  the  lake  dwellings,  two  va- 
rieties of  barley,  and  two  of  millet.  It 
appears  that  rye  and  oats  were  as  yet 
unknown . 

Reverting  to  the  animals  of  the  lake 
regions  in  prehistoric  times  we  note  two 
species  of  wild  cattle,  namely,  the  urus 
and  the  bison.  The  former  seems  to 
have  been  reduced  to  partial  domestica- 


318 


CRP.AT  RACliS    OF  MAXKIND. 


tion  as  early  as  the  neolithic  period,  but 
no  indication  of  such  a  fact  has  been 
Deductions  from  fouud  in  the  old  stonc  age. 
th:;Tkr.dwel°'  The  largest  of  the  ani- 
ingage.  mals  prevalent  around  the 

Swiss  lakes  were  these  two  varieties  of 
wild  oxen,  the  elk  and  the  stag.  The 
rhinoceros  had  disappeared  and  the 
urus  had  been  much  reduced  from  the 


served  in  the  forests  of  Germany.  It  is 
noticeable  that  the  list  of  domestic  ani- 
mals has  been  extended  and  confirmed. 
The  horse  has  certainly  become,  in  some 
measure,  the  servant  of  man,  and  sheep 
have  been  more  positively  reclaimed 
from  the  wild  condition.  It  is  thus 
evident  that  the  mere  barbarous  life  of 
hunters  and  flesh-eaters  was  giving  way 


SWISS   LAK.L  VILLAGE  UF    lH  L  AUL  UF   LRUN/L 


great  proportions  which  he  bore  in  the 
times  of  the  cave  men.  Looking  back 
from  our  own  point  of  view  we  note  that 
elks  have  not  existed  in  .Switzerland  dur- 
ing the  historical  period,  though  they 
still  maintained  an  existence  in  the  low- 
land forests  as  late  as  the  Roman  period. 
The  ibex  has  also  disappeared.  The 
smaller  of  the  wild  animals  enumerated 
above  still  prevail  in  their  ancient  habi- 
tat, and  even  the  wild  boar  has  been  pre- 


to  a  higher  and  more  rational  mode  of 
existence  among  these  villagers  of  the 
Swi.ss  lakes. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  add  a  few 
words  relative  to  the  birds  which  came 
by  water  or  bv  air  to  the 

.         .  ^  Species  of  birds 

habitations  of  the  lake  men .   belonging  to  the 

,„,  IT  1  .      ,     T    same  epoch. 

1  he    golden    eagle   circled 
above  them.     The  bones  of  at  least  four 
varieties  of  hawk  have  been  discovered. 
Two  kinds  of  owl  were  known,  and  two 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— LAKE  DWELLERS   OF  SWITZERLAND. 


319 


traces  of  tlie 
prehistoric  agri. 
cultural  Ufe. 


varieties  of  crow.  The  common  starling 
was  present,  and  the  wood  pigeon. 
There  were  two  kinds  of  heath  cock,  also 
the  white  stork,  the  ashy  heron,  the  dun 
grouse,  the  black  coot,  two  varieties  of 
meu,  one  kind  of  swan,  one  species  of 
goose,  two  kinds  of  duck,  one  kind  of 
diver.  Of  fishes  and  reptiles,  the 
remains  of  as  many  as  ten  species  have 
been  recovered  and  identified. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  finding: 
of  the  cereals  under  the  lake  dwellings. 
Significant  It  appears  from  the  discov- 

eries that  the  grains  were 
roasted  for  food.  Beyond 
this  primitive  method  of  preparing 
kernels,  it  is  known  that  the  lake  dwell- 
ers used  bread.  Cakes,  hard,  flat,  cir- 
cular, unleavened,  have  been  found  just 
as  they  were  prepared  for  the  board  at 
a  date  more  remote  than  the  founding  of 
Rome !  Of  the  methods  of  cultivation 
employed  in  this  far  time  nothing  is 
known.  No  agricultural  implements  or 
apparatus  have  been  recovered,  but  tools 
for  the  preparation  of  grain,  such  as 
mortars  and  stones  for  gfrindinof  the 
kernels,  are  plentiful.  Specimens  of 
dried  fruit,  such  as  carbonized  apples 
cut  into  halves  or  quarters,  have  been 
found  at  both  AVangen  and  on  lake  Neuf- 
chatel.  Such  fruits  appear  to  have  been 
of  wild  varieties,  resembling  the  crab 
apple  of  modern  times.  The  vine  had 
not  yet  made  its  appearance.  The  wal- 
nut, the  cherr}',  and  the  damson  plum 
were  unknown,  but  seeds  of  the  wild 
plum  have  been  discovered.  Shells  of 
the  hazelnut  and  beechnut  are  fre- 
quently found  in  the  mud,  and  some- 
times the  seeds  of  the  raspberry  and 
blackberry.  Beans  have  been  discovered, 
but  only  in  the  later  relics  of  the  age  of 
bronze,  while  peas  are  found  farther 
back,  among  the  remains  of  the  new 
stone  age.     From  a  consideration  of  all 


these  elements  we  are  able  to  make  out 
a  tolerably  fair  schedule  of  the  daily 
subsistence,  the  means  of  supply,  and 
the  method  of  preparation  peculiar  to  the 
prehistoric  villagers  of  the  Swiss  lakes. 


Bronze  hairpin  found  la 
Swiss  lake. 


Bronze  pin  from  a  Scotch 
shell  mound. 


SPECIMENS   OF   FINE  WORKMANSHIP   IX   BRONZE. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
fact  that  the  lake  dwellers  continued  to 
hold   their   situation   until  . 

^  Lake  dwellings 

their  implements  oi  stone  extend  into  the 

J    J      ,  ,,        age  of  bronze. 

were  succeeded  by  the 
manufacture  and  use  of  bronze.  The 
villages  belonging  to  the  age  of  bronze 
are  not  so  widely  distributed  as  those  of 
the  stone  period.  The  former  were 
built,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  lakes  of 
Geneva,  Neufchatel,  Bienne,  and  Sam- 
pach.     In  Eastern  Su-itzerland  very  few 


320 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


evidences  of  the  age  of  bronze  have  been 
discovered.  It  appears  that  for  some 
reason  a  kind  of  jirimitive  conserva- 
tism prevailed  on  lake  Constance  -which 
led  to  the  continuance  of  stone  manu- 
facture long-  after  the  inti-oduction  of 
bronze  in  the  western  settlements.  It 
is  in  evidence  that  other  improvements 
besides  the  introduction  of  metal  in 
workmanship  appeared  in  the  bronze- 
making  villages.  The  platforms  -were 
more  substantially  constructed  and  the 
houses  larger  and  of  a  moi-e  permanent 
character.  It  seems,  moreover,  that  the 
villagfts  of  the  age  of  bronze  were  built 
farther  from  the  shore  than  those  of  the 
age  of  stone.  At  least  the  bronze  relics 
are  nearly  always  taken  out  from  a 
greater  dej^th  of  water  and  farther  out 
than  the  stone  implements  peculiar  to 
the  older  age. 

By  examining  the  bronze  implements 
their  superiority  in  design  and  workman- 
Evidences  of  the  ship  to  those  of  the  peri- 
T:i:Zlt'y'  «ds  preceding  are  quickly 
barism.  noted.     The  swords,   dag- 

gers, axes,   spearheads,  knives,   sickles. 


fishhooks,  and  articles  of  personal  adorn, 
ment  are  all  of  a  pattern  which  may  be 
called  well  formed,  if  not  artistic.  Brace- 
lets, brooches,  and  finger  rings  are  found 
which,  though  they  may  hardly  be  de- 
scribed as  beautiful,  are  not  devoid  of 
tastefulness  in  design  and  elegance  in 
execution.  It  is  noticeable,  moreover, 
that  the  supply  of  implements,  weapons, 
and  personal  decorations  is  far  more 
abundant  in  the  case  of  the  bronze-bear- 
ing villages  than  under  those  of  the  stone 
epoch.  Many  museums  have  been  re- 
plenished from  the  resources  here  re- 
ferred to,  and  a  single  collection  cited 
by  Sir  John  Lubbock  contains  four 
thousand  three  hundred  and  forty-six 
specimens;  and  it  is  an  evidence  of 
what  may  be  called  the  personal  pride 
of  the  villagers  of  the  bronze  age  that  of 
the  list  of  articles  here  enumerated  more 
than  two  thousand  are  hairpins  and  rings. 
In  the  age  of  bronze  the  human  race  en- 
tered upon  its  career  of  strength  and 
variety,  but  did  not  yet  enter  -upon  the 
career  of  ambition  and  vain  delusion 
which  it  was  to  pursue  in  the  age  of  iron. 


Chapter  XVIII.— coast  People  oe  the  Nortih. 


E  now  turn  to  another 
aspect  of  primitive  life 
quite  different  from 
those  discussed  in  the 
preceding  chapters. 
We  have  reconstructed 
as  far  as  practicable 
the  conditions  of  the  old  Ar_\-an  house- 
folk  of  India;  of  the  cave  dwellers  of 
Western  Europe,  and  of  the  lake  dwell- 
ers who  took  advantage  of  the  water 
surface  as  a  means  of  protection  and 
convenience.  We  now  come  to  consider 
a  mode  of  prehistoric   existence   which 


was  developed  along  the  seacoast,  espe- 
cially in  the  northern  and  northwestern 
parts  of  Europe. 

Of  the  forms  of  primeval  life  already 
presented,  the  most  barbarous  was  that 
of  the  cave  men ;  the  most  Relative  sav- 
elevated,  the  house  people  ^f:Jl3torT~ 
of  the  East;   and  the  most  ditions. 
progressive,  the  lake  dwellers  of  Switzer- 
land and  other  like  localities.      In  enter- 
ing upon  a  review  of  the  people  of  the 
seashore,  we  shall  again  be  carried  back 
to  an  exceedingly  rude  and  aboriginal 
type  of  hiiman   existence,   perhaps  not 


PRIMEVAL  MAN.— COAST  PEOPLE    OF   THE  NORTH. 


321 


quite  so  gross,  but  equally  primitive  with 
that  of  the  cave  dwellers. 

About  the  time  that  the  really  scien- 
tific investigation  of  archaeological  re- 
Discovery  of  the  mains  began  in  the  second 
the"o^a"t  of°''  quarter  of  this  century,  it 
Denmark.  -was    noticed   that    on    the 

coast  of  Denmark  and  in  other  similar 
situations  long,  low  dunes  were  thrown 
up.      Sometimes    the    elevations    were 


were   too  far  from   the   surge   to   have 
been   thrown  up   by   the  action  of  the 
water  first  drew  the  attention  of  archaeol- 
ogists   and    naturalists   to  Mound  con- 
their  peculiarities.     It  was  "^^T 

found     that    those     of     the    Streenstrup. 

mounds  which  lay  within  reach  of  the 
tide  were  made  up  in  part  of  sand,  but 
the  larger  portion  of  the  material  was 
shells.     In  the  case  of  those  dunes  that 


KITCHEN  MIDDEXER^  ANH   IHI  IK  iiWEILIXGS. 


nearly  circular,  sometimes  they  were 
ring-shaped,  having  a  crater-like  depres- 
sion in  the  center.  But  more  frequently 
they  were  elongated  elevations,  from 
one  hundred  to  three  hundred  3-ards  in 
length,  perhaps  two  hundred  feet  in 
breadth,  and  from  two  to  ten  feet  in 
heigfht.  The  situation  was  along  the 
surf  line  of  the  sea,  but  generally  outside 
of  the  reach  of  the  tide. 

The  fact  that  these  dunes  and  mounds 


were  in  the  higher  situations,  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  water,  they  were  com- 
posed almost  entirely  of  shells,  and  a 
very  casual  examination  showed  that 
the  mollusks  inhabiting  them  had  be- 
longed  to  another  age.  Such  was  the 
beginning  of  the  discoveries. 

The  Danish  naturalists  led  the  way  in 
examining  these  strange  formations; 
and  it  was  at  once  observed  that  the 
shells  were  intermixed  with  the  debris 


322 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


of  human  life.  Here,  then,  was  a  new 
class  of  relics  of  prehistoric  existence, 
and  a  new  field  of  inquiry  opened  before 
the  antiquary.  Professor  Steenstrup  was 
again  in  the  van  in  the  exploration  of 
the  shell  mounds.  He  gave  them,  in 
the  first  place,  the  name  which  they 
have  ever  since  borne,  of  Kitchen 
middens.      In    his    own    language    the 


Flint  core  or  n 


WORKMANSHIP   OF   THK   KITCHEN   MIDDENERS. 

word  is  Kjdkkcnmdddings,  which  signifies 
"kitchen  refuse  heaps."  The  idea  of 
the  learned  Dane  was  that  these 
mounds  were  the  refuse  of  the  food 
and  waste  material  of  a  people  who  had 
built  their  huts  on  the  seashore,  and  had 
manifestly  subsisted  for  the  most  part 
on  shellfish.  This  primary  hypothesis 
of  the  naturalist  Avas  borne  out  by  all 
subsequent  investigations,  and  it  was 
soon  established  beyond  doubt   that    a 


prehistoric  people  had  chosen  the  shore 
of  this  northern  sea  as  the  best  vantage 
ground  which  they  could  procure  in 
their  struggle  to  preserve  life  and  per- 
petuate their  tribes. 

The  shell  mounds  are  by  no  means 
isolated  phenomena.  They  are  rarely 
found  singly,  but  in  groups,  covering  a 
considerable  extent  of  coast.  This  is  to 
say  that  the  primitive  people 
dwelling  here  lived  in  ag- 
gregations, or  The  kitchen 
villages  of  huts  ^.tllmUp'^i^n, 

o  cate  village  com- 

on  the  beach,  ^unities. 
Sometimes  a  principal  mound 
will  appear,  and  around  this 
others  of  smaller  proportions. 
The  contents  are  abundant, 
and  the  vast  heap  of  shells  is 
in  many  cases  carted  -away 
by  the  inhabitants  and  used 
to  replenish  the  soil. 

What  strikes  the  beholder 
in  opening  one  of  these 
mounds  is  the  fact  that  the 
7i.'/iolc  colli  cnis, or 

The  heaps  made 

the  materials  of  up  of  the  debris 

.1  1  ,.  of  human  life. 

the     elevation, 
are  the  debris  of  human  life. 
Hardly   any  merely   natural 
substance    is    found    inter- 
mixed  with   the   shells   and 
other  refuse  of  the  kitchen 
and  the  hut.     Doubtless  the 
kitchen  was  the  hut  and  the 
hut    was    the    kitchen.     In    a    few    in- 
stances some  gravel  and  other  unmodi- 
fied natural  products  are  found  in  thin 
layers  or  scattered  among  the  Avaste  of 
the  hovel.     But  for  the  most  part  every- 
thing has  had  its  use  in  the  hands  and 
mouths  of  the  primitive  tribes  inhabit- 
ing this  coast.     The  people  appear  to 
have  subsisted  almost  exclusively  upon 
oysters  and  mussels,  and  to  have  flung 
the  .shells  out  of  the  hut  until  they  ac- 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— COAST  PEOPLE    OF    THE  NORTH. 


323 


cumulated  to  a  depth  of  several  feet.  It 
would  seem  that  in  many  instances  the 
hut  itself  would  be  half  buried  by  the 
accumulation  around,  and  doubtless  the 
site  of  the  dwelling  is  the  crater  which 
is  noticed  in  a  dune  here  and  there. 

If  we  examine  the  implements  and 
weapons  which  the  coast  people  lost  or 
Character  of  the  broke  or  cast  aside  with  the 
t^ooifancTn^et:  Other  debris  of  their  vil- 
®'^^-  lages,  we  shall  find  them  to 

be  of  the  most  primitive  pattern  and 
rudest  workmanship.  They  are  nearly 
or  quite  all  of  the  old  stone  age,  and  the 
method  of  fracture  employed  in  making 
them  seems  to  have  been  less  skillful 
than  that  of  the  oldest  lake  villagers, 
and  fully  as  rude  as  the  workmanship  of 
the  cave  men.  Great  quantities  of  flint 
flakes,  rough  axes,  lanceheads,  arrow- 
points,  weights  for  fishing  nets,  sling- 
stones,  and  awls  have  been  recovered 
from  the  ^mounds,  and  they  are,  without 
exception,  of  the  primitive  pattern  and 
finish  above  described.  From  the  shell 
mound  of  Meilgaard,  which  was  visited 
and  examined  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  in 
person,  nineteen  axes,  a  hundred  and 
thirty-nine  flint  flakes,  six  bone  pins, 
six  horns,  four  pieces  of  rude  pottery, 
one  stone  hammer,  and  twenty  .sling- 
stones  were  recovered.  This  mound  is 
merely  specimental  of  scores  of  others 
that  existed  and  still  exist  along  the 
coast  of  Denmark.  These,  like  the  lake 
villages  and  the  cave  dwellings,  have 
contributed  thousands  of  specimens  to 
the  European  museums,  and  these  have 
been  arranged  and  classified  with  re- 
spect to  their  antiquity,  so  that  he  that 
rans  may  read  the  story  of  a  prehistoric 
age. 

The  extreme  simplicity,  not  to  say 
barbarity,  of  the  method  of  life  of  the 
shell-mound  people  has  already  been  in- 
dicated.    As   compared   with    the    lake 


villagers  of  Switzerland,  even  of  the  old 
stone  age,  they  were  far  behind.  The 
lake  men  were  acquainted 
with  wheat  and  barley,  and  low  grade  of 
even  ^\ath  the  manufac-  ^^'''^^^''^^' 
ture  of  bread.  But  in  the  shell  mounds 
no  traces  of  grain  have  been  discovered, 
nor  have  any  relics  of  vegetables  such 
as  men  would  use  for  food  been  found 
in  the  debris  around  the  huts.  The 
people  seem  to  have  subsisted  altogether 
upon  the  shellfish  which  they  gathered 
along  the  shore,  either  by  digging  in  the 
sand  with  the  recession  of  the  tide,  or  by 
rude  nets  which  they  dragged  in  shoal 
water.  These  moUusks,  together  with 
certain  birds  and  wild  animals  which  they 
were  able  to  capture,  constituted  the  only 
food  of  the  hut  dwellers. 

The  four  principal  varieties  of  sea 
mollusks  which  the  mound  builders  ate, 
and  which  indeed  constitut-  Nature  of  the 
ed  their  chief  supply,  were  ^f^^°^ 
the  oyster,  the  cockle,  the  i^eaps. 
mussel,  and  the  periwinkle.  All  of 
these,  as  is  indicated  by  the  shells,  were 
of  larger  size  than  those  now  found  on 
the  same  coasts.  The  oyster  has  wholly 
disappeared  from  these  waters,  and 
doubtless  the  other  species  were  of 
different  varieties  from  those  now  exist- 
ing. It  must  not  be  understood,  how- 
ever, that  the  bones  of  birds  and  mam- 
mals are  wanting  in  the  mounds.  On 
the  contrary,  these  are  rather  plentiful. 
Professor  vSteenstrup  has  estimated  that 
each  cubic  foot  of  the  shell  material  con- 
tains on  the  average  ten  or  twelve  bones. 
The  mound  at  Havelse  has  yielded 
about  three  thousand  five  hundred  speci- 
mens of  the  bones  of  mammals,  and 
more  than  two  hundred  of  birds.  Fish 
bones  other  than  those  of  the  sea  mol- 
lusks are  also  found  intermixed  in  the 
mounds.  The  remains  of  the  herring, 
the   dorse,   the  dab,   and  the  eel  have 


824 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


been  plentifully  recovered  in  several 
localities. 

Of  the  relics  of  mammalia,  the  most 
common  are  of  the  stag,  the  roedeer,  and 
wud  beasts  the  wild  boar.  In  addi- 
wtcrn°r.:id!  tion  to  these,  bones  of  the 
deuers.  urus,  the  bear,  the  dog,  the 

fox,  the  wolf,  the  marten,  the  otter,  the 
porpoise,  the  seal,  the  water  rat,  the 
beaver,  the  lynx,  the  wild  cat,  the  hedge- 
hog, and  the  mouse  have  been  found  in 
the  shell  mounds,  but  sparsely  distrib- 
uted. It  will  be  at  once  observed  from 
these  facts  that  the  animals  which  the 


DANISH    SHF.I.L-MO0N-I)    AXES. 


coast  people  were  able  to  take  and  kill 
were  generally  of  the  smaller  species. 
The  extreme  scarcity  of  the  bones  of 
the  heavier  and  fiercer  beasts  might  well 
beget  a  doubt  as  to  whether  the  pre- 
historic man  of  this  coast  dared  to  meet 
them  in  combat  at  all.  Another  striking 
feature  revealed  by  the  exploration  of 
the  shell  mound  is  that  all  of  the  animals 
here  eni:merated  were  wild.  It  appears 
very  doubtful  whether  even  the  dog  had 
become  the  friend  of  the  dwellers  in 
these  seashore  huts.  At  any  rate,  his 
bones  have  the  same  aspect  as  those  of 
the  creatures  of  the  woods. 

The  fact  of  the  complete  destruction 


or  corfsumption  of  the  animals  with 
which  the  shore  people  came  in  contact 
is  illustrated  by  the  absence  inferences  as  to 
of  entire  skeletons  and  fXttl^fof 
the  miscellaneous  distri-  the  race, 
bution  of  the  bones.  It  is  generally  the 
long  bones  that  are  found  scattered 
among  the  shells.  The  heads  of  these 
have  been  broken  off  and  reduced  to 
edible  conditions,  or  else  have  decayed 
in  the  course  of  ages.  In  all  cases  the 
bone  shaft  has  been  opened  for  the  mar- 
row ;  from  which  it  appears  that  the 
coast  people  had  the  same  appetite  for 
this  delicacy  as  did 
the  cave  dwellers. 
From  the  absence  of 
skeletons,  or  even 
large  parts  thereof, 
it  has  been  more  dif- 
ficult for  naturalists 
to  reconstruct  the  ani- 
mals of  the  Dani.sh 
coast  than  of  any  other 
situations ;  but  enough 
has  been  gathered  to 
justify  the  foregoing 
statement  relative  to 
the  wild  creatures 
with  which  the  shell- 
mound  people  were  familiar. 

An  interesting  illustration  of  the  skill 
of  antiquaries  in  looking  into  the  past 
is  furnished  in  their  meth-  Methods  of  de- 
od     of     determining     the  ^.X^tfU^/ 
habits    of    the   prehistoric  sheu  mounders. 
tribes  of  Denmark.     It  is  known,  for  in- 
stance,  that  they  were    not  migratory, 
Init  that  they  held  their  abode  in  the 
same  huts  the  year  around.     This  fact 
was  ascertained  from  an  examination  of 
the  bones  of  the  birds  upon  which  these 
people  in  part  subsisted.     Some  of  these 
birds,  as  for  instance  the  singing  swan, 
visit  this  coast  only  in  the  winter.     In 
the  month  of  March  they  leave  for  the 


PRIMEVAL  MAN.— COAST  PEOPLE    OF   THE   NORTH. 


325 


Fuegians ;  de- 
scription by 
Dar'win. 


South,  and  return  late  in  November,  but 
the  distribution  of  wild  swan  bones  is 
frequent  in  the  shell  mounds.  It  ap- 
pears certain,  therefore,  that  they  were 
taken  in  winter.  Therefore  the  coast 
people  had  their  residence  here  in  win- 
ter. Again,  the  horns  of  stags  are  cast 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  and  one 
or  two  other  animal  phenomena  of  like 
sort  have  a  periodical  significance. 
From  the  collation  of  these  facts  it  is 
proved  that  the  hut  dwellers  in  the  lo- 
calities here  described  remained  in  their 
place  throughout  the  year,  and  were  not 
merely  fishermen  of  the  summer  season. 
We  thus  see  on  the  Danish  coast  an- 
other type  of  primitive  life  quite  distinct 
Analogue  of  the  from  those  which  Ave  have 
hitherto  considered.  It  is 
likely,  withal,  that  their 
manner  of  existence  was  not  very  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  certain  tribes  still 
living  in  the  exti^eme  of  South  America. 
The  Terra  del  Fuegians  subsist  in  a 
manner  very  analogous  to  that  ascribed 
above  to  the  prehistoric  tribes  of  Den- 
mark. They  have  no  domestic  animals 
except  the  dog.  They  live  almost  ex- 
clusively on  shellfish,  and  their  huts 
along  the  coast,  if  continuing  undis- 
turbed for  a  sufficient  period,  would 
doubtless  be  surrounded  by  a  collection 
of  waste  materials  almost  identical  with 
those  of  the  remote  age  of  the  shell- 
mound  people  of  the  North.  The  great 
naturalist,  Charles  Darwin,  says  of  these 
tribes:  "  The  inhabitants,  living  chiefly 
itpon  shellfish,  are  obliged  constantly  to 
change  their  place  of  residence;  but 
they  return  at  intervals  to  the  same 
spots,  as  is  evident  from  the  pile  of  old 
shells,  which  must  often  amount  to  some 
tons  in  weight.  These  heaps  can  be 
distinguished  at  a  long  distance  by  the 
bright  green  color  of  certain  plants  which 
invariably   grow   on    them.    .    .    .    The 


Fuegian  wigwam  resembles,  in  size  and 
dimensions,  a  haycock.  It  merely  con- 
sists of  a  few  broken  branches  stuck 
in  the  ground,  and  very  imperfectly 
thatched  on  one  side  with  a  few  tufts  of 
grass  and  rushes.  ,  .  .  Viewing  such 
men,  one  can  hardly  make  oneself  be- 
lieve they  are  fellow-creatures  and  in- 
habitants of  the  same  world.  ...  At 
night  five  or  six  human  beings,  naked 
and  scarcely  protected  from  the  wind 
and  rain  of  this  tempestuous  climate, 
sleep  on  the  wet  ground  coiled  up  like 
animals.    Whenever  it  is  low  water  they 


Booe  harpoon  of  the  Stone 
Age  of  Denmark. 


Arrouhead  of  reindeet 
honi. 


FINDS   FROM   THE   KITCHEN   MIDDENS. 

must  rise  to  pick  shellfish  from  the  rocks ; 
and  the  women,  winter  and  summer, 
either  dive  to  collect  sea  eggs  or  sit  pa- 
tiently in  their  canoes,  and,  with  a  baited 
hair  line,  jerk  out  small  fish.  If  a  seal 
is  killed,  or  the  floating  carcass  of  a  pu- 
trid whale  discovered,  it  is  a  feast;  such 
miserable  food  is  assisted  by  a  few  taste- 
less berries  and  fungi." 

All  attempts  to  construct  an  authentic 
chronology  for  the  age  of  the  coast  people 
whose  rude  life  is  here  depicted  are 
futile.     The  fact   that   such    modes    of 


326 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


tribal  evolution  exist  in  different  ages 
has  already  been  dwelt  upon.  We  have 
Not  possible  to  jiist  seen  that  the  Fuegian 
thelXxiS'  tribes  in  the  extreme  of 
tribes.  South  America  are  still  in 

this  aboriginal  state  of  development ;  and 
we  know  that  in  the  north  of  Denmark 
the  shell-mound  people  had  passed  away 
before  the  beginnings  of  history.  The 
evidence  of  this  is  complete  and  irre- 
fragable. It  is  known,  moreover,  that 
not  only  were  these  tribes  prehistoric, 
but  tliat  they  held  their  rude  career  at  a 
very  remote  period,  even  archaeologically 
considered. 

We  are  able  in  part  to  measure  the 
distance  of  the  epoch  of  the  coast  men 
Botanical  indi-  by  Certain  transformations 
'T^^^.llVi}^"''    which   we   know   to    have 

Temote  antiq- 

»i'ty-  taken  place  in  the  vegetable 

kingdom.  Since  the  earliest  references  in 
the  works  of  the  Roman  naturalists  the 
countries  of  Northern  Europe  have  been 
heavily  covered  with  a  forest  of  beech. 
This  has  been  the  prevailing  growth  of 
these  regions  since  about  the  time  when 
iron  began  to  be  used  for  implements 
and  weapons.  It  is  well  known  in  the 
botanical  history  of  the  world  that  the 
forest  of  beech  is  preceded  in  the  plant- 
cycle  of  nature  by  a  forest  of  oak,  Avhich 
in  its  turn  has  a  long  period  of  duration 
as  the  prevalent  growth.  That  is,  be- 
fore the  beginnings  of  the  present  beech 
forest  of  Northern  Europe  an  oak  for- 
est prevailed  in  the  same  countries  for 
indefinite  ages.  It  is  also  known  that 
in  like  manner  the  pine  precedes  the  oak. 
That  is,  the  order  of  nature  is,  first,  so 
far  as  we  are  able  to  discover,  a  forest  of 
pine,  which  at  length  falls  into  decrepi- 
tude and  is  succeeded  by  a  forest  of  oak. 
This,  in  its  turn,  and  after  a  long  cycle, 
grows  old,  maintains  for  a  while  a  pre- 
carious existence,  then  gives  place  to  a 
forest  of  beech.      At  the  present  time 


the  beech  forest  is  growing  old,  and  will 
at  length  give  place  to  some  other.  But 
we  know  that  the  present  prevailing 
woods  in  Denmark  and  other  regions  of 
the  North  have  existed  there  since  a 
time  long  before  the  age  of  Pliny — even, 
before  the  founding  of  Rome. 

Now  an  examination  of  the  bones  of 
the  birds  which  Avere  taken  and  eaten 
by  the  coast  people  and  shell-mound  era 
shows  conclusively  that  some  of  the  birds 
in  question  were  of  spe-  Bird-ufe  bears 
cies  which  are  known  to  r^r^on^iu*^' 
feed  upon  the  berries  of  sion. 
the  pine  tree !  So  slight  a  fact  is  one  of 
many  sufficient  indications  that  point  un- 
mistakably to  the  conclusion  of  the  ex- 
treme antiquity  of  the  age  which  we  are 
here  considering.  It  is  by  this  kind  of 
patient  reseaixh  that  our  knowledge  of 
prehistoric  peoples  has  been  widened  and 
developed  into  its  present  amplitude ; 
and  though  it  is  by  no  means  complete 
and  satisfactory,  it  is  nevertheless  suffi- 
cient to  enlighten  the  present  races  in- 
habiting the  earth  with  respect  to  the 
manners  and  customs  of  those  who 
slumber  in  its  bosom. 

Coincident  with  the  discoveries  which 
have  led  to  the  reconstruction  of  primi- 
tive life  in  the  manner  over-water  hab- 
hitherto  described,  have  '^^:^;^^ 
been  others  quite  analo-  banks  also. 
gous.  Not  only  did  primeval  tribes 
inhabit  the  shores  of  the  sea  and  build 
thereon  their  rude  huts,  scattering 
around  the  waste  and  refuse  of  their 
daily  life,  but  others  like  them  in  habit 
and  character  chose  the  river  banks.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  currents  of  rivers 
var}-  somewhat  in  their  place  and  direc- 
tion. The  bed  of  a  running  stream  is 
by  no  means  a  constant  feature  in  geog- 
raph}'.  Though  in  general  it  traverses 
a  valley,  it  will  be  found  in  one  age 
against  the  hills  on  one  side,  and  in  the 


PRIMEVAL  MAX.— COAST  PEOPLE   OF   THE  NORTH. 


327 


next  age  on  the  other.  Moreover,  the 
volume  of  water  is  much  greater  in 
some  epochs  than  in  others.  As  a  gen- 
eral fact,  the  streams  and  rivers  of  the 
early  ages  of  the  world  were  much  fuller 
and  stronger  than  they  are  to-day.  As 
a  world  grows  older  its  streams  grow 
weaker,  until  they  finally  disappear,  and 
the  epoch  of  life  is  at  an  end.  The 
primeval  age  was  one  of  humidity  and 
plentiful  rainfall  and  full  vol- 
ume in  the  rivers. 

One  of  the  principal  con- 
comitant circumstances  of  the 
river  flow  is  the  formation  of 
sand  and  gravel.  Ledges  of 
Physical  condi-  rock  are  broken 
roratTon'or  Off  and  the  frag, 
gravel  beds.  m  e  n  t  s  divided 
into  smaller  parts.  These  are 
rolled  over  and  over  by  the 
stream  until  they  are  worn  into 
pebbles  and  gravel  and  sand. 
Vast  accumulations  of  these 
materials  are  deposited  here 
and  there  in  the  river  elbows 
and  bends  and  curves,  in  the 
valley  to  the  right  hand  and 
into  the  left,  and  especially 
about  the  debouchure  of  the 
stream  near  the  mouth.  While 
this  process  is  going  on  the  bank.3  of  the 
river  on  this  side  and  on  that  are  worn 
away  and  carried  along  with  the  current. 
Sometimes  a  whole  valley,  by  a  change  in 
the  course  of  the  stream,  is  swept  oi:t 
and  deposited  somewhere  below.  These 
circumstances  must  be  borne  in  mind  if 
we  would  apprehend  clearly  the  nature 
of  the  discoveries  to  which  attention  will 
now  be  called. 

As  early  as  the  beginning  of  this 
century  implements  and  weapons  were 
known  to  have  been  gathered  from 
river-drift  gravel  beds,  but  the  signifi- 
cance of  such  discoveries  was  unnoticed 


or  ignored.  There  has  been  a  strange 
disposition,  even  on  the  part  of  scholars, 
to  maintain  old  traditionary  views  about 
the  age  of  man  on  the  earth.  Every 
new  fact  tending  to  show  the  antiquity 
of  the  human  race  has  been  resisted  and 
resented  as  a  sort  of  intrigue  against 
the  integrity  of  existing  beliefs. 

In  geological  science    this    tendencv 
has  been  especially  noticeable.     Geolo- 


^4 


It  was  from  this  ?°^l'^t°i°=J.r 

respecting  nver- 
SalutarV     con-    drift  findings. 


PAL.'EOLITHIC   RIVER-DRIFT  SPEARHEADS. 

gists  themselves  have  for  a  long  time 
shut  their  eyes  to  the  most  palpable 
facts,  patent  to  their  own  Dogmatism  con- 
senses, 

supposable  salutary  con- 
servatism that  the  first  discoveries  of 
prehistoric  relics  in  the  gjavel  beds,  as 
well  as  in  other  situations,  were  ignored 
and  denied.  Those  who  were  deter- 
mined  to  maintain  the  old  views  respect- 
ing the  chronology  of  the  earth  and  its 
inhabitants  put  forward  all  sorts  of  ridic- 
ulous hypotheses  to  account  for  that 
which  was  unaccountable  under  their 
own     theory.     They     even     published 


328 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


treatises  in  which  it  was  boldly  alleged 
that  the  old  stone  implements  which 
had  been  found  in  prehistoric  situations 
were  forgeries  which  had  been  jserpe- 
trated  against  authentic  science — that 
those  who  were  trying  to  disturb  the 
current  beliefs  of  mankind  had  invented 
the  alleged  discoveries  to  produce  a  new 
hypothesis  respecting  the  antiquity  of 
the  human  race ! 

Gradually,  however,  light  dawned  and 
the  truth  was  acknowledged.     One  nat- 
uralist after  another  became  convinced 
that  the  weapons  and  uten- 

C.ireful  exami- 

aation  of  the  flu-  sils    found    m   the   gravel 

vial  deposits.         i      -.  .  i.        i    ^  • 

beds  were  m  such  relation 
with  geological  facts  as  to  compel  a  be- 
lief in  their  remote  antiquity.  Many  of 
the  men  most  eminent  for  learning  in 
Europe  visited  distant  localities  and  con- 
ducted personal  exj^lorations  in  order  to 
establish  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  new 
view  of  the  antiquity  of  man.  The  re- 
sult has  been  corroborative  of  that  de- 
duced from  other  fields  of  inquiry;  and 
it  is  now  as  well  known  that  prehistoric 
races  dwelt  in  Europe  in  the  time  of  the 
mammoth,  and  wrought  rough  imple- 
ments of  flint  in  the  post-pliocene  era  of 
geology,  as  it  is  known  that  the  Assyri- 
ans flourished  on  the  Tigris  and  that 
Caesar  led  Roman  legions  across  the 
Rhine. 

The  evidences  of  the  existence  of 
primitive  tribes  along  the  river  valleys 
of  Western  Europe  have  been  discovered 

more  abundantly  in  France 

Buch  findings  •' 

extend  to  the       than  in  any  other  country ; 

British  Isles.  i      ^      ^i  •  11  i- 

but  the  river  banks  of 
England  have  also  yielded  their  testi- 
mony. Before  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  a  British  weapon 
had  been  found  in  a  gravel  bed  in  con- 
nection with  an  elephant's  tooth,  in  a 
situation  described  as  being  "  opposite 
to    Black    Mary's,    near    Graye's     Inn 


Lane."  This  weapon  is  described  as  a 
large  black  flint,  shaped  into  the  figure 
of  a  spearpoint.  It  is  known  to  have 
been  engraved  as  early  as  17 15,  and  a 
print  of  it  has  been  preserved  in  Leland's 
Collectanea.  Since  the  science  of  antiq- 
uities has  been  developed  in  our  own 
day,  this  ancient  implement  has  been 
shown  to  be  of  the  same  pattern,  work- 
manship, and  quality  with  those  found 
in  like  situations  on  the  Continent. 

Several  of  the  rivers  of  France  have 
been  specially  rich  in  their  yield  of  pre- 
historic relics.  The  princi-  Rjver  valleys  of 
pal  of  these  are  the  Somme,  ^^^:^^^ 
the  Seine,  and  the  Oise.  reiios. 
In  the  valley  of  the  first  of  these  streams 
the  explorations  have  been  conducted 
with  scientific  skill,  and  the  discoveries 
made  have  been  fortified  as  to  their 
verity  with  all  the  care  and  penetration 
which  the  best  scholars  of  Europe  have 
been  able  to  bring  to  the  question.  It 
will  be  of  interest  in  this  connection, 
therefore,  to  look  briefly  at  the  geologi- 
cal character  of  the  vSomme  valley,  and 
the  position  in  which  human  relics  have 
been  found  therein,  to  the  end  that  the 
reader  may  have  before  him  a  clear 
statement  of  the  situation  and  proof  of 
the  results. 

The  discoveries  on  the  Somme  have 
been  made  for  the  most  part  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Amiens  and  Abbeville. 
At  these  places  the  valley,  character  of  the 
from  hill  to  hill,  is  about  "'^^l^^t^lt 
a  mile  in  breadth.  The  Somme. 
main  geological  formation  of  the  country 
is  chalk.  Through  this,  in  the  glacial 
period,  the  valley  of  the  river  was 
plowed  out,  and  in  this  wide,  low  trough 
the  stream  still  makes  its  way  to  the  sea. 
But  in  the  course  of  ages  many  second- 
ary formations  have  taken  place  in  con- 
nection with  the  river.  What  is  properly 
called  the   river  bottom  is  filled  up  in 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— COAST  PEOPLE   OF   THE  NORTH. 


329 


a  broad,   deep 
in   some  places 


this  neighborhood  Avith 
bed  of  peat.  This  is 
thirty  feet  in  depth  and  more  than  a  third 
of  a  mile  in  breadth.  In  this  peat  bed, 
Avhich  has  been  slowly  forming  for  many 
centuries,  at  a  great  depth  therein,  stone 
implements  and  other  relics  of  a  pre- 
historic people  have  been  found.  The 
bones  of  extinct  mammalia  are  here 
associated  with  the  works  of  man  in  such 
relation  as  to  estab- 
lish their  contem- 
poraneity. 

The  peat  forma- 
tion in  the  Somnie 
valley,  however,  is 
one  of  the  newer  ac- 
cretions peculiar  to 
the  situation.  If  the 
observer  take  his 
stand  on  the  low 
peat  bog  near  the 
margin  of  the  stream 
and  look  to  the  hills 
on  either  side  he 
shall  find,  at  two  or 
three  levels  in  the 
chalk  formation 
which  rises  to  the 
height  of  two  or 
three  hundred  feet, 
beds  of  gravel  crop- 
ping out  of  the  banks. 
Through  these  beds, 
which  were  mani- 
festly formed  by  the  river  in  the  older 
Time  relations  agcs  of  the  tertiary  epoch, 
the  stream  has  gradually 
worked  its  Avay  down,  by 
attrition,  to  lower  and  lower  levels,  leav- 
ing the  gravel  beds  far  above  the  present 
position  of  the  stream.  Above  the  out- 
croppings  of  these  beds  the  old  chalky 
walls  which  constitute  the  barriers  of  the 
valley  are  seen  rising  to  the  general 
level  of  the  country  above,  which  is  a 

M. Vol.    I 72 


plateau  spreading  off  in  slight  undula- 
tions. Even  the  novice  in  geology  is 
able  to  perceive  that  the  peat  bogs  in  the 
bottom  of  the  valley  are  of  recent  origin 
as  compared  with  the  old  gravel  beds 
lying  far  above  the  present  level  of  the 
river.  Yet  it  is  in  these  gravel  beds 
that  the  discoveries  of  some  of  the  most 
ancient  specimens  of  human  workman- 
ship in  the  world  have  been  made :  and 


of  the  peat  beds 
to  the  chalk 
formations. 


PAL.EOLITHIC   RIVER-DRIFT   LANCF.HEADS   AND    AX   OF   ARCHAIC   PATTERNS. 


the  situation  in  which  thev  have  been 
found  has  been  scanned  with  so  much 
care,  and  the  explorations  conducted  with 
such  scientific  accuracy,  as  to  preclude  all 
doubt  relative  to  the  verity  and  signifi- 
cance of  the  facts  in  question. 

.Sir  Charles  Lyell  estimates  that  more 
than  a  thousand  implements  have  been 
taken  from  the  gravel  beds  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Amiens.  They  are  all  of  a 
common  type,  and  belong  to  the  oldest 


830 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKTKD. 


epoch  known  to  archaeology.  They  have 
been  classified  under  three  heads,  the 
Character  of  the  first  of  which  includes  the 
i:^tnsd':p'o:.  spearpoints;  the  second,  a 
"■s-  sort  of  almond-shaped  im- 

plements which  appear  to  have  been 
used  as  axes  for  general  purposes,  such 
as  breaking  bones  and  cracking  holes  in 
the  ice ;  and  thirdly,  flint  flakes  and  ar- 
rowheads. All  of  these  are  produced 
by  mere  fracture,  not  a  single  specimen 
bearing  the  marks  of  grinding  or  polish- 
ing. The  forms  are  rude,  but  the  work- 
manship immistakably  human.  In  many 
instances  the  prehistoric  artisan  has  taken 
advantage  of  the  natural  form  of  the 
flint,  and  merely  modified  it  by  breaking 
one  J>i7rt  into  a  cutting  form.  It  has 
been  noted  that  between  the  spearheads 
and  the  almond-shaj^ed  axes  several  in- 
termediate grades  of  implements  exist, 
which  would  seem  to  show  that  the  end 
in  view  was  not  clearly  defined  in  the 
minds  of  the  makers.  Yet  in  the  midst 
of  the  manifest  barbarity  of  the  epoch 
in  which  these  implements  were  created 
there  has  been  found  a  single  evidence 
of  taste  in  certain  small  globular  bodies, 
with  a  tubular  cavity  in  the  center,  which 
appear  to  have  been  used  for  ornamen- 
tation. 

Notwithstanding  the  abundant  proof 
that  the  weapons  and  tools  above  de- 
Beasons  for  Scribed  are  the  relics  of  hu- 
maTremafn^s";  "^'1"  activity  in  a  prehistoric 
the  river-drift,  ^^ge,  Very  few  human  re- 
mains, properly  so  called,  have  been 
found  in  the  river-drift  gravel  beds. 
Only  an  occasional  tmderjaw,  or  some 
other  of  the  harder  parts  of  the  frame 
of  man  have  been  recovered  in  these  sit- 
uations. The  bones  of  animals  are  much 
more  frequent,  and  are  easily  defined ; 
but  a  moment's  reflection  will  show  that 
these  facts  would  be  indicated  by  right 
reason.     As    for    the    animal    remains 


found  in  the  gravel,  they  are  evidently 
the  fragments  of  mammals  that  Avere 
drowned  by  ordinary  accident  or  in  times 
of  flood.  In  such  emergencies  man  is 
more  expert  and  cautious  than  the  lower 
orders.  Even  in  his  lowest  estate  he 
has  some  measure  of  foresight,  and  es- 
capes from  a  dangerous  situation.  The 
gravel  pits  were  not  the  places  of  burial. 
They  do  not  mark  the  exact  sites  of  hu- 
man dwellings.  They  represent  mate- 
rials that  were  carried  to  their  present 
place  by  the  action  of  water.  In  many 
cases  these  materials  have  been  brought 
from  considerable  distances.  Even  an 
occasional  human  skeleton  given  to  the 
river  would  be  tossed  and  broken  and 
worn,  in  its  course  onward,  being  ground 
against  stones  and  pebbles  into  elemen- 
tary fragments.  Moreover,  decay  does 
its  work.  The  hardest  bone  will  not 
survive  forever,  even  under  conditions 
favorable  to  its  preservation. 

The  paucity  of  human  remains  in  the 
gravel  beds  is  in  close  analogy  with  the 
like  fact  in  the  shell  mounds  sheu  mounds 
of    Denmark.     They,  ?i;°X?r?- 
too,  have   yielded    in   but  mains  of  men. 
rarest  instances  any  actual  fragments  of 
the  human  frame,  and  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  more  might  be  expected  from  the 
kitchen   middens,  with  their   abundant 
detritus  of  man's  habitation  and  localized 
association  with  his  life,  than  in  the  case 
of   river-drift   heaped   up   at   long   dis- 
tances from  the  place  where  he  had  his 
abode. 

Not  only  in  the  gravel  pits  of  the  val- 
ley of  the  Somme,  not  only  in  like  situa- 
tions  along   the  banks   of  Extent  of  the 
the  Seine  and  the  Oise,  have  ^j^.^^^f^i^'ol 
these  relics  of  the  prehis-  England, 
toric  life  of  man  been  discovered.     Like 
revelations  have  been  made  in  the  river 
bottoms  and  sandpits  of  Great  Britain. 
In  a  gravel  bed  at  Hoxne,  in  Suffolk, 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— MEN  OF   THE    TUMI  1. 1. 


331 


specimens  of  human  workmanship  hke 
those  above  described  were  found  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  this  century. 
In  similar  formations  between  Guildford 
and  Godalming,  flint  implements  of  the 
old  stone  age  have  been  foimd  and  pre- 
served. It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  special  significance  of  such  discov- 
eries lies  in  the  fact  of  the  association  in 
the  gravel  beds  of  these  human  remains 
with  the  bones  of  the  mammoth  and 
other  extinct  species  belonging  to  the 
post-tertiary  period  of  geology.  In  vari- 
ous other  localities  like  revelations  have 
been  made  by  explorations  of  gravel  beds, 
such,  for  instance,  as  those  at  Ickling- 
ham,  at  Heme  Bay,  at  Abbot's-Langley, 
and  at  Green  Street  Green,  in  Kent.  In 
a  layer  of  river-drift,  near  Bedford,  bones 
of  the  mammoth,  the  rhinoceros,  the 
hippopotamus,  the  primitive  ox,  the 
horse,  and  the  deer  have  been  found  in 
prehistoric  relations  with  flint  imple- 
ments belonging  to  the  old  stone  age. 
In  short,  the  discoveries  made  in  the 
gravel  beds  of  Great  Britain  have  fully 
corroborated  and  verified  those  made  in 
the  valley  of  the  Somme  and  on  other 
parts  of  the  Continent. 

We  thus  see  that  along  the  river  ^■al- 


leys  of  Europe,  at  a  tinie  before  the  in- 
coming of  the  first  Aryan  tribes,  prime- 
val    races     had     possession    Deductions  re- 

of  the  country  in  various  T^lf^^:^,.. 
parts,  and  had  begun  those  er-drift  epoch, 
rude  activities  out  of  which  the  civilized 
condition  was  ultimately  to  spring.  The 
relics  described  in  these  last  paragraphs 
are  of  the  most  primitive  pattern  and 
Avorkmanship.  They  indicate,  indeed, 
the  very  first  emergence  of  men  from 
the  state  of  absolute  nature  and  barbarity. 
The  tool-making  and  tool-using  instinct 
marks,  perhaps,  the  very  earliest  stages 
of  human  development.  Whatever  may 
have  been  the  origin  of  man  in  these 
western  parts  of  Europe,  we  see  him,  in 
these  far  prehistoric  times,  either  an  ab- 
solute savage  or  a  barbarian,  but  slightly 
elevated  above  the  savage  state.  Per- 
haps if  our  knowledge  were  more  com- 
plete we  should  be  able  to  delineate 
many  other  circumstances  relative  to 
these  hard  beginnings  of  civilized  life 
in  Europe.  The  future  may  still  contrib- 
ute something  to  our  further  enlighten- 
ment relative  to  the  habits  and  manners 
of  prehistoric  peoples,  but  for  the  pres- 
ent Ave  must  remain  satisfied  with  an 
approximate  view  of  their  condition. 


CHAPTER    XIX.— rvlKX    OK    THE    TUMULI. 


F>  F  O  R  E  d  ism  i  ssi  n  g  th  e 
subject  of  the  prehis- 
toric life  of  man  on  the 
I  continent  of  EurojDe, 
still  another  field  of 
inquiry  remains  to  be 
considered.  In  all  parts 
of  the  European  countries,  from  the  Baltic 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  from  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  to  the  Ural  mountains,  another 
class  of  facts,  bearing  unmistakable  evi- 


dence of  the  ancient  activities  of  men, 
are  plentifully  distributed.  These  are 
the  mounds  which  the  tribes  builded, 
in    burial     and    for    other  TumuU  and  oth- 

_    11        11  „  1    er  memorials  of 

purposes,  generally  called  pHmevaimaniu 
Tumuli:  standing  stone  Europe, 
structures  of  several  A-arieties,  knoAvn 
as  Menhirs,  Cromlechs,  and  Dol- 
mens; barroAvs,  camps,  fortifications, 
dykes,  and  perhaps  altars  of  sacrifice, 
besides    manv    other     kinds     of     rude 


332 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


architecture  and  memorials.  Such  re- 
mains, hardly  of  sufficient  dij^^nity  to  be 
known  as'  ruins,  are  found  not  only  in 
Europe  but  everywhere  in  the  world. 


Abundance  of 
such  remains 
throughout  the 
world. 


MENHIK,    AT   CROISIK,    FRANX'E. 

Perhaps  no  country,  great  or  small,  is 
■without  such  manifest  evidences  and  il- 
lustrations of  the  long  dead 
activities  of  races  and 
tribes  unknown  to  history. 
EveryA\'ere  this  substratum  of  human 
life,  more  aboriginal  than  the  aborigines, 
existed.  Traces  of  it  are  found  on  every 
hand.  America,  as  well  as  the  older 
lands,  abounds  in  astonishing  proofs 
of  nations  that  existed  here,  even  in 
strength,  between  whom  and  the  Indian 
races  that  held  the  continent  on  its  open- 
ing to  civilization  as  wide  a 
space  of  time  and  character 
exists  as  that  between  the 
rudest  of  the  Red  men  and 
their  .Saxon  conquerors. 
The  mound  builders  have 
been  abroad ;  and  the  long, 
serpentine  mole  of  earth,  or 
conical  hill,  of  artificial  con- 
struction, standing  here  and 
there  in  the  civilized  coun- 
tries of  to-day,  bear  mute, 
but  everlasting  testimony  of  the  ancient 
and  un discoverable  peoples  who  have 
gone  down  to  dust. 

It  is  said  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  that  in 


the  Orkney  islands  more  than  a  thousand 
of  these  tumuli  and  stone  heaps  are 
found.      In    the    Danish 

Meaning  of  the 

peninsula    the    number    is  tumuu  and  stone 

, .-,  ,  T     .,  .  T    monuments. 

still  greater,  and  it  would 
be  safe  to  say  that  in  America  more  than 
ten  thousand  such  monuments  of  pre- 
historic times  exist.  The  variety  ex- 
hibited in  these  relics  of  a  past  age  is 
almost  as  great  as  their  number.  Per- 
haps a  majority  of  all  were  intended  as 
monument.s  to  the  dead,  but  the  details 
are  different,  and  many  volumes  could 
not  contain  an  elaborate  description  of 
all.  We  know  from  history  that  even 
from  the  daydawn  of  authentic  story 
men  were  disposed  to  mark  the  resting 
place  of  the  dead  with  a  trophy.  Pillars 
were  set  up  as  the  tangible  evidence  of 
important  transactions.  In  general, 
every  crisis  in  life,  as  well  as  its  termi- 
nation, demanded  a  testimonial.  It  is 
said  in  the  Assyrian  annals  that  Semir- 
amis  buried  her  husband  under  a  mound 
of  earth.  A  stone  heajj  was  made  over 
the  tomb  of  the  father  of  CEdipus.  In 
the  heroic  age  the  building  of  mounds 
over  the  dead  was  the  custom  of  the 
time.  Patroclus,  friend  of  the  crested 
Achilles,  was  buried  under  a  tumulus  a 


DANlbH    iJOLMt.N. 


hundred  feet  in  height ;  and  it  has  been 
reported  in  tradition  that  Alyattes,  father 
of  Croesus,  had  a  stone-and-earthen  tomb 
more  than  a  mile  in  circumference. 


PRIMEVAL  MAN. —MEN  OF   THE    TUMI  LI. 


333 


The  mounds  of  which  we  are  here  to 
speak  belong  to  a  remoter  and  ruder  age 
The  mounds  than  that  of  the  Trojan  War 
f:?wrof  "^^  o'-  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
bronze.  by    the     Hebrews.      And 

yet  they  are  not  of  so  great  antiquity  as 
those    prehistoric  memorials  which  we 


situated    in   Salisbury  Plain,  Wiltshire, 
England.     It  is  the  most  striking  relic 
of    its    kind  in  the  world,  RuinofStone- 
and  has  been  many  times  ^^^^ii'^.^adi- 
described  by  travelers  and  tio"^. 
antiquaries.     It   consists   of  two    great 
circles  of  upright  stones,  one  exterior  to 


CROMLECH  OF  HALSKOV,  DENMARK. 


have  examined  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
In  general,  the  tumuli  of  Europe  were 
built  in  the  age  of  bronze,  and  therefore 
are  posterior  by  a  long  epoch  to  the  times 
of  the  cave  dwellers  and  coast  people. 
This  is  plainly  evidenced  in  the  utensils 
and  weaiDons  which  are 
recovered  from  the 
mounds,  and  which  are 
almost  invariably  of 
bronze  material.  The 
workmanship,  more- 
over, is  of  that  half- 
elegant  desiarn  and  exe- 
cution  which  belong  to 
an  age  subsequent,  by 
many  centuries,  even  to 
the  neolithic,  or  new 
stone,  epoch.  It  now 
remains  foriis  to  exam- 
ine, at  least  casually, 
some  of  the  existing 
monuments  belonging  to  the  age  of  the 
mound  builders  in  Western  Europe. 

One  of  the  most  striking  of  these 
memorials  is  the  great  megalithic  ruin 
known    by    the    name    of   Stonehenge, 


the  other.  The  outer  circle  is  about 
three  hundred  feet  in  circumference, 
and  the  stones  in  this  row  are  as  much 
as  sixteen  feet  in  height  and  six  feet  in 
diameter.  On  the  tops  of  the  rude  pil- 
lars are  laid  other  stones,  horizontally. 


DANISH  TUMULUS. 

The  inner  circle  is  nine  feet  distant 
from  the  outer.  The  stones  composing 
it  are  of  smaller  dimensions  than  the 
others,  and  are  in  the  native  condition. 
while  those  of  the  outer  circle  have  been 


334 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


roughly  liewn.  The  capstones  also  bear 
the  marks  of  having  been  rudely  cut 
into  their  present  shape. 

Originally  the  outer  colonnade  con- 
tained thirty  of  these  great  pillars,  with 
their  capstones,  or  imposts.  Only  sev- 
enteen of  them  now  remain  in  posi- 
tion. The  inner  circle  consisted  at 
first   of    forty    pillars,    only    a    part    of 


approach  to  the  structure.  Traces  of 
smaller  avenues  are  also  to  be  found, 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  ruin  are  vari- 
ous stones  which  seem  to  have  consti- 
tuted originally  a  part  of  the  general 
design.  The  whole  aspect  of  the  ruin 
as  seen  to-day  is  weird  and  spectral  in 
the  last  degree,  and  the  beholder  can 
but  be  impressed  with  the  strangeness. 


rKi:Hl>rc)KI(     (^R.WEVARD  ok  quaternary  period,  near  LITTAI,  IN"  CARNIOLA,  AUSTRIA. 


which  are  now  standing.  Within  the 
inner  circle  another  series  of  pillars, 
oval  in  character,  and  originally  nineteen 
in  number,  are  found,  which  rise  in 
height  toward  the  center.  Around  the 
outside  rim  was  drawn  a  moat  and  a 
rampart  about  three  hundred  and  sev- 
enty yards  in  circumference.  On  the 
northeast  of  the  great  circle  and  run- 
ning out  for  a  distance  of  about  six 
hundred  }-ards,    there   are  evidences  of 


as  well  as  the  antiquity  of  the  monu- 
ment  before  him. 

Stonehenore  has  long  been  a  fertile 
topic  in  tradition.  The  oldest  story  of  all 
is  that  griven  by  Nennius, 

*=  -'  Stories  of  Nen- 

in  the  ninth  century.      He  mus  and  cam- 
declares  that  the  structure 
was  erected  by  Aurelianus  Ambrosius,  m 
memory  of  four  hundred  British  chief- 
tains who  were  slain  there  by  Hengist 
and  his  Saxon  barbarians,  in  472.     At 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— MEN  OF    THE    TUMI  LI. 


335 


the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  Giral- 
dus  Cambrensis,  another  annalist,  tells 
a  long  story  of  a  great  pile  of  stones 
called  the  Giant's  Dance,  anciently  found 


BURIAL    UR.Ns    (ENLARGED    IROM     li;l.i;ir,:   1  Ni  i    CUT). 

in  Ireland.  He  narrates  that  the  stones 
in  question  were  brought  to  Ireland  by 
a  company  of  Titans  out  of  Africa,  who 


Britons,  procured  Merlin,  by  supernat- 
ural means,  to  bring  from  Ireland  into 
Britain.  And  that  he  might  leave  some 
famous  monument  of  so  great  a  treason 
to  future  ages,  in  the  same  order  and 
art  as  they  stood  formerly,  set  them  up 
where  the  flower  of  the  British  nation 
fell  by  the  cutthroat  practice  of  the 
Saxons,  and  where,  under  the  pretence 
of  peace,  the  ill-secured  3-outh  of  the 
kingdom,  by  murderous  designs,  were 
slain." 

This  story  happily  illustrates  the  com- 
pass and  authenticity  of  mediaeval  his- 

torv.      It  is  well  known  that   Authenticity  of 

the  pillars  composing  the  ^o^ySI^r^;.! 
ruin  of  Stonehenge  were  hereby, 
taken  from  stone  quarries  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, so  that  no  African  giants  were 
needed  to  bring  them  across  the  sea. 
It  is  also  well  established  by  an  exami- 
nation of  the  mounds  in  the  vicinity 
that  the  structure  belongs  to  a  period 
not  only  earlier  than  the  invasion  of 
Hengist  and  his  Saxon  marauders,  but 
long  anterior  to  the  conquest  by  the 
Romans  at  the  beginning  of  our  era. 
It    is    true    that    no    mention   is   made 


\ltW  Ot  bTONEHENGE. 


set  then:^  up  on  the  plains  of  Kildare, 
not  far  from  the  castle  of  Naas.  ' '  These 
stones,"  continues  the  story-teller, 
■"Aurelianus    Ambrosius,   King   of   the 


of  Stonehenge,  by  name,  in  the  Latin 
authors,  but  Hecatseus,  a  Greek  histo- 
rian, who  flourished  at  Miletus  about 
550  B.  C,  describes  a  magnificent  cir- 


336 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIhW. 


cular  temple,  situated  in  what  he  calls 
"  The  island  of  the  Hyperboreans,  over 
against  Celtica,"  and  the  description  is 
of  a  kind  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that 
the  edifice  in  question  was  no  other  than 
Stonehenge. 

Clustered  around  this  great  ruin  of 
prehistoric  times  are  many  tumuli,  con- 
Extent  of  burial  taining  the  dead  and  the 
mounds  in  con-        jj       which   Were    buried 

nection  -with 

Stonehenge.  with  them.  No  fewer  than 
three  hundred  burial  mounds  are  foimd 
within  a  radius  of  three  miles  from  the 
stone  pillars  marking  the  site  of  what 
was  doubtless  a  primitive  temple.  From 
this  it  would  appear  that 
the  whole  area  round  about 


««*®o. 


o*" 

o 

9 

%K 

9 

e 

¥\ 

C 
0 

Q 

^^ 

«  0 

GROUND    PI-A^^   OF 

DANISH  CROMLECH. 

was  an  ancient  cemetery, 
with  some  sort  of  barbaric 
temple  in  the  center.  The 
tumuli  are  manifestly 
tombs.  In  every  case,  on 
opening  one  of  these 
mounds,  the  remains  of  the  dead  are 
found.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases 
the  interment  has  been  by  cremation, 
and  the  evidences  show  that  the  manner 
of  sepulture  was  identical  with  that  gen- 
erally employed  in  the  age  of  bronze. 

If  we  open  one  of  the  tumuli — and 

hundreds  of  them  have  been  explored — 

we    shall    find    invariablv 

Positions  of  the 

primeval  dead      the  remains  of  one  or  more 

in  sepulture.  ,  ,      .  tt 

human  beings.  Here  again 
we  discover  that  difference  of  instinct  in 
method  which  has  al- 
ways    characterized    the 

The  dead 

two  pos- 
tures, one  sitting  and  the 
other  prone,  after  the 
manner  employed  in 
modern  burial.  There  seem  to  have 
been  pains  taken  in  the  adjustment  of 
the  body  in  a  posture  befitting  repose ; 
and  in  determining  what  this  should  be, 


doings  of  men, 
are  placed   in 


GROUND  PLAN  OF 
DANISH  DOLMEN. 


some  of  the  prehistoric  tribes  chose  one 
position  and  some  another.  The  same 
variety  has  been  noticed  in  the  case  of 
our  Indian  aborigines  in  America,  many 
of  whom  arrange  the  bodies  of  the  dead 
in  a  sitting  posture.  In  the  prehistoric 
burial  mounds  which  we  are  now  con- 
sidering, utensils  and  food  were  placed 


SEl'L'LCHKAL    MUNE    CIRCLE. 


about  the  body  as  if  to  serve  the  dead 
in  the  land  of  the  hereafter.  It  is  here 
that  tire  best  revelation  of  the  manner 
of  life  peculiar  to  these  people  has  been 
made,  and  the  best  evidence  afforded  of 
the  epoch  to  which  they  belonged. 

As  already  said,  the  implements  ex- 
humed from  the  tumuli  are  almost  inva- 
riably    of     bronze.       In      a   The  mounds  be- 

few  instances  iron  weapons  '°^}:^:''^'^''^'' 
have  been  discovered,  but  bronze, 
it  has  been  invariably  found  on  closer 
scrutiny  that  the  same  have  resulted 
from  a  subsequent  burial  in  an  old  grave. 
Not  a  single  instance  is  known  of  the  re- 


POSITION    OF    SKELETONS  IN  A  TOMB  OF  THE  STONE  AGE. 

covery  from  a  tumulus,  either  in  Western 
France  or  Great  Britian,  of  implements 
or  other  relics  belonging  to  the  period 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— MEN  OF   THE    TUMULI.. 


337 


of  the  Roman  ascendency,  and  in  only 
a  few  cases  have  the  discoveries  carried 
the  antiquary  back  to  a  period  more  re- 
mote than  that  of  the  age  of  bronze. 

We  may  for  a  moment  consider  the 
facts  before  us  from  a  higher  point  of 
view.  The  tumuli  of  the 
British  Isles  are  only  one  of 
several  kinds  of  receptacle 
for  the  prehistoric  dead.  The  palseolithic 
and  neolithic  ages,  as  well  as  the  age  of 


Diverse  meth- 
ods of  races  re- 
specting death 
and  burial. 


life  the  fact  of  death  impressed  the  living 
more  seriously  than  any  other  phenome- 
non whatsoever.  This  led,  even  in  the 
lowest  stages  of  bai'barism,  to  the  insti- 
tution of  rites  and  ceremonies  connected 
with  the  final  putting  away  of  the  body. 
It  was  one  of  the  points  at  which  the 
primitive  tribes  easily  diverged  in  their 
customs  and  methods.  There  was  from 
the  first  a  contest  of  belief  as  to  the  best 
manner  of  disposing  of  the  dead.     One 


FUNERAL  IN  THE  PAL.t;0LITHIC  AGE.^Drawnby  Emile  Bayard. 


bronze,  had  their  burial  places,  funerals, 
and  rude  theories  of  death.  Barbarism 
developed  into  several  forms  of  burial 
method  according  to  the  locality  and  the 
situation.  The  manner  of  disposing  of 
the  dead  was,  indeed,  one  of  the  most 
striking  features  of  the  barbaric  life.  It 
would  appear  that  from  the  earliest 
emergence   of  man  into  the    conscious 


plan  was  to  reduce  the  body  to  ashes, 
and  another  was  to  preserve  it  in  some 
situation  where  it  might  be  protected 
from  disturbance  and,  we  might  say, 
sacrilege  ;  for  we  may  well  believe  that 
among  the  primal  instincts  of  .'ravages 
one  of  the  first  of  those  sentiments  which 
tend  to  the  elevation  of  mankind  was 
respect  for  the  body. 


338 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Throughout  primitive  Europe  the  evi- 
dences of  aboriginal  burial  are  discover- 
able in  hundreds  of  localities.  These 
have  been  studied  with  dil- 
igence by  antiquaries,  and 
the  results  of  the  inquiry 
We  are  able  to  distinguish 
the  older  places  of  sepulture  from  the 
newer — the  palaeolithic  cavern  from  the 


Burial  grounds 
of  different  ages 
may  be  distin- 
guished. 

ofeneralized. 


pare  for  the  funeral.  Generally,  after 
rude  pagan  ceremonies,  a  procession  was 
formed  and  the  body  was  borne  away  to 
be  either  burned  with  loud  lamentation 
or  deposited  in  some  tomb  which  nature 
had  prepared  in  the  rocks.  Could  the 
observer  from  a  distant  and  civilized  age 
have  been  lifted  up  over  Western  Eu- 
rope in  the  epochs  of  aboriginal  barba- 


KUNERAI.  IN  THE  NEOLITHIC  AGE. -Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 


more  recent  neolithic  burial  place,  and 
still  more  distinctly  from  the  burial 
places  of  the  age  of  bronze.  The  con- 
ditions of  savage  life  in  the  respective 
periods  are  sufficiently  well  known  to 
furnish  the  materials  for  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  that  primeval  half-savage  society 
which  prevailed  for  many  ages. 

It  was  the  custom  of  the  tribesmen 
when  one  of  their  number  died  to  as- 
semble  at  the  scene  of  death  and  pre- 


rism  he  might  have  seen,  winding  here 
and  there  in  solemn  manner,  the  funeral 
processions  on  their  way  to  the  burial 
places  of  the  tribe.  The  scene  was  as 
picturesque  as  instructive.  The  place 
chosen  for  burial  or  incineration  was 
generally  a  solitude  of  cliff  and  wild 
There,  about  the  entrance  of  the  cavern, 
might  be  seen  the  gathered  friends  of 
the  dead  lamentino-  with  wild  g-esticula- 
tions  that  eoinsr  forth  of  man-life  which 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.—JIEX  OF   THE    TUMULI. 


339 


they — though   barbarians — had   already 
discovered  to  be  without  return. 

The  next  point  of  interest  to  be  noted 
in  our  examination  of  the 

Funeral  proces-  . 

sions  and  rites      prehistoric  burial  places  is 

of  sepulture.  .  i         i_  ^  /•  ii_ 

the  character  oi  the  remains 
in  such  situations.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
cave  dwellers,  we  may  here  learn  much 
about  the  stature,  form,  and  general 
character  of  the  aborigines  of  Europe. 


type  between  the  two  extremes,  called 
orthocephalic,  or  medium-headed.  The 
orthocephalic  skull  is  most  nearly  like 
the  skull  of  civilized  peoples,  whereas 
the  other  two  types  depart  very  much 
from  the  common  standard.  As  far  as 
we  are  able  to  discover,  the  two  extreme 
varieties  of  crania  belonged  to  very- 
primitive  peoples,  while  the  interme- 
diate form  is  of  more  recent  develop- 


KL'NERAL  I  EAST  IX  THK  AGE  OF  RRONZE.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 


of  skulls  discoV' 
ered  in  the 
tombs. 


The  most  striking  fact  in  connection 
with  the  skeletons  of  the  people  buried 
The  three  types  in  the  tumuH  of  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  is  the  variation  pre- 
sented in  the  skulls.  There 
seem  to  be  three  distinct  types  of  skull 
revealed  by  an  examination  of  the  tombs. 
These  are  what  are  called  long  skulls,  or 
dolichocephalic  crania;  short  skulls,  or 
those  defined  as  brachycephalic ;   and  a 


ment  as  well  as  more  symmetrical  char- 
acter. 

The   long   skull,    such   as    has    been 
found  in  many  of  the  tumuli  of  Great 
Britain,  has  almost  as  great  character  of 
a    measurement     as     that  ^db'rrchy^e-" 
of   the    Neanderthal    head  phaiic  crania, 
described  in   a  previous  chapter.     Xot 
that  the  long  and  narrow  skulls  of  the 
tumuli  are  so  distinctly  animal  as  the 


340 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


shape  of  skulls 
and  burial 
mounds. 


one  to  -svliich  reference  has  just  been 
made,  but  their  striking  feature  is  the 
long  suture  and  great  measurement 
from  front  to  rear.  The  brachycephalic 
crania  discovered  in  the  mounds  are  ex- 
actly the  opposite  of  this.  They  are 
peculiarly  short  from  front  to  back,  and 
in  many  cases  suggest  to  the  antiquar}' 
that  they  have  been  squeezed  up  into  un- 
natural dimensions.  It  seems,  however, 
that  no  marks  of  artificial  pressure  have 
been  di.scovered,  and  doubtless  the  short 
skulls  are  just  as  nature  produced  them. 
Another  circumstance  well  calculated 
to  excite  the  keenest  interest  is  now  to 
Coincidence  in  be  noted.  There  IS  a  constant 
and  ciiriojts  relation  between 
t/ic  shape  of  the  skulls  and 
the  shape  of  the  tumuli  in  wliieh  they  are 
buried.  There  are  two  kinds  of  mounds : 
a  circular  tumulus  and  an  elongated 
barrow ;  and  it  is  found  on  examina- 
tion that  the  dolichocephalic  heads  are 
invariably  in  the  long  barrows,  while  the 
short  heads  are  in  the  circular  mounds ! 
The  evidence  is  conclusive  that  this  ar- 
rangement could  not  have  been  acciden- 
tal, and  it  is  almost  equally  clear  that 
two  races,  belonging  perhaps  to  dif- 
ferent prehistoric  epochs,  are  repre- 
sented in  these  tombs.  Very  careful 
explorations  have  been  made  by  skillful 
antiquaries.  Dr.  Thurnam,  of  England, 
has  made  accurate  measurements  of  a 
hundred  and  thirty-seven  skulls  just  as 
they  were  taken  from  the  British 
mounds.  Of  these,  sixty-seven  were 
exhumed  from  long  barrows  and  sev- 
enty from  circular  tumuli.  Not  a  single 
long  skull  was  found  in  a  round  tumi:- 
lus,  or  a  single  short  .skull  in  an  elon- 
gated barrow ;  from  which  it  appears 
conclusive  that  the  long-headed  tribes 
buried  their  dead  in  the  elongated  tu- 
niuli,  while  the  circular  mounds  were 
used  for  the  burial  of  the  short-headed 


people.  It  would  be  pressing  the  argu- 
ment too  far  to  say  that  these  prehistoric 
inhabitants  of  Great  Britian  made  the 
long  barrows  which  they  raised  over 
their  dead  in  imitation  of  the  shape  of 
their  heads,  but  the  fact  remains  that 
such  queer  analogy  does  exist  and  re- 
mains to  be  .accounted  for. 

The  tumuli  contain  almost  invariably 
a  sort  of  stone  sarcophagus  in  which  the 
human  remains  are  depos-  sarcophagi  and 
ited.      In   the   cases  Avhere  """^^^fJ^r; 

visions  tor  the 

cremation  has  been  em-  dead, 
ployed,  the  ashes  of  the  dead  are  put 
into  a  rude  urn  and  the  latter  buried  in 
the  place  of  the  body.  In  the  stone 
box  are  found  the  implements  and 
utensils  which  were  left  with  the  dead, 
and  this  fact,  as  already  indicated, 
points  to  a  belief  in  a  hereafter.  It  is 
perceived  that  these  rude  people  had 
hopes  of  a  continuous  existence  or  a  re- 
vival of  existence  beyond  the  event  of 
death.  This  does  not,  however,  imply 
any  belief  in  what  is  called  the  doctrine 
of  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  The 
evidences  about  the  dead  in  these 
mounds  all  point  to  the  confidence 
which  the  living  then  had  of  the  con- 
tinued material  existence  of  the  person 
buried.  Ever}'  article  found  in  connec- 
tion with  the  body  is  clearly  related  to 
the  ordinary  daily  wants  and  con- 
veniences of  the  deceased,  and  the 
significance  of  such  association  of  his 
implements,  and  even  of  food,  with  the 
person  deceased,  points  only  to  the  be- 
lief that  the  dead  would  continue  as  he 
had  been,  or  at  least  revive  at  some 
time,  in  his  former  state  of  being. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  all  of  the 
facts  here   referred  to  are  General  distri- 
deduced  from  the  mounds  rrdst'wil 
locally  associated  with  the  em  Europe. 
old   ruin  of   Stonehenge.       They   have 
been  gathered  rather  from  many  sources. 


342 


GREAT  RACES   OE  JEiXAVXE. 


and  are  typical  of  all.  This  species  of 
burial  under  mounds  was  practiced  in  all 
parts  of  Great  Britain  and  nearly  every- 
where on  the  Continent.  The  peninsula 
of  Denmark  is  almost  picturesque  with 
tumuli,  and  under  them  all  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  prehistoric  people.  Perhaps 
not  a  single  county  in  England  is  with- 
out its  monuments  of  this  kind.  Not 
only  in  Wiltshire,  but  in  Gloucestershire 
and  Berkshire,  and,  indeed,  everywhere 
on  the  island  such  evidences  of  a  prim- 
itive people  are  discovered.  In  Ireland, 
also,  and  in  Scotland,  the  tumuli  are 
plentifully  scattered  over  the  country, 
and  are  indeed  in  some  places  so  abun- 


TUMULUS  WITH  STONE  ENTRAN'CE,  NEAR  UBI,  DENMARK. 

dant  as  to  suggest  the  frequent  burial 
grounds  of  modern  nations. 

The  suggestion  has  been  made  above 
that  two  or  three  races  contributed  to 
Evidence  that  people  thcsc  aucieut  scpul- 
chers.   This  belief  has  well- 


several  races 
were  concerned 

in  the  tumuli.  nigh  passed  from  theory 
into  fact.  It  has  been  noticed  that  all 
the  stone  implements  discoverable  in  the 
burial  mounds  have  been  as.sociated  with 
the  long  heads,  whereas  no  weapon  or 
utensil  of  stone  has  been  found  in  any 
.sarcophagus  where  the  short-headed 
tribes  put  away  their  dead.  In  the  vaults 
of  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  the  imple- 
ments are  all  of  bronze,  and  the  work- 
manship indicates  a  very  great  advance 
toward  civilization  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  utensils  found   in   the  long- 


head tombs.  It  should  be  said,  more- 
over,  that  the  stone  tools  and  weapons 
in  connection  with  dolichocephalic  skel- 
etons are  not  by  any  means  of  so  prim- 
itive a  pattern  as  those  found  in  the  shell 
mounds  or  the  cave  dwellings  of  the  Con- 
tinent. They  are,  on  the  contrary, 
neolithic,  or  new  stone,  implem^ents, 
which  shows  that  the  long-headed  tribes 
flourished  in  the  epoch  before,  but  ap- 
proximate to,  the  age  of  bronze.  It 
might  not  be  hazardous  to  infer  that  the 
round  heads  came  into  the  island  as  a 
bronze-bearing  soldiery,  overcame  the 
long  heads,  or  amalgamated  with  them, 
and  then  adopted  like  methods  of  bur- 
ial. It  has  been  re- 
marked  that  the 
Lapps  and  Finns 
and  several  other 
existing  races  in 
the  north  of  Europe 
are  brachycephalic, 
and  the  hypothesis 
of  an  invasion  from 
this  region  and  a 
conquest  of  the  pre- 
historic Britons  is  b)-  no  means  beyond 
the  limits  of  right  reason. 

After  Stonehenge,  perhaps  one  of  the 
most  interesting  monuments  in  the  west 
of  Europe  is  that  of  Carnac, 


Megalithic  ruin 
It  consists  of    of  Carnac  in  Bre- 
tagne. 


in  Bretagne. 

eleven  rows  of  unhewn 
stones,  set  up  after  the  manner  already 
described,  but  not  in  circles.  Some  of 
the  pillars  ai'e  as  much  as  twenty-two 
feet  in  height.  But  in  their  present 
state  they  differ  greatly  in  dimensions, 
some  being  scarcely  discoverable  above 
the  level  of  the  plain.  As  far  as  the  an- 
tiquary has  been  able  to  trace  a  design 
for  the  ruin,  it  appears  to  have  been  a 
series  of  avenues  several  miles  in  length. 
At  the  present  time,  however,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  make  out  the  entire  area  or  the 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— MEN  OF   THE    TUMILI. 


343 


complete  idea  of  the  builders.  The  ad- 
jacent farms  have  encroached  upon  what 
was  doubtless  sacred  ground,  and  many 
of  the  stones,  even  whole  sections  of  the 
avenues,  have  been  cleared  away.  In 
other  parts  it  is  still  easy  to  note  the 
direction  and  course  of  the  roAvs  of  col- 
umns, the  width  and  character  of  the  in- 
ten-ening  spaces,  and  something  of  the 
general  design. 

It  is  believed  by  scholars  best  informed 
on  the  subject  that  this  ruin  of  Carnac 
has  an  origin  somewhat  more  remote 
than  that  of  Stonehenge.  Around  the 
latter  the  tumuli  belong,  for  the  most 
part,  to  the  age  of  bronze.  But  the 
mounds  of  Bretagne,  and  it  is 
thought  Carnac  itself,  are  rel- 
ics and  monuments  of  the  neo-  ,.= 
lithic  age  of  an  earlier  date. 

The  fact  has  been  men- 
tioned that  in  many  of  the  tu- 
muli more  bodies  than  one 
have  been  de- 
posited. It  ap- 
pears, however, 
that  in  most  cases  these  multi- 
ple bur\'ings  in  the  same  vault 
took  place  at  different  times.  The  pri- 
mary burial,  perhaps,  included  but  a  sin- 
gle person,  but  at  a  subsequent  time 
another  body  would  be  deposited  in  the 
same  rude  sarcophagus  which  held  the 
first.  This  would  involve  the  opening  of 
the  mound.  The  stone  box  in  the  bottom 
was  generally  large  enough  to  contain 
the  remains  of  several  persons,  especial- 
ly when  the  sitting  posture  had  been 
adopted  in  sepulture.  The  prehistoric 
people  had  the  same  respect  for  the 
bodies  of  the  dead  that  modern  races 
have  cherished.  It  appears  that  only  in 
rare  instances  were  the  original  remains 
displaced  from  the  sarcophagus  to  make 
room  for  a  new  occupant.  In  case  of 
second  burial,   there  was  merely  a  re- 


arrangement of  the  old  skeleton  to  make 
room  for  the  new. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that 
cremation  was  practiced  at  the  same 
time  with  the  common  mode  of  burial. 
The  coexistence  of  these  two  methods  of 
disposing  of  the  bodies  of  coincident 
the  dead  has  been  noted  in  T^Z^Ltl"^ 

Dunal  and  cre- 

the  case  of  manj-  peoples,  mation. 
ancient  and  modern.  The  Eastern  na- 
tions employed  both.  The  Greeks  some- 
times buried  their  dead  and  sometimes 
burned  them  to  ashes.  So  also  the 
Romans,  and  even  at  the  present  time 
we  note  the  reappearance  of  cremation 
and  its   contest    for   the    masterv    as   a 


Practice  of  suc- 
cessive buryings 
iu  the  same 
mound. 


RUINS   OF  CARNAC,    BRETAGNE. 

scientific  method  opposed  to  the  un- 
scientific, and  even  superstitious,  dis- 
position of  dead  bodies  in  the  earth. 

In  the  case  of  the  tumuli  we  know, 
from  the  examination  of  the  other  relics 
left  in  connection  with  the  ,        ,     .    . 

Imperfect  incin- 

burial  urns,  that  the  latter  eration  of  pre- 

,     ,  -I   .      ,1  1     historic  remains. 

belonged  to  the  .same  epoch 
as  the  commoner  method  of  sepulture.  It 
mu.st  be  noted  in  this  connection  that 
incineration  of  the  dead  was  by  no 
means  so  complete  in  the  times  of 
which  we  speak  as  by  the  superior  proc- 
esses of  modern  times.  The  ancients, 
especially  the  barbarian  ancients,  were 
unable  to  produce  a  high  degree  of  arti- 
ficial heat.  The  bodies  of  the  dead  were 
simply  exposed  to  the  action  of  an  open 


344 


GREAT  K  AC  lis   OF  MAXKIXD. 


fire,  and  there  was  a  larger  residuum  to 
be  put  into  the  urn  than  the  mere  hand- 
ful of  ashes  left  from  the  cremation 
furnace  of  the  present  time.  In  general, 
the  larofer  and  heavier  bones  were  inere- 
ly  charred,  and  these,  together  with  the 
ashes,  were  put  into  the  rude  urn  and 
set  in  the  stone  box  in  the  bottom  of  the 
tumulus. 

Another  fact  of  much  interest  is  that 
the  relics  of  human  life  and  human 
Deposition  of  need,  so  many  times  re- 
giftsandproji-     furred  to  in  the  preceding 

sions  for  deaa  -t  fc» 

not  universal.  pages  as  accompanying  the 
remains  of  the  dead,  are  bv  no  means 


buried  them.  Doubtless  it  is  improper 
to  use  the  words  rich  and  poor  in  this 
connection ;  but  even  in  the  reduced 
stages  of  human  evolution  distinctions 
in  property  and  respect  begin  to  ap- 
pear, and  it  was  no  doubt  on  this  basis 
that  the  distribution  of  relics  in  pre- 
historic graves  was  made.  The  wealthy, 
if  we  may  use  the  term,  had  more  re- 
spect and  more  emblems  of  that  respect 
in  the  day  of  burial.  The  poor,  as  in 
all  ages,  went  down  to  the  potter's  field 
without  such  tokens  of  esteem.  It  is  to 
be  presumed  that  the  articles  deposited 
generally  belonged  aforetime  to  the  per- 


BROKEN  SEPl'l  (UK  M    URN,  bllnWING  INCI^iERATED  REMAINS. 


always  found  in  the  tumuli.  In  very 
many,  even  a  majority  of  cases,  nothing 
at  all  is  found  except  the  skeleton  or 
skeletons  of  them  that  were  buried.  A 
gradation  is  noticed  in  the  number  and 
character  of  the  weapons,  utensils,  and 
articles  of  food  deposited  with  the  body. 
Sometimes  they  are  plentiful  and  some- 
times scarce.  This  indicates  a  differ- 
ence in  rank  and  station  among  those 
deceased  and  among  their  friends  who 


son  buried,  and  inasmuch  as  one  would 
have  many  things  and  his  less  enter- 
prising fellow  have  nothing  but  a  spear  or 
an  ax,  the  first  would  be  buried  with  many 
relics  and  the  other  with  few  or  none. 

The  two  English  naturalists,  Bateman 
and  Green  well,  have  given  classification  of 
us  the  results  of  their  obser-  ,^^tw^^f"f„ 

implements  in 

vations  in  about  four  hun-  the  mounds. 
dred  tombs  belonging  to  the  prehistoric 
age.     Of  the  two  hundred  and   ninety- 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— MEN  OF   THE    TUMI  LI. 


345 


seven  examined  by  Mr.  Bateman  fully 
one  hundred  had  no  relics  of  any  sort 
other  than  the  bare  skeletons  of  the  per- 
sons buried.  In  forty  of  the  tumuli  he 
found  drinking  vessels  and  food  vases. 
A  hundred  and 
five  had  imple- 
ments and  weap- 
ons in  connec- 
tion with  the 
skeletons,  and  in 
thirty-five  i  n  - 
stances  articles 
of  pottery  were 
found.  Of  the 
one  htindred  and 
two  mounds 
opened  by  Mr. 
Greenwell  only 
thirty  contained 
implements  or 
weapons, and  the 
other  seventy- 
two  were  devoid 
of  relics.  In  all 
the  tombs  which 
this  naturalist 
examined  the 
skeletons  were 
found  in  a  sit- 
ting posture; 
never  recum- 
bent. 

In  some  of  the 
mounds  there 
are  evidences  of 
what  may  be 
called  the  begin- 
nings of  ideal- 
ity. Instead  of  actual  weapons  and  im- 
Deposition  of  plements,  models  of  the 
same  are  sometimes  bur- 
ied with  the  dead.  It 
has  been  noticed  in  modern  times, 
particularly     among     the      Esquimaux, 

that    this     usage     prevails.       A     mock 
M.— Vol.  1—23 


weapon  is  put  in  the  place  of  the  real  one 
in  the  tomb.  Another  fact  must  be 
borne  in  mind  in  this  connection,  and 
that  is  that  the  presence  of  implements 
and  weapons  in  the  graves  of  these  an- 


models;  ■what 
the  findings  sig' 
nify. 


INCINERATION   OF  THE   DEAD,    IN   THE   ACE  OF   THE   TL.Ml'LI. 
Drawn  by  Ernile  Bayard. 


cient  peoples  does  not  indicate  positively 
their  belief  that  the  dead  would  revive 
to  need  and  use  their  weapons  again. 
The  symbolical  idea,  the  idea  of  com- 
memoration, and  the  influence  of  tradi- 
tion may  all  combine  to  give  another 
significance    to    the    presence    of    these 


346 


GREAT  RACES    OE  MAX/kIXD. 


relics  in  the  grave.  Doubtless  at  the 
first  they  must  have  been  buried  with 
the  dead  in  the  belief  that  they  would 
be  useful  to  iheni  in  another  life  analo- 
gous to  the  present.  Custom  in  this  re- 
spect would  soon  grow  into  habit,  and 
habit  would  presently  have  the  force  of 
law.  The  usage  would  perpetuate  itself 
after  the  belief  had  perished.  To  the 
present  day,  and  even  among  the  most 
civilized  peoples  of  the  world,  many 
usages  obtain  with  respect  to  the  dead, 
the  significance  of  which  could  not  be 
deduced  from  the  literal  facts  present 
in  the  inquiry.  Nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  to  deposit  with  the  dead  va- 
rious articles  which  have  simply  an 
affectional  and  commemorative  signifi- 
cation. The  marriage  ring  remains  upon 
the  finger.  Favorite  ornaments  are  care- 
fully adjusted  as  the  owner  was  wont  to 
wear  them.  Particularly  are  the  regalia 
and  insignia  of  rank  put  into  the  tomb 
with  the  departed.  The  priest  is  buried 
with  his  cross,  the  sailor  with  his  com- 
pass, and  the  warrior  with  his  sword. 
None  of  these  things  signify  an  existing 


belief  in  the  further  usefulness  of  these 
articles  to  the  dead.  They  are  com- 
memorative merely,  conventional  marks 
of  rank,  of  association,  and  affection  on 
the  part  of  the  living. 

To  a  certain  extent  these  principles 
no  doubt  operated  with  the  prehistoric 
peoples;  and  all  inferences  Meaning  of  ar- 
relative    to    the    meaning  ^^.^/.f/-^^ 

of  the  articles  found  in  the    human  nature. 

barbaric  tombs  of  extinct  races  must  be 
checked  and  corrected  by  what  we  know 
to  be  the  general  laws  and  tendencies  of 
human  nature.  Opinions  and  beliefs 
pass  through  many  mutations,  and  cus- 
tom is  known  to  be  more  persistent  than 
either.  Long  after  the  fervid  convic- 
tion of  the  truth  of  a  certain  doctrine 
and  theory  of  human  life  and  death  has 
passed  away  or  given  place  to  a  mild 
and  inoperative  assent  of  the  mind,  the 
ancient  usages  which  were  based  on  that 
belief  in  the  epoch  of  its  pristine  vigor 
continue  to  be  observed,  and  these  might 
well  convey  to  distant  ages  an  erroneous 
impression  of  the  current  opinions  of 
the  people. 


Chapter  XX.— Prehistoric  Kaces  ok  Aivierica. 


^^ 


ESTIGES  of  prehistoric 
races  of  men  are  by  no 
means  limited  to  Eu- 
rope and  the  countries 
of  the  East.  In  the 
three  Americas  akso 
such  traces  of  peoples 
unknown  to  history  are  abundantly  dis- 
tributed. It  remains  to  note  in  the 
present  chapter  at  least  the  prominent 
features  of  the  ancient  monuments  of 
our  own  country  and  of  the  continent 
south  of  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  It  is 
the  intention  merely  to  sketch  the  out- 


line of  our  primitive  monuments,  and  to 
deduce  therefrom  a  few  general  conclu- 
sions relative  to  the  peoples  by  whom 
they  were  built  and  the  ages  in  which 
they  flourished. 

In  all  parts  of  North  America,  from 
the  Alleghanies  to  the  far  West,  and 
from    the    great    lakes    to 

the  gulf  of    Mexico,   a  class    mounds  in  the 
f      „  ,1  .         three  Americas. 

ot     monumental     remains 
may  be  observed  by  the   traveler    and 
antiquary     sufficiently     impressive      in 
their  extent  and  variety,  and  strikingly 
sug^gestive  of  a  remote  antiquity.     Even 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— PREHISTORIC  AMERICANS. 


347 


in  the  countries  east  of  the  Appala- 
chians many  such  monuments  are  found. 
They  were  noted  on  the  first  arrival  of 
the  civilized  races  on  this  continent,  but 
their  significance  was  long  ignored.  It 
was  supposed  at  the  first  that  they  were 
the  works  of  the  then  existing  tribes 
inhabiting  the  New  World.  In  fact, 
many  of  the  remains  which  are  now  the 
subjects  of  antiquarian  research  were 
the  products  of  the  barbarous  peoples  of 
North  America  and  the  semicivilized 
races  of  Mexico,  the  Central  Isthmus, 
and  Peru.  It  re- 
quires some  de-  ^^  ^* 
gree  of  acumen  ^^r^ 
at  the  present 
day  to  distin- 
guish, between 
those  monu- 
mental remains 
which  are  refer- 
able to  the  peo- 
p  1  e  s  possessing 
this  continent  in 
the  times  of  the 
discovery  of 
America  and  sub- 
sequent,  and 
those  other  more 
monumental  tro- 
phies of  the  ages  long  before.  Modern 
inquiry,  however,  has  easily  sifted  this 
question  to  the  bottom,  and  the  scholar 
of  to-day  is  no  longer  perplexed  by  the 
confusion  of  the  later  with  the  earlier 
monuments. 

Perhaps  at  the  beginning  of  the  in- 
quiry it  may  be  well  to  note  the  extreme 
Antiquity  of  the  antiquity  of  the  tumuli  and 
earthworks  of  America  as 
indicated  by  their  geo- 
logical relations.  On  this  continent,  as 
well  as  in  Europe,  the  great  rivers  were 
aforetime  much  vaster  in  breadth  and 
volume  than  at   the  present  day.     They 


filled  the  valleys  from  hill  to  hill  with 
great  floods,  sweeping  on  to  the  sea.  In 
the  long  course  of  ages  the  rivers  shrank 
to  comparatively  their  present  dimen- 
sions, and  in  doing  so  withdrew  their 
waters  from  the  hills  which  constituted 
their  barrier  on  either  side,  and  sought  a 
narrower  valley  and  a  lower  level.  There 
have  thus  been  formed  what  may  be 
called  the  first  or  lower  river  bottom 
and  the  second  plateau  above. 

It  is,  perhaps,  impossible  to  determine 
at  what  remote  period  this  retreat  from 


mounds  indica- 
ted by  their  sit- 
uation. 


GREAT   MdUND    NEAK    MiAMISBLKG,    OHId. 


the  higher  to  the  lower  level  and  from  the 
broad  floods  of  the  earlier  prehistoric 
geologic  epoch  to  the  mod-  ^^^^^^rwr* 
ern    streams    which    trav-  "ver  levels, 
erse  the  continent  at  the  present  time 
occurred ;  but  such  is  the  history  of  the 
change  which  has  taken  place.     In  no 
single  instance  has  one  of  the  prehistoric 
mounds  of  our  country  been  discovered 
on  the  lower  terraces  formed  by  the  river. 
The}^  are   found  in  many  places  on  the 
higher  plateaus  and  on  uplands  round 
about,  but  never  on  the  present  or  recent 
levels  of  an  existing  stream.     From  this 
it  has  been  clearlv  inferred  that  the  men- 


348 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JfAXA'/Xn. 


uments  in  question  were  built  before  the 
recession  of  the  rivers  into  their  present 
channels;  and  it  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  the  races  who  flourished  in  that 
primeval  age  looked  down  from  a  hu- 
mid atmosphere  on  a  world  abounding 
in  turbid  waters. 

The   frequency  of  the   American   tu- 
muli has  already  been  remarked.     They 

General  mystery   abound.         In    all     partS     of 

ciit<i"bTthe^'"    the   ilississippi  valley  the 

mounds. 


burial 


outlines  of  earthworks  and 
mounds     mav     be     discovered. 


m 


EARTHWORKS   AT   CEDAR   BANK,    OHIO. 

Their  numbers  reach  easih-  into  thou- 
sands, and  their  importance  was  such  long 
ago  as  to  constitute  the  subject-mattet 
of  the  first  volume  of  the  .Smithsonian 
Contribjitions  to  Knowledge.  They  have 
demanded  the  attention  of  scholars  and 
intiquaries  during  a  great  part  of  the 
present  century.  Though  vast  stores  of 
information  have  been  gathered  from 
their  exploration,  the  mystery  of  their 
ultimate  origin  and  design  remains  as 
impenetrable  as  when  they  lirst  drew 
the  attention  of  the  pioneers. 

In  some  localities  the  mounds  and  tu- 


muli arc  much  more  frequent  and  im- 
portant than  in  others.  In  general,  the 
upper  terraces  along  the  great  streams 
which  contribute  to  the  Father  of 
Waters  are  the  sites  of  the  most  striking 
and  instructive  of  these  monuments. 
But  beyond  the  limits  of  our  own  coun- 
try, in  Central  America,  in  ^Mexico,  and 
in  Peru,  and  other  parts  of  the  southern 
continent,  these  evidences  of  extinct 
civilizations  are  plentiful. 

The  valley  of  the  Ohio  seems  to  have 
been  a  favorite  seat  and  stronghold  of 
the  prehistoric  peo-  ohio  valley  a 
pies  by  whom  these  '^:^^°' 
monuments  were  works, 
reared.  One  of  the  most  famous 
of  them  all  is  on  the  banks  of  the 
Little  Miami  river,  and  from  its 
evident  character  is  called  Fort 
Hill.  Another  work  of  great  im- 
portance is  at  Newark,  Ohio.  One 
of  the  greatest  of  the  mounds  is 
situated  on  the  plain  of  Cahokia, 
Illinois,  opposite  the  cit}'  of  St. 
Louis.  Another  of  striking  char- 
acter is  found  on  Grave  Creek, 
near  Wheeling,  in  West  Virginia, 
and  still  another  at  ]\Iiamisburg, 
in  Ohio.  One  of  the  most  strik- 
ing of  all  is  in  the  same  State,  at 
Cedar  Bank,  on  the  Scioto,  and 
in  various  parts  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois  such  remains  are  found,  even  at 
random.  Far  to  the  northwest,  in 
Wisconsin  and  Iowa,  the  primeval  race 
left  its  imperishable  vestiges ;  and  some 
of  the  most  interesting  mounds  of  the 
kind  are  discovered  in  those  States. 
South  of  the  river  Ohio,  also,  such  re- 
mains of  primeval  man  are  plentiful. 
Tennessee  abounds  in  mounds,  and  Ala- 
bama and  Mississippi  have  many  such 
remarkable  monuments.  Indeed,  it 
would  be  easier  to  specify  in  what  parts 
of  the  great    valley   of  the    Mississippi 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— PREHISTORIC  AMERICANS. 


349 


such  remains  of  an  extinct  race  are  )!ot 
to  be  found,  than  to  note  all  the  locali- 
ties where  they  exist. 

The  American  monuments,  like  those 


of  the  principal 
circles  and 
mounds. 


PLAN   OF   SQUARE   MOUNU,    .NEAR   MARIETTA. 

of  Europe,  dififer  greatly  in  dimensions, 
Military  design  importance,  and  general 
character.  The  most  strik- 
ing of  them  all  were  man- 
ifestly military  fortifications.  These 
are  laid  off  and  executed  as  if  by  an  en- 
gineer of  modern  times,  though  the  de- 
sign is  greatly  different  from  any  that 
would  now  be  used  in  military  opera- 
tions. Great  is 
the  extent  and 
area  covered  by 
some  of  these 
works.  The  re- 
markable mon- 
ument at  Fort 
Hill,  Ohio,  has 
a  circumvalla- 
tion  of  nearly 
four  miles,  and 
the  height  of 
the  mole,  or  ag- 
ger, is  from  ten 
to  twenty  feet. 
Outside  of  this 
is   a  ditch,   and 

the  whole  arrangement  was  manifestly 
one  of  defense  against  a  powerful  enemy. 
In  the  first  place,  an  exact  circle  of  great 


extent  is  drawn  upon  the  hill ;  and  around 
the  circumference  the  earthworks  are 
constructed.  The  circle  is  not  quite 
closed  on  one  side,  but  has  a  protected 
entrance,  flanked  Avith  long  lines  of 
earthworks  branching  to  the  right  and 
left.  These,  in  their  turn,  are  defended 
by  other  lines  running  out  nearly  in 
the  form  of  a  great  rectangle  in  front 
of  the  entrance  to  the  circle.  Even  be- 
yond this  rectangle,  at  two  of  the  cor- 
ners and  in  other  positions,  are  .smaller 
circles  and  long  mounds  of  earth  of  pe- 
culiar form.  No  one  can  view  the  situ- 
ation and  consider  its  extent,  and  even 
the  skill  with  which  the  fortifications 
were  planned,  without  being  amazed  at 
the  strength,  capacity,  and  even  genius 
of  the  people  by  whom  they  were  con- 
structed. 

The    great    fortifications   at    Newark, 
Ohio,  are  fully  two  miles  square.     More 
than  twelve  miles  of   em-  ohio  fortifica- 
bankment,    ranging    from  ^o°'„d'of  ca. 
two  to  twenty  feet  in  height,  iioWa. 
mark  the  outline  and  nature  of  the  de- 


EARTHWORKS   AT   HOPETON,    OHIO. 


fenses.  The  mound  on  the  plain  of  Ca- 
hokia  is  seven  hundred  feet  long  and  five 
hundred  feet  in  breadth.     Its  height  is 


350 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


ninety  feet,  the  superficial  area  about 
eight  acres,  and  the  contents  nearly 
twenty  millions  of  cubic  feet.  The 
mound  on  Grave  creek,  in  "West  Virginia, 
has  an  elevation  of  seventy  feet,  and  the 
one  at  Miamisburg,  Ohio,  is  nearly  as 
great  in  elevation  and  extent. 

We  come  now  to  consider  some  of  the 
strangest  monuments  which  the  human 
Earthworks  in  race  has  left  in  its  track. 
^eLt  and  ser-  It  "^^^  l^^en  discovered  that 
pents.  many     of     the      embank- 

ments and  outer  works  under  considera- 
tion have  the  form  of  men  or  animals. 


-€:y^% 


GREAT   SERPENT   MOUNP,   IN   ADAMS   COUNTY,    OHIO. 

It  is  not  uncommon  in  the  States  of  Wis- 
consin and  Iowa  to  come  upon  one  of 
these  ancient  works  which,  considered 
in  its  entirety,  presents  a  huge  effigy  of 
man  or  beast.  There  is  no  mistaking 
the  design.  It  was  manifestly  intended 
to  represent  a  living  creature,  laid  prone 
or  in  profile  on  the  earth.  The  effect  is 
that  of  a  huge  bas-relief,  developed  from 


the  ground.  Still  more  astonishing  is 
the  great  serpentine  mound  on  the  banks 
of   Brush   creek,   in   Ohio. 

The  serpentine 

The  mole  of  earth  repre-  mound  of  Brush 

..  .1  i  •       r  creek,  Ohio. 

sentmg  the  serpent  is,  from 
head  to  tail,  over  a  thousand  feet  in 
length.  The  figure  is  five  or  six  feet  in 
height  and  nearly  thirty  feet  in  width 
at  the  base,  diminishing  gradually  to- 
ward the  tail.  At  the  sides  of  the  neck 
are  two  flat,  or  ear-like,  projections, 
and  the  mouth  stands  wide  open.  Right 
in  front  of  the  mouth,  and  placed  as  if 
issuing  therefrom,  is  a  large  circular  ele- 
vation four  feet  in  height,  in  the  shape 
of  an  <i'g%.  It  is  as  though  the  serpent 
had  either  ejected  or  was  about  to  swal- 
low the  great  bod}-  partly  inserted  in  its 
jaws !  The  long  line  of  the  work  repre- 
senting the  serpent's  body  is  arranged 
on  the  curvilinear  crest  of  a  natural  ele- 
vation, parallel  with  the  stream,  and  the 
whole  may  well  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  astonishing  relics  of  human 
caprice. 

In  connection  with  these  mounds  and 
earthworks  are  the  remains  of  the  dead. 
The  circular  mounds  when  Religious  pur- 
opened  generally  reveal  P°--r;f-«<^ 
skeletons  of  a  prehistoric  military. 
race,  and  in  connection  with  these  are 
found  the  implements  and  utensils  pe- 
culiar to  the  epoch  in  which  the  mounds 
were  erected.  Another  fact  of  interest 
in  connection  with  the  greater  works 
which  we  are  considering  is  the  asso- 
ciation of  what  appear  to  be  religious 
structures  and  designs.  Within  the  cir- 
cumvallation  of  what  was  manifestly  a 
military  defense,  will  generally  be  found 
what  has  been  thought  by  antiquarians 
to  be  the  outlines  of  a  sacred  edifice  or, 
at  any  rate,  a  sacred  site  where  the  re- 
ligious ceremonial  of  the  people  was 
doubtlessly  celebrated.  Many  marks  of 
the    significance    and    purpose   of    this 


PRIMEVAL  MAN.—PREHISTORIC  AMERICANS. 


351 


part  of  the  works  have  been  discovered 
and  explained,  from  which  it  is  inferred 
that  there  was  something  more  perma- 
nent about  the  fortifications  than  would 
be  expected  in  the  case  of  transient  de- 
fenses thrown  up  against  an  enemy. 
These  earthworks  appear  to  mark  the 
sites  and  strongholds  of  the  people, 
to  which  they  rallied  in  the  times  of 
national  tumult,  and  which  consti- 
tuted a  sort  of  military  capital  for  the 
country. 

The  American  antiquities  under 
consideration  have  given  rise  to 
many  theories  and  speculations. 
Ever  and  anon  some  new  and  em- 
Forgery  substi-  pirical  view  has  been 
tmo  fnvjsugr  put  forth  as  to  the  origin 
tioii-  of  the  mounds  and  for- 

tifications and  the  people  by  whom 
they  Avere  reared.  It  is  surprising 
to  what  extent  these  speculations 
have  been  carried.  Those  who 
have  theorized  on  the  subject  have 
in  many  instances  been  entirely  un- 
scrupulous in  regard  to  the  means 
by  which  their  theory  was  to  be  sub- 
stantiated. Forgeries  innumerable 
have  been  perpetrated  with  a  view 
to  bolstering  up  some  preposterous 
theory  about  the  mound  builders. 
Inscriptions  have  been  made  to 
order,  in  Greek  and  Hebrew  and 
Celtic,  and  even  in  the  Runic  char- 
acters of  the  Northmen,  to  sub- 
stantiate what  the  forgers  had  given  out 
as  an  explanation  of  the  mounds.  But 
meanwhile  a  truer  interpretation  has 
been  going  forward  under  the  care  of 
scientific  antiquaries,  and  the  foolish 
stories  which  have  been  invented  rela- 
tive to  the  prehistoric  earthworks  of 
America  will  find  no  further  credence 
among  intelligent  people. 

Many   are   the   legitimate   inferences 
which  may  be  drawn  relative  to  the  life 


and  manners  of  the  people  by  whom  the 
American  prehistoric  monuments  were 
built.  In  the  first  place,  there  are  evi- 
dences of  a  vast  and  far-  Far-reaching  in- 
reaching  intercourse  among  mounT ^  ot-*^^ 
them.  The  relics  that  are  teries. 
found  in  the  mounds  are  drawn  from  dif- 
ferent and  distant  localities,  and  their 
character  indicates,  in  general,  a  social 


SCAIB 

irSBfCtolln. 


FORT    HILL,    BUTLER   COUNTY,   OHIO. 

and  industrial  state,  in  a  tolerable  stage 
of  development. 

In  the  tumuli  and  earthworks  we  find 
many  articles  of  pottery,  greatly  suijerior 
to  the  corresponding  I'elics  in  the  primi- 
tive tombs  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Con- 
tinent. The  American  articles  are  fre- 
quently of  elegant  design.  Many  carved 
works  in  stone  are  found  in  the  same 
situations,  and  ornaments  of  silver  and 
copper,  almost  worthy  of  a  modern  jew- 


352 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


eler,  are  taken  from  their  resting-  places 
alongside  of  ancient  skeletons. 

The  materials  of  these  utensils  and  arti- 
cles of  adornment  are  derived  from  many 
Materials depos-  and  distant  places.  The 
ited  have  been     ^^oyrce  of  the  silvcr  is  not 

brought  from 

great  distances,  known,  but  the  native  cop- 
per has  evidently  been  brought  from 
the  mines  of  lake  vSuperior.  The  mica, 
of  which  other  ornaments  are  made,  is 
from  the  Alleghanies.  Beautiful  shells 
are  found  in  the  same  situations,  which 
had  their  home  in  the  gulf  of  ]\Iexico. 
Implements  of  obsidian  and  porphyry, 
of  Mexican  origin,  are  frequently  discov- 
ered with  the  other  relics.     As  to  such 


VASi:s   KKOM    MOUNDS. 


implements  and  specimens  of  art  of  Eu- 
ropean origin  as  have  occasionally  been 
found  in  the  sepulchral  mounds  of  the 
New  World,  they  are  to  be  traced  unmis- 
takably to  later  burials  in  the  ancient 
tombs. 

Another  dediiction  of  much  importance 

is  that  which  relates  to  the  extent  of  these 

prehistoric  populations  and  the  nature  of 

their  industries.      It  must 

The  mounds 

constructed  by     have  been  a  populous  na- 

populous  races.      ,.  .       r       i  <.•■<.• 

tion  out  of  whose  activities 
sprang  these  great  mounds  and  fortifica- 
tions. The  amount  of  labor  expended 
on  such  a  monument  as  that  in  the  plain 
of  Cahokia  is  like  the  .sum  of  the  toil 
which   reared   the    pyramid  of   Cheops. 


Here  we  have  a  mass  of  twenty  millions 
of  cubic  feet  of  earthy  material  heaped 
up  in  regular  form  and  with  a  definite 
design.  The  labor  of  many  thousands 
was  required  to  do  it ;  and  when  we  re- 
flect upon  the  imperfect  facilities  which 
the  old  races  possessed  for  the  execu- 
tion of  such  works,  we  are  still  further 
astonished  at  the  magnitude  of  the 
enterprise. 

It  is  known  to  all  that  tribes  inhabit- 
ing a  country  in  the  character  of  hunters 
and  fishermen  are  always  Mound  builders 
sparsely  distributed.  The  ^^^^Tstgeln 
most  abundant  natural  development. 
supplies  are  only  sufficient  for  a  small 
population.  The  hunting 
stage  of  society  is,  therefore, 
always  limited  to  a  small  and 
widely  scattered  population. 
It  requires  the  agricultural 
stage  of  development  to  pro- 
duce and  maintain  a  thickly 
settled  people.  The  artificial 
resources  of  the  soil  must  be 
added  to  the  native  resources 
of  the  woods  before  a  great 
population  can  be  created  or 
maintained.  Therefore,  these 
prehistoric  races  who  built  the  Amer- 
ican mounds  and  forts  must  have  come 
out  of  a  primitive  stage  of  barbarian 
life  and  entered  upon  the  agricul- 
tural epoch.  Their  industrial  life  must 
have  been  large  and  regular  to  sup- 
port and  foster  such  enterprises  as  we 
have  before  us;  and  the  methods  and 
economy  and  distribution  employed  by 
them  must  have  re.sembled,  if  they  did 
not  approximate,  the  methods  and  facili- 
ties of  the  historical  era. 

Still  a  third  consideration  is  clearly 
deducible  from  the  evidence  of  the 
mounds.  A  great  fortification  laid  out 
with  geometric  precision  and  executed 
as  if  by  regular  engineering  implies  not 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— PREHISTORIC  AMERICANS. 


353 


only  a  defensive  array  of  the  means  by 
which  a  people  would  protect  itself  from 
Deductions  from  attack  and  destruction;  it 
character  of  the  ^Iso  implies  ««  offensive  and 
'"■"'■'^s-  opposing  poiver,   an  enemy, 

numerous  and  dangerous  to  be  combat- 
ted  and  warded  off.  It  does  not  imply 
such  an  enemy  as  would  be  encountered 
in  the  hunting  or  nomadic  stages  of 
tribal  development.  That  is,  the  means  of 
defense  would,  under  the  common  law  of 
reason,  be  proportioned  to  the  resources, 
aggressiveness,  and  skill  of  the  foe. 
We  can  eas- 


in  the  earth  mounds  of  the  New  World 
with  tho.se  discovered  in  the  tumuli  of 
Great  Britain  indicates  Evidences  of 
clearly  the- greater  antiq-  X^^,^:"^^,,, 
uity  of  the  former.  The  ican  mounds, 
earth  surrounding  the  bones  and  other 
human  relics  in  the  American  mounds  is 
exceedingly  dry  and  compact.  The  situ- 
ation is  generally  favorable  in  the  last 
degree  to  the  preservation  of  human  re- 
mains. Below  the  level  of  frost  and  en- 
tirely impervious  to  water,  the  dry  earth 
surrounding    and    covering    the   vaults 


SC/>LE 
aOQ tl.loXht  Inch 


k 


ily  see,  in  these 
considerations 
at  least,  the 
outline  of  great 
nations  con- 
tending for  the 
mastery  of  the 
Mississippi 
valley.  No 
other  hypoth- 
esis will  ex- 
plain the  facts. 
There  must 
have  been  in 
these  regions, 
in  an  epoch 
long  antedat- 
ing the  era  of 
the  Red  men, 

great  agricultural  peoples,  with  institu- 
tions of  religion  and  war.  There  must 
Great  peoples  have  been  intercourse  and 
^oTnTfof^eT--  relations  with  other  peo- 
ican  antiquities,  pigs  like  themselves,  and 
these  must  sometimes  have  been  rela- 
tions of  hostility.  Indeed,  it  would  ap- 
pear from  the  strong  military  character 
of  the  greatest  and  most  important  of 
the  monuments  that  war  was,  even  in 
these  prehistoric  times,  the  most  marked 
and  vehement  activity  of  the  human  race. 
A  comparison  of  the  skeletons  found 


MILITAkV    WOKKS   ON    I'Al.NT   CREEK,    OHIO. 

.seems  to  have  been  untouched  by  any  nat- 
ural force  for  ages.  And  yet  the  skeletons 
in  the  American  tumuli  are  nearly  always 
far  gone  in  decay.  It  is  difficult  to  preserve 
them  after  their  exposure  to  the  air.  They 
generally  crumble  as  soon  as  they  are 
taken  from  their  long  resting  place. 
Even  the  .skull  bones  generally  turn 
to  a  white  powder  with  a  few  days  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere.  In  the  British 
mounds  the  human  remains  are  gen- 
erally well  preserved.  Notwithstanding 
the  moisture  to  which  they  have  been 


354 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


exposed  in  the  earth  and  the  humidity 
of  the  air  of  England,  the  skeletons  stand 
■well  on  being  exhumed,  and  are  safely 
transferred  to  their  places  in  museums. 
In  some  instances  this  may  be  done 
with  the  mound  builders  of  America, 
but  not  often.  The  naturalist  will  not 
fail    to    discover   in  the  conditions    and 


common  type,  but  those  taken  from  re 
mote  tumuli  show  strong  marks  of  eth- 
nic divergence  and  peculiarity.  As  a 
rule,  the  crania  and  arm  bones  are  strict- 
ly human  in  their  development.  They 
conform  to  the  ordinary  standards  of 
measurement  and  proportion,  but  the 
skulls  are  foreign,  not  to  say  aboriginal, 


POTTERY  OF  THE  MOUND   V.XJVLDV.^-i.—Viotn  Magazine  oj  Arl. 


facts  before  him  the  evidences  of  a  great- 
er antiquity  in  the  case  of  the  American 
remains. 

Considerable  variety  of  race  has  been 
Indications  of  remarked  among  the  skel- 
etons exhumed  from  the 
American  mounds.  They 
differ  much  in  form  and  stature.  Those 
in  a  given  locality  generally  belong  to  a 


race  variety; 
character  of  pre 
historic  crania. 


in  their  form  and  structure.  They  do 
not  correspond  with  the  crania  of  any 
existing  race  of  people.  •  On  the  whole, 
they  are  more  in  analogy  with  the  skulls 
of  those  Oriental  peoples  who  inhabit 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Pacific  and  the 
outlying  islands.  Some  well-preserved 
skulls,  taken  from  prehistoric  mounds  in 
Indiana  and  preserved  in  the  museum  of 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— PREHISTORIC  AMERICANS. 


355 


that  vState,  have  a  striking  likeness  to 
the  heads  of  the  Japanese,  but  are 
smaller  in  capacity  than  the  crania  of 
that  people 

On  the  whole,  the  prehistoric  races  of 
North  America  were  rather  under  the 
The  Little  Men  average  stature  of  the  Red 
lid  L'kTet"  men  or  the  civilized  peoples 
nessee valleys,  of  our  continent.  Some- 
times remains  are  found  which  are  reall}- 
diminutive.  Nor  are  the  cases  of  this 
kind  isolated  or  peculiar.  On  the  Cum- 
berland river,  in  Tennessee,  several  pre- 
historic cemeteries  have  been  examined, 
in  which  the  remains  are  uniformly  of 
a  small  race.  So  marked  is  this  pecul- 
iarity that  some  have  supposed  that  the 
skeletons  in  question  are  those  of  infants 
and  children.  But  a  closer  examination 
has  proved  them  to  be  adult.  The  re- 
gion in  which  these  pygmy  cemeteries 
are  located  is  very  favorable  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  dead.  The  soil  is  dry 
and  sandy.  The  remains  are  invariably 
found  in  small  stone  boxes,  and  the  ob- 
server can  hardly  believe  that  they  are 
the  skeletons  of  a  full-grown,  adult 
people. 

On  thrusting  down  from  the  surface 
a  sharp  iron  rod  the  stone  lid  of  one  of 
Character  of  the  these  small  crypts  may  be 
graves ;  the  sar-    fQ^^^d,  and  ou  excavating 

cophagi,  and  the  '  o 

remains  therein,  the  earth  the  box  Can  be  ex- 
amined in  its  undisturbed  condition. 
The  graves  have  been  constructed  orig- 
inally by  excavating  small,  oblong  vaults 
and  placing  thin,  undressed  slabs  of 
sandstone  at  the  bottom,  sides,  and 
ends.  After  the  burial  a  flat  capstone 
was  placed  on  top,  thus  completing  the 
box.  The  inside  of  one  of  these  minia- 
ture sarcophagi  measures  from  ten  to 
fourteen  inches  in  width,  ten  to  twelve 
inches  in  depth,  and  from  fourteen 
inches  to  two  feet  in  length.  The  space 
is  so  small  that  no  well-grown  person  of 


an  existing  race,  unless  it  should  be  a 
native  Australian,  could  be  buried  in  it, 
even  in  a  contracted  position.  But  the 
prehistoric  skeleton  which  is  found  in- 
closed has,  generally,  room  enough, 
though  the  parts  are  frequently  flexed 
and  sometimes  doubled  back.  The 
mounds  covering  the  prehistoric  pygmies 
are  thickly  strewn  in  favorable  positions 
along  the  banks  of  the  Cumberland. 

The  manner  and  epoch  of  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  mound  builders  from 
North  America  remains  Manner  of  the 
conjectural.  Nor  is  it  like-  ^^^S^^oric"' 
ly  that  the  ingenuity  and  races  unknown, 
adroitness  of  human  scholarship  will 
ever  be  able  to  exhume  from  the  past 
the  manner  and  time  of  their  disappear- 
ance. On  the  whole,  they  would  seem 
to  have  been  a  people  worthy  of  a  his- 
tory ;  but  their  extinction  was  so  com- 
plete that  whatever  may  have  been  the 
extent  and  variety  of  their  national  life, 
all  has  gone  out  together.  Philosophers 
have  devoted  volumes  to  the  causes  of 
national  decline,  and  the  question  is 
still  open  for  rational  solution. 

It  ma}-  be  truthftilly  urged  that  the  seeds 
of  ethnic  decay  exist  in  certain  peoples 
in  virtue  of  their  own  constitutions  and 
the  nature  of  their  activities.  Whether 
races  grow  old  and  die  as  the  individual ; 
whether  different  families  of  men  are  de- 
flected by  evolutionary  processes  from 
one  phase  of  existence  to  another ;  wheth- 
er sudden  metamorphoses  take  place,  in 
obedience  to  natural  laws,  such  as  are 
alleged  to  occur  at  rare  intervals  in  the 
animal  kingdom,  are  philosophical  ques- 
tions which  the  inquirer  of  the  future 
must  solve,  if  indeed  they  are  soluble  at 
all. 

Certain  circumstances,  however,  may 
be  cited  which  are  at  least  effective 
as  assisting  forces  in  the  extinction  of 
races.     The   prevalence  of  vicious  and 


356 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


luxurious  habits,  gradually  supplanting 

the  early  and  robust  virtues  of  a  people, 

tend    unmistakably  to   na- 

Forces  that  tend      . 

to  the  extermi-  tlonal  Overthrow.  i  he  ex- 
nation  of  races.      ^^^.^^^^     f^j.^gg     ^f    ^^.^j.    ^j^^^ 

the  great  cataclysms  of  nature  may  also 
account  for  the  destruction  and  disap- 
pearance of  peoples.  It  is  doubtless  true 
that  in  prehistoric  ages  great  submer- 
gences of  peopled  islands  and  continents 


been  threatened  by  the  rage  of  epidemics. 
Among  uncivilized  peoples  the  accumu- 
lation of  stores  for  the  future  is  but  little 
attended  to.  That  prudence  and  fore- 
sight which  keeps  up  the  resources  of 
life  against  the  day  of  calamity  are  but 
little  practiced  by  barbarians,  or  even  by 
races  half  emerged  from  barbarism.  For 
these  reasons  prehistoric  peoples  have 
been  greatly  exposed  to  the  ravages  of 


AZTEC  RUINS  AT  PALENyUE,  IN  CHIAPAS,  MEXICcJ. 


have  taken  place,  while  others  have  risen, 
dripping,  from  the  deep.  Earthquakes 
and  volcanic  disturbances  of  the  great 
crust  of  the  globe  have  terrified  and 
driven awav  what  thevhave  not  engulfed. 
Finally,  famine  and  pestilence  have  done 
their  work  on  prehistoric  as  well  as  his- 
toric races.  There  are  times  within  the 
recorded  story  of  national  life  when  not 
only  the  depopulation  of  great  districts, 
but  the  extinction  of  whole  nations  has 


famine.  At  intervals  the  earth  has 
unaccountably  withheld  her  gifts.  A 
few  seasons  of  want  in  succession  would 
be  sufficient  to  exterminate  an  isolated 
and  uncommercial  nation,  and  that  such 
calamities  have  actually  fallen  upon 
peoples  like  the  mound  builders  of  Amer- 
ica can  not  be  doubted. 

Beyond  the  limits  of  the  United  States 
the  tumuli  and  other  evidences  of  by- 
gone races  are  generally  secondary.     Iq 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— PREHISTORIC  AMERICANS. 


357 


one  sense  they  are  prehistoric,  but  in 
another  they  fall,  for  the  most  part, 
Extinct  peoples  within  the  activities  of  peo- 
?c?nTa"rfoX  plcs  who  have  been  known 
present.  within  the  historical  epoch. 

The  Mexican  races  that  flourished  in  the 
days  of  the  Spanish  invasions,  at  the 
beginning-  of  the  sixteenth  century,  may 
well  be  considered  as  the  remote  extreme 
of  the  people  by  whom  the  monuments 
of  Mexico  Avere  erected.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  peoples  of  Central  America 
and  of  the  Peruvians.  The  Aztecs,  the 
Coztecs,  the  Guatemalian  tribes,  and  the 
Peruvians,  though  much  more  advanced 
than  the  Red  men  of  Xorth  America, 
are  collateral  with  them  in  time  and 
national  development.  In  the  case  of 
our  North  American  Indians,  we  know 
that  they  belonged  to  a  different  race 
from  the  mound  builders,  and  that  they 
flourished  in  an  age  long  subsequent  to 
the  prevalence  of  the  former  on  this  con- 
tinent. We  have  not  the  same  clear 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  people 
back  of  the  Mexicans,  the  Central 
Americans,  and  the  Peruvians.  Such  a 
people  may  have  existed,  and  there  are 
evidences  here  and  there  of  a  truly  pre- 
historic basis  for  that  type  of  national 
life  which  was  encountered  by  the 
Spanish  invaders  under  Cortez  and 
Pizarro. 

The  ancient  monuments  of  ilexico 
are  among  the  most  imposing  of  primi- 
Mexicanmonu-  tive  ruins.  They  have  a 
Sr^iSouT'  solidity  and  grandeur  sug- 
purpose.  gestive   of  the  vast  struc- 

tures which  the  antiquarian  encounters 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Xile  and  the  Eu- 
phrates. They  differ  fundamentally  in 
their  character  from  the  mounds  and 
fortifications  of  Central  North  America 
in  this,  that  the  latter  were  military 
structures  in  their  first  intent,  while 
those  of  Mexico  are  based  upon  religion 


and  its  ceremonials.  In  the  case  of  the 
North  American  tumuli,  the  long  moles 
and  circumvallations  were  created  under 
the  warlike  purpose  of  the  race  that 
reared  them,  and  the  religious  part  of 
the  monuments  are  only  secondary  to 
the  dominant  ideas  of  warfare.  In  the 
Mexican  tumuli  and  pyramids  the  exact 
reverse  is  true.  Evidence  is  not  wanting 
that  they  at  times  subserved  a  military 
purpose — that  within  their  ramparts  the 
nation  retreated  and  defended  itself 
against  the  foe.  But  the  general  idea  of 
all  the  monumental  remains  in  the 
region  under  consideration  is  that  of 
religion  and  priestly  ceremonial.  A 
general  sketch  of  the  character  and  pur- 
pose of  the  ilexican  monuments  can  not 
fail  to  prove  of  interest. 

The  structures  in  question  have   all, 
with   very   few   exceptions,    a  common 

plan.      A   g-reat   square  is 
^  °  ^  Plan  and  mate- 

laid  off  on  the  earth,  with  its  rials  of  the  pyra- 
r  -1         i      j.1.  J  •       1    midal  temples. 

four  sides  to  the  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass.  This  square  is 
surrounded  with  walls  strong  and  high. 
The  structure  of  the  same  is  sun-dried 
bricks,  or  even  in  some  cases  stone. 
Centrally  located  within  the  great  rec- 
tangle thus  inclosed  is  the  ^ite  of  the 
temple.  A  square  foundation  of  solid 
masonry  is  laid,  extending  to  t\\  hun- 
dred, three  hundred,  or  even  five  hun- 
dred feet  on  each  side.  From  this 
foundation  a  great  structure  like  a  pyra- 
mid is  carried  up  in  a  succession  of 
terraces.  The  design  is  almost  Identical 
with  some  of  the  oldest  monuments  of 
the  human  race  found  in  the  valley  of 
the  lower  Euphrates  and  attributed  to  the 
ancient  Chaldaeans.  In  both  instances 
the  successive  platforms  of  masonry 
grow  smaller  toward  the  top,  and  in  both 
there  is  generally  a  deflection  of  the 
work  toward  one  side,  so  that  the  pyra- 
mid does  not  stand  centrally  over  the 


358 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


foundation,  but  nearer,  as  a  rule,  to  the 
western  edge.  The  eastern  side  of  the 
pyramid,  facing  the  morning  sun,  is 
ascended  by  a  flight  of  steps  to  the 
upper  square.  The  structure  is  trun- 
cated ;  that  is,  cut  off  above  without  be- 
ing carried  to  an  apex.  On  the  upper 
platform   is   biiilt   the    temple    proper, 


AZTEC    STRUCTURE — ARCH    OF    LAS   MONJAS. 


which  also  faces  the  east.  Sometimes 
on  the  terrace  more  temples  than  one 
are  reared.  It  is  in  evidence  that  several 
deities  were  worshiped  from  the  same 
platform.  Each  had  his  own  fane  and 
ceremonial. 

Temples  of  the  kind  here  described 
were  plentiful  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
invasion  of  Mexico.    Cortez  declares  that 


he  found  fully  four  hundred  of  them  in 
the  state  of  Cholula.    Doubtless  the  num- 
ber   within  the    more  im-  plentiful  distru 
portant  state  of  Anahuac,  ^.'^^j^r/elm'' 
embracing   the   plateau  of  choiuia. 
the  Mexican   capital,  was   still    greater. 
Torquemada  estimates  the  number  in  the 
empire  of  Montezuma  at  forty  thousand ! 
Bernal  Diaz,  the  old  Span- 
ish historian  of  the  times, 
and  Cortez  himself  in  his 
letters  to  Charles  V,  have 
given  us  full  descriptions 
of   the  striking  religious 
edifices    and    ceremonials 
with  which  they  came  into 
contact. 

Perhaps  the  most  elab- 
orate structure  in  all  Mex- 
ico at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  was  that 
which  Cortez  describes 
from  tlie  capital.  It  was 
in  the  center  of  the  an- 
cient city.  The  inclosure 
of  the  outer  walls  was  so 
great  that  Cortez  esti- 
mates the  interior  capacity 
as  sufficient  for  five  hun- 
dred houses.  Another  es- 
timate made  by  Solis  is 
that  the  space  inside  of 
the  walls  and  between 
them  and  the  pyramidal 
foundation  in  the  center 
was  sufficient  to  accom- 
modate ten  thousand  dan- 
cers on  days  of  solemn  cere- 
monies. 

was  paved  with  dressed  Mexico, 
stone,  and  so  smooth  was  the  work  that  as 
Bernal  Diaz  declares,  "the  horses  of  the 
Spaniards  could  not  walk  upon  it  for  slip- 
ping." All  the  area  within  was  sacred 
territory.  It  was  the  central  institution 
of  the  state,    religiously,    educationally, 


Particular  fea- 
T^v,;,,  ,„^,^1«  .,»,„„^    tures  of  the  Az- 
This  whole  space    tec  temples  of 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— PREHISTORIC  AMERICANS. 


359 


Central  Amer- 
ican ruins ;  like- 
ness to  those  of 
the  Kast. 


and  politically.  Here  the  priests  had 
their  abode.  Here  the  soothsayers  and 
scribes  of  the  ancient  epoch  congre- 
gated ;  and  here  the  emperor  himself  was 
admitted  only  with  a  ceremonial.  The 
terraces  constituting  the  pyramid  were 
five  in  number.  The  broadest  platform 
was  three  hundred  feet  square,  and  the 
height  of  the  whole  to  the 
upper  terrace  was  a  hundred 
and  twenty  feet.  On  the  top 
were  two  shrines,  or  towers, 
which  were  dedicated  to  the 
gods  of  preservation  and  de- 
struction. 

Central  America,  as  well 
as  Mexico  and  the  countries 

of  the    North, 

abounds   in 

ruins  and 
monumental  evidences  of 
primitive  peoples.  The 
style  of  building  was  here 
the  same  as  on  the  Mexican 
plateau, but  there  is  a  greater 
display  of  art.  The  Central 
American  pyramids  are  gen- 
erally smaller  than  the  Mex- 
ican structures,  but  the  tem- 
ples on  the  upper  terraces 
were  larger  in  proportion. 
Great  massiveness 
and  strength  are  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  masonry. 
The  exterior  of  the  temples 
were  stuccoed  and  covered 
with  carved  figures  and  or- 
naments. It  appears  that  the  symbol- 
ical imagination  ran  rampant  among  the 
priests  and  architects.  Within  the  tem- 
ples were  corridors  and  chambers  with 
arched  roofs  of  stone. 

The  antiquary  in  examining  these 
ruins  can  but  be  impressed  with  their 
striking  analogy  to  the  earliest  monu- 
ments of  the  human  race  in  the  valleys 


of  Western  Asia.  The  corridors  and 
walls  of  the  inner  chambers  are  covered 
with  sculptures  and  hieroglyphics.  It  is 
not  impossible  that  a  truer  understand- 
ing of  the  significance  of  these  inscrip- 
tions may  make  the  world  better  acquaint- 
ed with  the  character  and  activities  of 
the  aboriginal  races  of  our  continent. 


#/ 


,  .yim 


'^t-^-m^Mtm^^Bi^z 


CENTRAL  AMERICAN   ANTIQUITIES — DOUBLE-HEADED   FIGURE  OF  THE 
CASA   DEL  GOBERNADOR. 


In  Honduras,  also,  many  monuments 
of  the  same  nature  have  been  discov- 
ered and  described.  Here,  too,  the 
carving  is  elaborate  and  Monumental  re- 
elegant.  At  Copan  one  rr^s^nT""" 
of  the  most  striking  mono-  Colombia, 
lithic  effigies  ever  recovered  from  the 
ancient  world  has  been  found  and  pre- 
served.     Around    the    shores    of  lake 


360 


GREAT  RACES    OF  JElXK'LyD. 


Nicaragua  abundant  evidences  of  ex- 
tinct peoples  are  scattered,  and  wher- 
ever these  occur  they  are  found  to  be 
covered   with     inscriptions.       It   is   be- 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  TOLTECS — FROM  THE   RUINS   OF 
COPAN. 

lieved  that  those  in  the  vicinity  of 
Copan  are  the  oldest  monuments  that 
have  yet  been  found  south  of  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte.  In  Colombia,  also, 
the    traveler   ever    and    anon    stumbles 


upon  some  relic  of  human  workmanship 
of  unknown  origin.  The  ruins  of  a  few 
edifices  and  monuments  have  also  been 
examined  in  this  land,  but  have  not 
added  materially  to  our  knowledge  of 
their  builders. 

Passing  southward  into  the  highlands 
of  Peru,  we  come  upon  additional  evi- 
dences of  the  activity  and  Temples  of  Cuz. 
genius  of  an  extinct  peo-  ^^  ;,TprehSo?. 
pie.  Perhaps  the  city  of  ic  races. 
Cuzco  affords  one  of  the  best  fields  for 
antiquarian  research  that  may  be  found 
in  the  world.  Hererra  declares  that 
there  were  aforetime  in  this  city  as  many 
as  three  hundred  temples,  and  from  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  ruins  the  asser- 
tion seems  to  be  well  grounded. 

As  a  general  fact,  it  appears  that  the 
religious  ceremonies  of  the  peoples 
whom  we  are  here  considering — Mexi- 
can, Central  American,  Peruvian — were 
a  form  of  that  sun  worship  which  has 
constituted  the  most  rational  idolatry  of 
the  human  race.  Nearly  all  the  tem- 
ples seem  to  have  been  built  with  respect 
to  the  sunrise ;  and  in  so  far  as  the  cere- 
monial of  these  ancient  peoples  has  been 
recovered,  it  reveals  the  same  features 
which  belonged  originally  to  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Chaldaeans  and  Assyrians, 
primarily  to  the  Zoroastrians  of  the  Ira- 
nian plateau,  and  in  a  considerable  de- 
gree to  the  primitive  peoples  of  India. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  rising 
sun,  coming  up  majestically  after  the 
red  dawn  of  day  and  ascending  the  east- 
ern arch  of  heaven,  triumphing  over 
mist  and  shadow,  and  fleecy  cloud  and 
rainstorm,  constituted  the  one  tremen- 
dous object  of  adoration  which  im- 
pressed itself  upon  the  imagination  of 
the  early  races  of  men. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  the 
ruined  monuments  which  we  are  here 
considering  are  the  only  memorials  left 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— PREHISTORIC  AMERICANS. 


361 


by  the  Southern  races  of  the  New  World. 
The  outUnes  of  great  cities  are  discover- 
able here  and  there.  Some  of  these 
have  survived  to  within  the  historical 
period.  Others  have  gone  down  to  in- 
discriminate dust.  In  connection  with 
these  ruins  the  outlines  of  public  works 
are  found  in  many  parts.  Not 
infrequently  the  antiquary  is 
able  to  trace  the  course  of  a 
great  aqueduct  or  of  some  other 
evidence  of  the  labor  and  skill 
of  a  prehistoric  people  endeav- 
oring to  supply  its  common 
"wants. 

It  appears   clear  from  an  ex-  ,^ 

amination  of  all  that  we  are  able 
to  discover  in  the  regions  here 
named,   that  man 

Sad  estate  of  the 

people  in  prehis-    himSclf         in         his 

toric  America.  .       , ,  .  ,     , 

prmiitive  estate 
was  as  much  subordinated  to 
ecclesiastical  domination  and 
political  despotism  as  in  the 
better-known  countries  of  the 
East.  It  appears  that  the  com- 
mon lot  was  as  hard  and  ig- 
noble in  ^Mexico  and  Central 
America,  in  Colombia  and  Peru, 
as  on  the  Babylonian  plain  or 
in  the  stone  quarries  of  Egypt. 
Even  as  late  as  the  times  of  the 
Spanish  invasion  the  condition 
of  the  common  people  was  piti- 
able in  the  last  degree.  The  life 
of  the  individual  man  had  no 
splendor  or  renown.  Cortez  and 
the  Spanish  story-tellers  who 
panied  him  on  his  expedition  speak 
of  the  miserable  houses  in  which  the 
people  lived.  They  were  mere  huts 
built  of  bamboo  and  covered  with  thatch, 
temporary  protections  against  a  climate 
never  severe  and  always  inviting  to  out- 
door methods  of  life.     All  vestiges  of 

such  lowly  abodes  have  long  since  passed 
M. — Vol.  I — 24 


away.  Nor  are  there  other  means  of 
discovering  the  daily  life  of  the  common 
people  whom  the  merciless  and  bloody 
waves  of  Spanish  conquest  totally  en- 
gulfed. 

If  we  again  turn  our  attention  to  the 
regions  north    of   the    Rio   Grande,  we 


CENTRAL  AMF.RICAN    STRUCTURE — CIRCULAR   EDIFICE  AT  MAYAI'AN. 


accom- 


shall  find  in  Arizona  one  of  the  best  fields 
of  exploration  for  the  relics  ^    . 

^  Extinct  cities 

of       a     prehistoric      people,    of  the  Colorado 

This  is  not  said  of  the  p^*^"' 
ruins  which  the  Spaniards  and  their 
descendants  left  in  this  region  after  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  centurv,  but  or 
prehistoric  memorials  found  in  several 
localities.       On    the    Colorado    plateau 


362 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


there  are  traces  of  extinct  cities,  reser- 
voirs, terraces,  and  aqueducts.  Still  more 
notable,  in  the  valley  of  the  Gila  are 
scattered  the  monumental  vestiges  of  a 
vanished  race.  Along  the  river  banks 
are  the  outlines  and  actual  debris  of 
stone  houses  and  military  fortifications 
■which  belonged  to  a  people  long  anterior 
to  the  European  conquerors  who  came 
with  Cortez  and  his  successors.  There 
are  in  many  places,  in  a  sort  of  fast- 
nesses which  seem  to  have  been  selected 
with  not  a  little  care,  the  remains  of 
human  habitations  in  great  numbers  cut 
from  the  native  ledges,  and  constituting 
a  species  of  abodes  which  are  in  good 
measure  without  an  analogue  among  the 
habitations  built    by    men.      lu    other 


QUICHIAN    ARIU, 


places  walls  of  solid  masonry,  generally 
rectangular  in  form,  may  be  traced ;  and 
the  foundations  of  buildings  which  are 
thought  to  have  been  two  or  three  stories 
in  height  are  plainly  discernible  in  many 
localities.  It  can  not  be  doubted,  indeed, 
chat  along  the  river  Gila  in  past  ages, 
as  well  as  in  many  other  parts  of  the 
territory  of  the  United  States,  of  Mexico, 
and  of  South  America,  a  great  and  even 
flourishing  prehistoric  population  ex- 
isted, of  which  the  only  record  is  in  the 
crumbling  monumental  remains  which 
are  left  behind. 

If  we  attempt  to  discriminate  among  the 
ruins  of  Southwestern  North  America,  of 
Central   America,   and  of  Peru,  and    to 


decide  what  proportion  of  them  are  refei 
able  to  the  activities  of  the  races  inhab- 
iting   the    Western    conti-  chronological 
nents  since  the  New  World  '^:t^:^ 
was  revealed   to  the  Euro-  Southwest, 
pean  nations,  and  what  part  are  the  work 
of  the  prehistoric  races  which  preceded 
them,  we   shall  be  likely,   from  the  im- 
perfect data  in  our  possession,    to    fall 
into       error      and       misinterpretation. 
Enough  is  known,   however,    to    deter- 
mine the  general  proposition  that  some 
of  the  monuments  in  question  are  the 
work  of  primitive  peoples  long  anterior 
to  the  epoch  of  Spanish  conquest. 

It  is  probable  that  Peru,  or  what  was 
anciently  Upper  Peru,  but  is  now  in- 
cluded in  the  state  of  Bolivia,  furnishes 

the  best  basis 
for  the  study  of 
the  truly  pre- 
historic m  e  - 
morials  in  the 
regions  which 
we  have  been 
considering. 
Since  1S64, 
when  the  mon- 
uments of  this 
country  were  explored  and  described  by 
the  American  archaeologist  Ephraira 
George  Squier,  it  has  been  settled  that 
the  relics  of  man's  work  in  the  high 
places  of  Upper  Peru  are  traceable  in 
their  origin  to  a  race  that  flourished  in 
the  country  long  before  the  era  of  the 
Incas. 

The  monuments  in  question  are  situ- 
ated on  the  Andean  plateau,  high  up  in 
Bolivia,  on  the  shore  of  lake  Titicaca. 
The  early  Spanish  invaders  Remains  on 
were  greatly  surprised  at  i^arJcteroT^he 
the  character  and  extent  of  region, 
these  remains.  At  the  time  of  the  in- 
vasion of  Pizarro,  they  diiifered  little 
from  their  aspect  at   the  present  time. 


-REMAINS    OF    FilRFRKSS    WALLS,    AT    ■   1  /L 


PRIMEVAL   MAN—PREHISTORIC  AMERICANS. 


JtJ3 


The  region  is  a  broad,  open,  arid  plain. 
During  the  wet  season  the  weather  is 
cold,  and  becomes  still  more  so  as  the 
dry  season  of  the  year  approaches.  Xo 
fruits  or  grain  will  grow  in  this  vicinity. 
It  is  said  that  nothing  edible  has  been 
produced  in  the  region  except  a  small 
variety  of  bitter  potato.  It  is,  perhaps, 
the  only  region  in  the  world  where  great 
monumental  remains  are  found  in  a 
situation  Avholly  unproductive,  and  many 
conjectures  have  been  advanced  to 
explain    the    anomaly.       It    has    been 


The  monuments  in  question  consist  of 
stonework  and  moles  of  earth.  The 
stones  are  either  rudely  hewn  into  shape 
or  selected  and  set  up  with-  stone  and  eanh- 
out  dressing.  The  inquirer  ^41^^^^^"" 
can  not  long  have  ex-  "ways, 
amined  what  is  before  him  without  dis- 
covering the  analogy  of  the  ruins  to  the 
great  Druidical  remains  of  England, 
and  notably  to  Stonehenge.  The  stones 
are  set  erect  in  many  places  on  the  great 
terrace,  but  others  are  built  into  walls 
with  the  most  exact  workmanship.    One 


PUKBLO  STRUCTURE.— Runs  in  the  Valley  of  the  Gila. 


thought  that  perhaps  the  great  people 
by  whom  the  monuments  which  we  are 
now  to  examine  were  created  had  pro- 
found superstitions  or  religious  ceremo- 
nials which  they  celebrated  on  this 
almost  desert  plateau.  It  has  even  been 
sugfcrested  that  the  site  of  these  monu- 
mental  remains  may  have  been  deter- 
mined by  augury — as  the  site  of  Rome 
was  fixed — and  that  superstition  thus 
determined  the  place  where  vast  struc- 
tures were  created  against  the  laws  and 
suggestions  of  the  natural  world. 


of  the  most  peculiar  of  the  discoveries  is 
that  of  heavy  monolithic  doorway.s. 
That  is,  large  slabs  of  stone  have  been 
taken,  and  through  these  the  temple  en- 
trances have  been  cut,  Avith  an  arch 
above,  while  on  the  front,  and  even  re- 
verse, of  the  block  are  carved  a  multi- 
tude of  .svmbolical  characters.  All  over 
the  plain  are  scattered,  even  for  miles 
around,  the  relics  of  vast  structures  .",nd 
battlements,  the  position  of  which  can 
be  plainly  traced  on  the  earth. 

Among  the  monuments  on  this  high 


364 


GREAT  RACf.S    OF  JFAXKlXn. 


Astonishing 
character  of  the 
ruin  called  the 
Fortress. 


plain  of  the  Andes  four  principal  struc- 
tures, or  at  least  the  foundations  of 
them,  have  been  developed 
from  the  ground.  They 
are  known  to  antiqua- 
ries by  the  names  of  the  Fortress,  the 
Temple,  the  Palace,  and  the  Hall  of 
Justice — from  the  purposes  which  con- 
jecture has  assigned  to  them  respec- 
tively. The  greatest  of  the  ruins  is  the 
Fortress.     It  rises  in  the  center   of  the 


substantial  as  that  in  the   faces  of  the 
terrace. 

If  the  traveler  takes  his  stand  on  the 
summit  of  this  tremendous  monument 

and  looks  to    the    north,   he    Features  of  the 

finds  at  a  short  distance  an-  ^Taidthe^H^u 
other  rectangular  mound,  of  Justice, 
measuring  at  the  base  four  hundred  and 
forty-five  by  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
eight  feet.  The  outline  of  the  structure 
is  marked  by  rows  of  stones  set  erect  in 


OLD  PERUVIAN  STRUCTURE.— Ruins  of  Fortress,  on  Titicac.\  I^l.wu 


plain,  terrace  on  terrace,  to  the  height 
of  fifty  feet.  The  mound  is  rectangu- 
lar, having  a  base  measurement  of  six 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length  and 
four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  width. 
The  faces  of  the  terraces  are  laid  with 
massive  stones,  which  are  carefully  and 
skillfully  cut  and  dovetailed  the  one  into 
the  other  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them 
immovable  for  ages  and  ages.  On  each 
side,  running  out  from  the  ba.se,  is  a  va.st 
stone  platform,  known  in  architecture  as 
an  "  apron,"  in  which  the  masonry  is  as 


the  earth,  some  of  them  as  rude  as  those 
of  Stonehenge,  and  others  carved  with 
skill.  These  are  the  outer  supports  of 
the  structures  which  were  reared  within. 
Some  of  the  monoliths  are  as  much  as 
fourteen  feet  above  the  earth,  and  are 
something  more  than  two  by  four  feet  in 
their  other  dimensions.  This  is  the 
structure  to  which  antiquaries  have 
given  the  name  of  the  Temple.  The 
Palace  next  attracts  the  attention,  and  is 
specially  noted  for  the  excellence  of  the 
stone  cutting  which  is   observed   in  its 


PRIMEVAL  MAN.— CONDITIONS   OF  SAVAGE  LIFE. 


365 


foundations.  No  masons  of  ancient  or 
of  modem  times  have,  perhaps,  excelled 
^vhat  was  done  on  this  arid  plateau  be- 
fore the  dawn  of  history,  and  is  still 
preserv^ed  in  the  foundations  of  the 
monument  under  consideration. 

It  is  not  far  from  the  outer  limits  of 
the  Palace,  so  called,  that  the  Hall  of 
Justice  is  situated.  It  also  is  rectangu- 
lar in  its  ground  plan,  being  four  hun- 
dred and  twenty  feet  by  three  hundred 
and  seventy  feet  in  dimensions.  With- 
in this  inclosure  has  been  developed  the 
foundation  of  still  another  structure, 
called  the  Sanctum  vSanctorum,  one 
hundred  and  thirty-one  by  twenty-three 
feet  in  measurement,  which  presents  the 
finest  stonework  of  all.  For  the  excel- 
lence of  the  cutting  and  fitting  it  may 
well  be  compared  with  the  ruins  of  Baal- 
bec.  Some  of  the  stones  are  twenty-five 
and  a  half  feet  long,  fourteen  feet  broad, 
and  six  and  a  half  feet  in  thickness.  They 
are  fitted  by  the  best  rules  of  geometric 
art,  and  are  held  in  place  by  bronze 
clamps  that  may  well  be  compared  with 
the  like  devices  found  in  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Egypt. 

In  the  current  chapter  we  have  done 
no  more  than  glance  at  the  monumental 
remains  of   the  three  Americas.     It  is 


believed,  however,  that  the  fragmentary 
sketches  of  these  memorials  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  convey  to  the  read-  Purpose  of  this 
er  a  fair  apprehension  of  ^^et^etchto"' 
the  times  and  the  people  in  foUow. 
which  and  by  whom  they  were  created. 
The  present  volume  is  by  no  means  a 
work  devoted  to  antiquarian  research. 
It  is  merely  intended  in  the  present  book 
to  present  so  much  of  the  primitive  his- 
tory of  mankind  as  shall  furnish  a  satis- 
factory basis  for  the  consideration  of  the 
great  tribal  migrations  which  are  to  oc- 
cupy our  attention  hereafter.  We  have 
in  the  preceding  chapters  reviewed  the 
conditions  of  aboriginal  life  as  they  have 
presented  themselves  in  the  caverns  and 
wilds  of  Western  Europe,  along  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic,  in  the  tumuli  of 
Great  Britain,  and  in  the  mounds  and 
among  the  monuments  of  the  New  World. 
We  shall  now  conclude  this  book  with  a 
brief  sketch  of  the  general  conditions  of 
savagery  as  the  same  are  presented 
among  the  barbarous  and  half-barbarous 
races  of  the  present  time.  It  is  believed 
that  the  prehistoric  man  will  thus  be  bet- 
ter realised  in  his  far-off  career  by  being 
seen  in  a  reflected  form  of  activity  among 
the  savage  tribes  and  nations  of  the  mod- 
ern world. 


Chapter  XXI.— Gexeral  Coimditions  oe  Savage 

Life. 


TRUE  understanding 
of  the  prehistoric  con- 
dition of  mankind  de- 
pends in  good  measure 
upon  a  knowledge  of 
the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  e.xisting 
savage  nations.  These  nations  are  to  be 
looked  upon  as  the  remnants  and  repre- 


sentatives of  an  ancestry  like  themselves. 
Doubtless  the  existing  tribes  have  been 
much  deflected  in  the  course  of  ages  from 
the  original  types  to  which  they  be- 
longed. But  it  is  also  true  that  they  have 
preserved  many  of  the  leading  features 
of  the  original  barbarism  which  has  pre- 
vailed in  all  parts  of  the  earth. 

Viewed  from  the  animal  side  of  exist- 


366 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


ence,  the  barbarians  of  to-day  hold  ex- 
actly the  same  relation  to  the  dead  races 
that  have  preceded  them  as  do  many  of 


MAN    AND    WOMAN   OF   THE    REINDEER   EPOCH. 
Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 


the  living  species  of  animals  to  the 
extinct  varieties  from  which  they  are  de- 
scended.    The  mammoth  and  the  mas- 


todon and  the  hairy  rhinoceros  have 
their  living  representatives  in  the  ele- 
phant, the  Asiatic  rhinoceros,  and  even 

the  common 
wine.  There  has 
oeen  an  evolution- 
ary descent  by 
which  the  tides  of 
life  have  been 
turned  a.side  into 
new  channels. 
The  living  crea- 
tures are  not  the 
-ame  in  stature, 
in  habit,  in  as- 
pect or  mode  of 
life  as  the  extinct 
types  from  which 
they  have  been 
derived.  But  the 
essential  nature  of 
the  original  spe- 
cies has  been,  in 
large  measure, 
preserved. 

So  also  of  the  dif- 
ferent varieties  of 
men,  aboriginal, 
intermediate,  and 
modern.  Sir  John 
Lubbock  has  de- 
clared with  great 
force  that  the  in- 
habitants of  Van 
Diemen's  Land 
and  Terra  del 
Fuego  are  to  the 
prehistoric  races 
of  the  age  of  stone 
what  the  opossum 
and  the  sloth  and 
the  kangaroo  are 
to  the  extinct  mar- 
supials, known  only  to  the  geologist. 
The  flint  weapon  in  the  hands  of  a  liv- 
ing savage  is  to  an  antiquary  precisely 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— CONDITIONS   OF  SAVAGE  LIFE. 


367 


what  the  horn-crowned  nose  of  a  rhinoc- 
eros or  the  projecting  tusks  of  a  boar 
Relations  of  ex-  are  to  a  naturalist.  The 
chS^wfau  first  carries  the  mind  back 
ancestry.  (;q   prehistoric  implements 

found  in  the  peat  bogs  of  Denmark,  and 
the  other  reminds  the  inquirer  of  the 
hairy  rhinoceros  and  the  tremendous 
tusks  of  Elephas  primigcnius. 


ducible  to  two  general  considerations 
which  are  easily  apprehended.  The 
first  of  these  is  what  may  be  called  the 
appearance  of  national  consciousness 
among  a  people.  Whenever  this  hap- 
pens— whenever  a  given  tribe  begins 
to  be  conscious  of  itself — the  national 
tongue  will  for  the  first  time  find  utter- 
ance, and   this  utterance   will  take   the 


EF.GIN'NINGS  OF  METALLURGY— A  Primitive  Smithy,— Dra^vn  by  Emile  B.iyard. 


tween  prehistor 
Ic  and  liistoric 
races. 


One  of  the  first  inquiries  with  which 
we  have  here  to  deal  is  the  fixing  of  a 
Demarkationbe-  line  between  the  prehistor- 
ic and  the  historic  races  of 
men.  What  is  it  to  have 
been  a  truly  prehistoric  people  ?  and  what 
is  it  to  lie  distinctly  within  the  historic 
era?  The  answers  to  these  questions 
involve  several  matters  of  much  impor- 
tance and  interest,  but  they  are  all  re- 


foi-m  of  narrative.  The  narrative  may 
be  in  the  form  of  epic  poetry.  It  may 
be  a  half- formed  anthropology  or  cos- 
molog}-,  or  it  may  be  rude  annals,  reciting 
fragments  of  tradition  and  filling  up  the 
spaces  from  imaginary  materials.  At 
any  rate,  it  is  History.  It  is  the  earli- 
est development  in  the  form  of  language 
of  a  nation's  concept  of  itself  and  of  its 
own  past 


368 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


History  may  thus  be  regarded  as  the 
first  rational  transcript  of  the  national 
The  conscious  consciousness  of  a  people, 
man  requires  an    There  is  that  in  the  mind, 

explanation  of 

the  past.  whether  of    the  individual 

or  of  the  tribe,  which  on  coming  into 
the  conscious  state  immediately  demands 
some  kind  of  narrative  of  its  own  origin 
and  previous  development.  When  this 
stage  in  the  human  evolution  is  reached, 
written  records  appear  as  a  concomitant 
and  inseparable  incident  of  that  particular 
epoch  of  growth.  Henceforth  we  have 
the  beginnings,  at  least,  of  those  annals 
and  early  chronicles  and  traditional  forms 
of  literature  which  constitute  the  funda- 
mentals of  formal  history.  This  circum- 
stance may  be  taken  as  the  first  great 
point  of  division  between  civilization  and 
its  antecedent  barbarism. 

The  second  point  has  already  been 
alluded  to  in  the  preceding  chapters.  It 
Use  of  metals  is  the  itsc  of  jiictah.  .So 
^^S^^:^  much  stress  would  not  be 
sc-.ousness.  laid  upou  this  fact  in  the 

progress  and  development  of  mankind 
were  it  not  for  the  coincidence  of  the 
use  of  metals  in  the  practical  arts  with 
the  beginnings  of  history  referred  to 
above.  It  is  a  part  of  the  general  scheme 
of  the  civilization  of  mankind  that  this 
fact  of  the  appearance  and  first  expres- 
sion of  a  national  consciousness  in  the 
form  of  annals  and  recorded  traditions 
shall  be  associated  under  law  with  the 
earliest  discovery  and  application  of  the 
metals  to  the  purposes  of  human  life. 
The  metallic  age,  if  we  may  so  express 
it,  is  coincident  with  the  dawn  of  epic 
poetry  and  the  first  records  of  legend 
and  tradition.  When  the  primeval  man 
emerges  from  the  shadows  of  barbarism 
he  begins  to  sing  and  to  carry  a  me- 
tallic battle-ax.  Thus  it  appears  that 
the  manufacture  of  the  metals  by  ration- 
al or  empirical  processes,  and  their  use 


instead  of  the  ruder  materials  employed 
in  the  age  of  savagery,  is  the  second  cir- 
cumstance which  determines  the  line  of 
demarkation  between  the  civilized  forms 
of  life  and  the  preceding  barbaric  ages. 
In  other  words,  the  line  which  is  drawn 
between  the  savage  and  unconscious  state 
of  the  human  race  and  its  conscious  and 
enlightened  activities  has  history  as  one 
of  its  points  of  departure  and  the  use  of 
the  metals  for  the  other. 

The  question  will  at  once  arise  whether 
savage  nations  have  no  traditional  forms 
of  expression.  Undoubted-  Evanescent 
ly  they  have.  All  tribes  ^SS-'^" 
of  men,  in  however  low  a  tions. 
condition  of  development,  cultivate  leg- 
end and  tradition.  They  are  fond  of 
reciting  stories  about  themselves  and 
the  other  races  with  whom  they  have 
come  in  contact.  They  are  even  as  chil- 
dren telling  unthinkable  things  about 
wolves  and  bears  and  giants.  But  the 
point  to  be  observed  is  the  ivipcrmancncc 
of  the  traditions  of  barbarism.  Contrary 
to  the  popular  apprehension,  the  legends 
and  stories  of  really  prehistoric  peoples 
are  exceedingly  evanescent.  They  gen- 
erally pass  away  with  the  current  gener- 
ation, or  at  least  take  a  new  form  with 
the  .succeeding  one.  The  absence  of  a 
record  to  preserve  and  crystallize  the 
myths  and  imaginations  of  primeval 
man  is  the  circumstance  which  prevents 
their  perpetuity.  Each  age  among  bar- 
barians has  its  own  cycle  of  traditions, 
but  they  have  no  continuance  or  fixed 
form.  All  the  legends  of  savagery  com- 
bined would  be  no  other  than  the  bab- 
blings of  the  living  generation,  or  at  most 
the  transmitted  form  of  the  babblings  of 
their  fathers  and  grandfathers.  It  is 
now  a  well-ascertained  fact  that  the 
most  apocryphal  .stories  told  by  .savages 
pretending  to  give  an  account  of  past 
events  in  which  their  own  people  have 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— CONDITIONS   OF  SAVAGE  LIFE. 


369 


borne  a  part,  are  only  the  current  ex- 
pression in  a  magnified  and  distorted 
form  of  things  that  have  happened 
within  easy  reach  of  the  memories  of 
men. 

Many  instructive  and  even  amusing 
illustrations  may  be  given  from  the  an- 
Instances  of  nals  of  Current  savagery  of 
^ero^ylnTav-  the  Valueless  and  short- 
^s^s.  lived  character  of  barbarian 

traditions.  In  November  of  1642  Abel 
Janssen  Tasman  discovered  the  island 
which  now  bears  the  name  of  Tasmania, 
.southeast  of  Australia.  The  people 
passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  Dutch, 
and  the  vicissitude  Avas  as  great  as  could 
possibly  happen  to  a  barbarian  race.  In 
1770,  a  hundred  and  twenty-eight  years 
after  the  discovery  of  the  island,  the  great 
navigator  James  Cook  visited  the  Tas- 
manians  and  acquainted  himself  with 
their  traditional  knowledge.  He  found 
nowhere  in  the  island  the  slightest  evi- 
dence of  a  recollection  of  Tasman's  visit. 
Every  trace  of  that  great  event  had 
lapsed  into  oblivion.  Another  instance 
of  like  sort  is  furnished  in  the  great  in- 
land voyage  and  exploration  of  De  Soto 
through  the  gulf  region  of  the  United 
States.  Long  before  the  Revolution  all 
remembrance  and  tradition  of  this  event 
had  passed  from  the  minds  of  the  Red 
men.  On  being  questioned,  the  most 
intelligent  chiefs  in  the  region  through 
which  De  Soto  had  passed  were  found 
to  be  totallv  ignorant  of  the  romantic 
expedition  which  had  laid  their  own 
country  open  to  the  aggressions  of  an- 
other race. ' 


'  The  impermanence  of  the  traditions  of  savages 
is  strongly  contrasted  with  the  persistency  of  tradi- 
tion a/ler  a  race  has  once  entered  the  conscious 
stage  of  development.  When  a  tribe  has  reached 
the  epoch  of  race  consciousness  and  has  begun  to 
employ  the  metals  in  manufacture  and  art,  then  its 
traditions  become  permanent  and  of  high  historical 
interest. 


It  is  clear  that  three  or  four  genera- 
tions  constitute   the   limit   to   which   a 

knowledge     of    even     great    Transformation 

national  catastrophes  is  ^ron^lta^bario" 
transmitted  among  savage  legends, 
peoples.  Even  during  the  continuance 
of  a  tradition  in  barbarism  it  takes  on 
constantly  new  and  exaggerated  forms, 
rendering  it  totally  unfit  for  historical 
purposes.  The  imagination  of  the  abo- 
rigines adds  to  and  modifies  the  narra- 
tive until  it  is  distorted  out  of  all  sem- 
blance to  the  original.  It  is  narrated 
by  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie  that  during 
his  travels  among  the  Esquimaux  they 
were  wont  to  describe  the  English  to 
him  as  giants  with  wings.  They  said 
that  the  English  soldiers  could  kill  men 
by  looking  at  them,  and  that  one  of 
them  could  swallow  a  whole  beaver  at 
a  mouthful !  The  traveler  Mansfield 
Parkyns,  in  his  account  of  the  traditions 
of  the  Abyssinians,  relates  one  of  their 
stories  to  the  effect  that  some  German 
missionaries  had  in  the  course  of  a  few 
days  made  a  tunnel  from  Adowa  to 
Massowah,  on  the  Red  sea,  a  distance  of 
more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles! 
In  fact,  all  of  the  traditions  and  myths 
of  savage  tribes  are  apocryphal  in  the 
last  degree;  and  this  fact,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  their  impermanence,  de- 
stroys all  value  that  they  might  other- 
wise possess  for  the  antiquary  and 
historian. 

While  it  is  true  that  barbarous  tradi- 
tions are  thus  useless  for  purposes  of 
history,  and  misleading  if  depended  on  to 
throw  light  upon  the  general  conditions 
of  savage  races,  it  is  also  true  that  the 
manners  and  customs  of  these  same 
races  are  among  the  most  persistent  facts 
which  the  student  of  human  life  will 
ever  encounter.  A  tradition  or  legend 
will  change  its  form  like  the  figments  of 
the  kaleidoscope.     It  will  vanish  with  a 


370 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


brief  lapse  of  time  and  never  reappear. 
But  the  manners  of  even  wild  and  rov- 
ing tribes  hold  their  form  through  every 
vicissitude  and  long  generations. 

Nothing  is  better  calculated  to  aston- 
ish the  inquirer  than  the  persistency  and 
integrity  of  customs.    They 

Persistency  and  ^  1,1  i      ^  j 

integrity  of  cus-   Can    hardly   be    destroyed. 

toms  and  habits,    rj.^^^      ^^^^      through       the 

severest  crises,  and  come  up  after  great 
catastrophes  in  all  their  pristine  vigor 


shocks  and  revolutions,  through  migra- 
tion and  famine,  through  the  ravages  of 
pestilence  and  the  horrors  of  war,  and  is 
indeed  coexistent  with  the  race  of  which 
it  is  a  part.  A  trivial  custom  easily  out- 
lasts the  life  of  man.  It  survives  the 
mountain  oak  which  has  braved  the 
storms  of  a  millennium.  It  outlasts  the 
granite  obelisk  which  the  conceit  of  a 
mistaken  people  has  reared  as  the  most 
permanent  memorial    of   its   greatne.ss. 


#^' 


PERSISTENCY  OF  ETHNIC  FEATURES.— (t)  Ancient  Hebrew  Shephkru  with  Sling.— Drawn  by  H,  A.  Harper. 


and  definiteness  of  outline.  Even  the 
trivial  circumstance  of  a  peculiarity  of 
tribal  speech  will  be  perpetuated  from 
generation  to  generation,  and  the  more 
substantial  elements  of  custom  seem  to 
endure  forever.  Habit  is,  if  possible, 
more  unchangeable  with  a  tribe  or 
people  than  with  the  individual.  It 
seems  to  be  a  part  of  the  blood  and  nerve 
of  national  existence.      It  goes  through 


There  are  still  present  in  human  society 
forms  and  customs  and  peculiarities- 
modes  of  action  and  ceremonial  habit.s — 
that  have  been  transmitted  to  the 
modern  world  from  the  shadow  and  ob- 
scurity of  the  unknowable  ages  that  lie 
below  the  daydawn  of  civilization ;  and 
in  like  manner  the  present  will  contrib- 
ute to  the  coming  ages  its  customs,  ita 
methods,  and  its  ceremonials. 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— CONDITIONS   OF  SAVAGE  LIFE. 


371 


preservation  of 
Semitic  man- 
iiers. 


If  we  would  see  a  striking  illustration 
of  the  persistency  of  manners  and  cus- 
toms, we  have  only  to  glance  at  some  of 
Examples  of  the  the  modem  descendants 
of  ancient  nations.  The 
Semitic  race,  for  instance, 
presents  us  in  modern  times  with  two 
striking  race  developments.  The  Jews 
and  the  Arabs  still  stand  as  the  typical 
representatives  of  a  family  of 
men  already  old  at  the  birth  of 
most  of  the  ancient  kingdoms. 
In  the  case  of  the  Jews,  their 
dispersion  among  other  peoples 
has  to  a  considerable  extent 
conformed  them  in  the  practical 
affairs  of  life  to  the  methods  and 
manners  of  those  among  whom 
they  drift,  but  with  whom  they 
are  by  no  means  amalgamated. 
So  we  may  look  to  the  Arabs  of 
the  present  time  as  the  living 
expression  of  those  ethnic 
forces  which  were  dominant  in 
the  seed  of  Abraham.  No  one 
who  acquaints  himself  with 
Arabian  manners  and  customs, 
and  is  at  the  same  time  conver- 
sant with  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Israelitish  nation 
of  antiquity,  can  fail  to  notice 
that  the  forms  of  life  among 
the  Arabians  of  to-day  are  iden- 
tical with  those  of  the  Hebrews 
fifteen  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  The  very  gar- 
ments which  the  Arabs  wear 
might  have  been  stripped  from  the 
bodies  of  the  patriarchs.  Their  fashion 
is  the  same,  and  the  material  and  its 
method  of  manufacture  are  to  all  in- 
tents and  purposes  identical.  The 
ceremonial  of  the  house  and  the  tent  are 
just  as  they  were  in  Canaan  before  the 
Egyptian  bondage.  An  Arab  sheik 
meeting  another  clad  and  mounted  like 


himself  and  each  followed  by  his  retinue 
across  the  deserts  and  valleys  of  Arabia, 
might  be  photographed  and  the  matter 
and  the  manner  of  the  inter\-iew  re- 
peated, and  both  would  be  a  faithful 
transcript  of  the  meeting  and  compact 
between  Lot  and  Abraham. 

If  we  descend  into  the  particulars  of 
speech   and   the   manners  of    daily  life 


PERSISTENCY   OF   ETHNIC  FEATURES — (2)    MODERN    ARAB   WEARING 

THE  ABA. 

Drawn  by  Paul  Hatdy. 


among  the  Arabs  we  shall  find  the  an- 
cient ceremonial  faithfull}'  DaUyUfeofthe 
duplicated.  The  forms  of  ^eHpt^Ttra; of 
salutation  and  of  farewell  the  Hebrews, 
have  persisted  in  their  integrity  for 
more  than  three  thousand  years.  The 
same  views  of  life — of  its  origin,  its  na- 
ture, and  its  destiny — the  same  ideas  of 
dutv  and  obligation,  of  the  nature  and 


372 


GREAT  RACES    OE  MANKIND. 


immediate  presence  of  a  personal  deity 
interfering-  with  the  affairs  of  the  com- 
mon lot  and  directing  even  the  details 
of  all  events,  are  to-day  in  the  Arabian 
mind  and  on  his  tongue  and  in  his  ac- 
tions with  all  the  realism  and  vitality 
and  distinctness  which  those  same  ideas 
possessed  in  the  minds  of  the  great 
military  leaders  and  prophets  of  primi- 
tive Israel.  The  Elohim  of  the  Hebrew 
is  the  Allah  of  the  Arab.  The  appeal 
to  the  one  for  the  protection  of  his  tribe 
and  victory  over  the  enemy  is  as  con- 
stant and  confident  in  the  camp  of  the 
Arabian  chieftain  as  was  the  appeal  to 
the  other  in  the  tent  of  Joshua  or  Saul. 

To  the  ancient  Hebrew  and  to  the  mod- 
ern Arab  alike  this  Allah,  this  almighty 
Common  reii-  personal  God,  directs  every- 
modernlndan-  thing.  He  brings  pesti- 
cient  Semites.  lence,  and  is  the  giver  of 
health.  He  blesses  and  curses  accord- 
ing to  the  righteousness  or  the  wicked- 
ness of  his  people.  He  speaks  to  the 
sleeper  in  dreams.  The  dream  is  only 
the  voice  of  God  in  the  darkness.  Years 
of  plenty  and  years  of  drought  are  both 
from  his  hand.  He  ripens  the  grain  to 
a  perfect  harvest  or  blasts  the  fields  with 
mildew.  He  sends  the  early  and  the 
latter  rain  when  the  people  have  been 
obedient,  or  the  murrain  and  the  locusts 
when  they  have  disobeyed.  All  this 
and  ten  thousand  other  things  which, 
taken  in  their  entirety,  constitute  the 
tangible  outer  garment  of  Arabian 
life,  are  in  manner  and  substance  virtu- 
ally the  same  at  the  present  day  as  they 
were  among  the  captives  who  sat  down 
and  wept  by  the  rivers  of  Babylon,  or 
among  the  strong  soldiery  who  followed 
the  banners  of  the  Maccabees  in  their 
last  struggle  for  independence  through 
the  wilderness  of  Judaea. 

Were  we  equally  well  acquainted  with 
the  tribal  history  of  other  races  the  same 


phenomena  —  the  same  repetition  in 
modern  life  of  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  remote  antiquity Primitive  Teu- 

could   be    discovered    and  rvesurvTed 

pointed     out.       Had    we     at    to  present  day. 

the  present  a  record  of  the  boisterous 
manners  and  hilarious  barbarism  of  the 
Teutones  who  hovered  darkly  in  the 
forests  beyond  the  Danube  and  the 
Rhine  in  the  days  of  the  early  republic 
of  Rome,  we  should  be  able  to  note  the 
repetition  and  persistence  of  these  cus- 
toms among  the  Ostrogothic  and  Visi- 
gothic  invaders  who,  many  centuries 
later,  devastated  the  empire.  And 
were  we  well  acquainted,  as  we  are  ac- 
quainted in  part,  with  the  primitive 
barbarians  Avho  inliabited  the  lowlands 
of  Holland  in  the  north,  we  should  find 
their  manners  and  customs  preserved, 
not  only  in  outline,  but  in  detail  and  cir- 
cumstance, among  the  broad-shouldered 
and  florid  Saxons  who  followed  Egbert 
and  Alfred  in  their  battles  with  the 
Danes,  and  upon  whose  rugged  nature 
still  rests  the  superstructure  of  British 
greatness.  The  clatter  of  their  ale- 
horns,  the  ring  of  their  battle-axes, 
their  barbarian  laughter,  and  their 
snatches  of  savage  song  would  be  heard 
repeated  in  the  jocular  hilarity  and 
boisterous  mirth  of  Chaucer's  bantering 
pilgrims,  in  the  wild  uproar  and  vulgar- 
ity of  Shakespeare's  taverns  and  battle- 
fields, and  even  faintly  echoed  through 
the  mist  and  gauze  of  the  refined  and 
beautiful  epics  of  the  late  Laureate  of 
England. 

By  carefully  weighing  the  foregoing' 
considerations  we    are   able   to   see   the 

means        by        which         the    Monumental  re- 
■^  mains  the  cer- 

character  and   methods  of  tain  evidence  of 

.. .         r  1   •   i       •  1         prehistoric  con- 

life  of   prehistoric  peoples  ditions. 
may  be  in  some  measure  comprehended. 
The  inquirer  will,  of  course,  in   the  first 
place  examine  all  the   existing  remains 


PRIMEVAL   MAX—CONDITIONS   OF  SAVAGE   LIFE. 


373 


which  the  peoples  of  antiquity  have  left 
behind.  A  monument,  unless  misjudged 
as  to  its  design  and  character,  consti- 
tutes the  fundamental  evidence  with  re- 
gard to  the  men  who  reared  it.  It  gives 
the  only  primary  testimony,  and  may  be 
relied  upon  with  absolute  faith  as  to  its 
verity  and  significance. 

Monumental  remains  are  even  more 
certain  in  their  testimony,  more  absolute 
in  their  fidelity  to  the  facts  which  they 
represent,   than   are   the  best  historical 


indubitable  as  in  the  testimony  deduced 
from  monumental  remains.  But  man- 
ners and  customs  are,  nevertheless, 
trustworthy  indications  of  the  past  con- 
dition of  the  human  race.  Mere  tradi- 
tion may  not  be  trusted.  We  have  seen 
the  absurdity  and  brevity  of  the  legend- 
ary part  of  barbarian  history.  Traditional 
forms  of  thought,  as  they  are  passed 
from  tongue  to  tongue  among  the  bar- 
barous tribes  of  men,  have  an  independ- 
ent interest  of  their  own,   just    as  the 


PERSISTENCY   OF  CUSTOMS — MOURNING   WOMEN   OF   OLI>   EGYPT. 
From  the  entablature  found  in  the  tomb  of  Plah-Hotep,  at  Thebes. 


writings  produced  by  man.     The  latter  I  fictions  and  extravagant  imaginations  of 
are    always     in     some     sense 
warped    from    the     image    of 
truth.     They  bear  the  impress 
of    the    annalist    or    historian 
from    whose    brain   they  were 
evolved.   They  are  tinged  with 
a    thousand    prejudices  of  the 
passing   age.     But  the  monu- 
ment is  unconscious.       It    has 
no  prejudices  or  passions.     It 
belongs  to  no  sect  or  party,  and 
is  unbiased  in   its  evidence  by 
any    personal    equation.       No 
conscious    force    of  human   caprice  has 
been   impressed   upon   it.      It  stands   in 
naked  austerity  a  solemn  witness  of  the 
purposes  and  genius  of  the  people  who 
reared  it. 

In  the  second  place  the  inquirer  may, 
as  we  have  seen,  depend  in  large  meas- 
Deductions  ure  upon  the  fidelity  of  man- 

These 
have  been  perpetuated  from 
age  to  age,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  earliest,  even  the  unconscious,  move- 
ments of  mankind  on  the  earth  are  to  a 
considerable  extent  reflected  and  por- 
trayed in  the  existing  habits  of  barbari- 
ans. Allowance  must  be  made  for  the 
deflection  of  human  nature  under  the  in- 
fluences of  time  and  circumstance.  It 
must  always  be  remembered  that    the 


u;r™e'f '■  ners  and   customs 

and  customs. 


evidence  in  this  case  is  not  absolute  and 


children  may  prove  of  interest  to  the 
metaphysician  and  philosopher.  But  the 
story  told  by  the  child  must  not  be  ac- 
cepted in  the  court  of  higher  reason  as 
an  evidence  of  its  own  origin  or  the 
methods  of  its  previous  life.  We  are 
thus  virtually  limited  in  our  inquiry 
concerning  the  prehistoric  condition  of 
men  to  the  two  general  conditions  here 
indicated,  namely,  the  monumental  re- 
mains which  are  preserved  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  as  evidences  of  the  men 
who  produced  them,  and  the  persistency 
of  manners  and  customs  among  the  peo- 
ples now  inhabiting  the  world. 

Another  consideration  here  presents 
itself  and  demands  a  brief  inquiry.  It 
is  the  source  or  primary  origin  of  bar- 
barit)^  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  the 
remotest  antiquity  which  we  are  able  to 


374 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


discover  by  means  of  ethnic,  linguistic, 

and  archaeological  study,  tribes  of  men 

struggled   for  a  precarious 

Inquiry  into  the  .  . 

primary  origin  existcncc  ou  the  earth  in  a 
o  bar  arism.  condition  of  the  profound- 
est  savagery.  Nor  is  there  any  doubt 
that  similar  races  still  possess  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  surface  of  our  planet, 
living  thereon  in  a  condition  of  animal- 
ity  which  must  be  seen  in  order  to  be 
realized  in  its  profound  abasement  and 
savage  degradation.  But  Avhat  is  the 
origin  of  this  degradation  ?  How  has  it 
happened  that  men  have  come  into  such 
relations  of  depravity  and  gloom?  In 
what  way  may  the  degrading  barbarism 
of  the  ancient  world  or  the  equally  low 
condition  of  the  outlying  savage  races  of 
the  present  time  be  rationally  accounted 
for  and  explained? 

Two  principal  theories  have  been  ad- 
vanced in  answer  to  these  questions. 
Two  expiana-  They  are  diametrically  op- 
\Z':^T:,°L  posed  in  the  views  which 
barbaric  state,  they  present  of  the  history 
of  the  human  race.  The  first  is  the 
theory  of  the  descent  of  mankind  from 
a  primitive  high  estate  to  the  fenlands 
of  barbarism.  In  this  view  of  the  case 
the  first  condition  of  the  human  family 
was  one  of  elevation,  of  refinement,  of 
knowledge,  of  power.  But  from  this  high 
plane  of  primitive  purity,  excellence, 
and  greatness  mankind  has  descended 
to  lower  and  lower  grades  of  being  until, 
in  remote  antiquity  where  the  ethnolo- 
gist first  discovers  the  primeval  peoples, 
they  wallowed  in  savagery  and  degrada- 
tion. The  first  age  was  the  age  of  gold. 
Then  came  the  lapse  from  the  noble 
estate  with  which  the  race  was  started, 
the  swift  decline  of  the  dispersed  and 
broken  fugitives,  the  loss  of  former  reason 
and  spirituality,  until  the  gloom  of  bar- 
barism settled  around  all  the  horizon  of 
human  life,  and  naked  savages  were  seen 


by  the  river  banks  and  in  the  shadows 
of  the  forest. 

All  the  evidences  of  barbarism — so 
the  hypothesis  continues — which  the  his- 
torian and  archaeologist  discover  in  exist- 
ing and  extinct  races  are  Hypothesis  of 
but  the  results  of  this  lapse  '^l^^^^i^'J 
and  ruin  of  the  human  an  age  of  gold, 
family.  All  the  efforts  which  have  been 
put  forth  for  the  elevation  of  mankind 
are  only  the  broken  and  half-hopeless 
struggle  to  restore  the  human  race  to  its 
pristine  glory;  and  the  heavy  forces 
which  impede  the  progress  and  t^ie  high- 
er development  of  men  are  but  the  re- 
sidual poison  and  malevolent  habits  which 
they  have  acquired,  as  they  would  ac- 
quire the  infection  of  disease,  in  the 
course  of  their  descent  and  the  groveling 
of  their  low  estate.  Such  in  brief  is  the 
general  view  which  has  long  prevailed 
relative  to  the  origin  of  savagery  in  the 
human  family. 

Directly  opposed  to  this  hypothesis  is 
the  theory  that  the  true  original  condi- 
tion of  men  in  the  world  Belief  that  the 
was  one  of  a  low  grade  of  Sr^asin 
animality,  and  that  all  sub-  savagery, 
sequent  movements  of  mankind  have 
been  along  the  lines  of  an  evolution 
which  is  gradually  lifting  the  human 
race  through  hard  and  tortuous  proc- 
esses to  a  higher  plane.  In  some  favored 
situations  this  evolutionary  force  has  al- 
ready, in  different  ages,  brought  certain 
peoples  out  of  barbarism  into  the  light 
of  reason  and  at  least  the  beginnings  of 
civilization.  In  other  places  and  under 
less  favorable  conditions  the  primitive 
state  still  abounds,  and  men  have  grown 
but  little  from  the  merely  animal  life 
with  which  they  were  projected  into  the 
world.  All  the  movements  of  history, 
according  to  this  hypothesis,  have  a 
common  trend  toward  the  production  of 
a  complete  man  and  a  perfect   society. 


PRIMEVAL  MAN.— CONDITIONS   OF  SAVAGE  LIFE. 


375 


In  the  struggle  to  reach  this  end  some 
peoples  go  to  the  front,  others  lag,  and 
still  others  drop  into  nonentity.  vSome 
become  self-conscious  and  display  those 
high  and  generous  activities  which  in 
the  aggregate  go  by  the  name  of  civili- 
zation, and  others  remain  on  lower  levels, 
or  even  in  the  original  sloughs  of  bar- 
barism.    The  civilized  forms  of  life,  ac- 


stone,  or  half-naked  fishermen  dragging 
their  nets  and  boats  to  shore  on  solitary 
coasts.  The  further  the  lines  of  human 
life  are  traced  backward  the  more  pro- 
foundly do  they  penetrate  a  world  where 
reason  is  absent  and  bestiality  prevails. 
Out  of  this  primitive  state  the  more 
vigorous  of  the  savage  peoples,  by  toil- 
some   ascent     and    painful     struggles, 


BARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED— ANXIENT  FISHING  SCENE.— Drawn  by  Riou. 


cording  to  this  view  of  human  history, 
are  merely  the  survival  and  develop- 
ment of  those  better  activities  which 
have  been  found  to  be  of  benefit  to  the 
race. 

It  thtis  happens  that  when  the  eth- 
nologist and  the  historian  begin  an 
Elaboration  of  examination  of  the  past 
this  view -arga-  ^^  ^^      Savagery      as 

ments  m  its  sup-  -'  b      j 

pi'rt-  the  bottom  fact.     The  first 

discoverable  men  are  rude  hunters 
smiting   wild    beasts   with    weapons    of 


gradually  emerge  into  conscious  exist- 
ence. They  expand  in  their  intellectual 
powers,  invent  superior  forms  of  utter- 
ance and  a  pictorial  representation  of 
thought,  write  their  words  by  means  of 
symbols,  record  the  story  of  their  own 
deeds,  mass  themselves  into  strong  com- 
munities, begin  to  reason  about  the 
origin  of  the  world  and  the  course  of 
nature,  and  finally  take  up  the  chant  of 
epic  poetry.  Which,  then,  of  these  two 
contradictorv    theories    will  better    ex- 


376 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


plain  the  existence  and  origin  of  bar- 
barism ? 

Many  arguments  may  be  sincerely 
advanced  in  favor  of  each  hypothesis.  It 
is  the  duty  of  history  to  deal  candidly 
with  all  questions,  to  have  no  prejudice 
and  no  fear.  The  time  has  arrived  in 
the  course  of  human  events  when  the 
great  problems  of  the  past  may  be  con- 
sidered with  calmness  and  courage.  No 
blind  fanaticism  for  one  or  the  other  of 
antagonistic  theories  should  any  longer 
sway  the  decision  of  an  inquiry  which  is 
of  so  great  an  interest,  and  the  solution 
of  which  in  one  way  or  the  other  can 
hardly  change  the  great  movement  of 
mankind  toward  the  higher  develop- 
ments and  grander  activities  of  the 
future.  In  behalf  of  the  hypothesis  of 
the  descent  of  mankind  from  an  original 
high  estate  into  conditions  of  savagery, 
several  facts  and  arguments  may  be 
truthfully  advanced: 

I .  In  the  first  place,  the  traditions  of 
nations,  especially  in  that  part  of  their 
career  when  they  have  themselves  just 
emerged  from  the  barbarous  condition, 
generally  recount  an  original  age  of  gold 
„  which  their  fathers  enioved 

Race  traditions  .  .  ■'    •" 

generally  point     and  in  which  they  Were  the 

to  an  age  of  gold.  .  ...  ,  tvt        i 

great  participants.  Nearly 
all  the  vigorous  races  of  antiquity  that 
played  important  parts  in  the  ancient 
world  had  traditional  beliefs  of  this 
kind.  They  looked  back  through  the 
mists  and  obscurities  of  their  own  age 
and  the  ages  immediately  preceding  to 
an  epoch  of  splendor  and  renown  in 
which  their  heroic  fathers  were  seen  afar 
as  tall  trees  walking.  All  the  early 
theogony  and  cosmogony  of  the  ancients 
as  depicted  in  their  philosophical  sj's- 
tems,  their  myths,  their  epic  and  dra- 
matic poetry,  were  touched  and  flecked  in 
every  part  with  the  traces  of  this  belief. 
It  can  not  be  well  explained  why  the 


greatest  peoples  of  the  ancient  world 
should  have  held  and  propagated  such 
opinions  respecting  their  Difficulty  of  ac- 
ancestry  and  the  state  of  ^^n^f/rof^' 
society  out  of  which  they  such  a  belief: 
were  descended,  unless  there  had  been 
some  ground  for  such  belief.  Looked 
at  as  an  abstract  question,  it  appears 
more  rational  that  the  bards  and  myth- 
makers  of  the  primitive  world  should 
have  chosen  to  glorify  themselves  and 
the  passing  age  by  representing  their 
descent  as  issuing  from  darkness  and 
barbarism,  rather  than  to  picture  them- 
selves as  degraded  from  a  godlike  an- 
cestry. It  is  not  certain  in  which  way 
the  half-conscious  intellect  of  the  primi- 
tive man  would  work  or  by  what  laws  it 
would  be  guided  in  the  development  of 
traditional  beliefs.  But  the  fact  remains 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  best  teach- 
ers of  antiq'aity  believed  themselves  the 
offspring  of  a  great  paternity,  and  that 
back  of  the  barbarities  of  their  own  age 
and  the  immediate  ages  of  their  fathers 
lay  a  resplendent  age  of  gold,  from 
whose  heights  and  heroic  activities  men 
had  descended  by  gradations  into  a  low 
estate. 

2.  In  the  next  place,  it  may  be  well 
urged  that  many  nations  within  the  his- 
torical   era     have     actually   Actual  examples 

declined  from  higher  into  ^^Itunt^^ 
lower  conditions.  In  fact,  of  races, 
all  the  great  nations  once  in  possession 
of  the  better  parts  of  the  world,  once 
organized  into  tremendous  communities, 
once  filling  the  streets  of  magnificent 
cities,  once  directing  the  commerce, 
cultivating  the  arts  and  controlling  the 
energies  of  mankind,  once  gathering 
into  vast  treasure-houses  the  resources 
of  the  world  and  sending  forth  invinci- 
ble armies  for  the  conquest  of  Gentiles 
and  barbarians,  have  now  disappeared 
from  among  the  powers,  and  are  known 


PRIMEVAL   MAN—CONDITIONS   OF  SAVAGE  LIFE. 


377 


only  by  annals  and  memorials.  It  is 
also  true  that  these  great  nations  have, 
as  a  rule,  not  gone  out  by  sudden  eclipse 
and  extinction,  but 
they  have  rather  fallen 
away  by  degrees,  re- 
laxed, insensibly  at 
first  and  sensibly  af- 
terwards, their  hold  of 
power,  and  crumbled 
away  until  attack  from 
without  and  feeble- 
ness from  within  have 
joined  their  forces  to 
complete  an  inevitable 
downfall. 

It  is  hardly  needed 
to  recite  examples  of 
national  decay.  It  is 
almost  superfluous  to 
recount  the  tremen- 
dous domination  once 
established  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nile,  now 
represented  by  Arab 
sheiks,  miserable  col- 
lections of  degenerate 
Copts  in  squalid  vil- 
lages, and  a  few  de- 
graded fellahs  plow- 
ing with  oxen  in  the 
glebe  by  the  river 
banks.  The  early 
Chaldsean  empire  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Eu- 
phrates has  left  only 
scattered  monumental 
traces.  The  glory  of 
the  Assyrians  and  of 
the  later  Babylonians 
has  passed  forever 
from  the  valley  of  the 
two  great  rivers. 
The  tremendous  Turcomans,  iron  for- 
gers at  the  first  from  the  mines 
of  the  Altais,  who  came  as  conquerors 

M. — Vol.  I — 25 


into  Western  Asia,  surrounded  the  city 
of  Con.stantine  and  made  it  their  capital, 
are   now    degenerated    into   the   opium 


E.\A.\irLE   OF   RACE   DEI  EKIOKAllO.N — KUBlllSil-BEAKEK   UF   EGYPT. 
Drawn  by  Gustavc  Richter. 


smokers  and  harem  builders  of  the  Bos- 
phorus.  The  splendor  of  Athens  and 
the  glory  of  the  Athenian  intellect  have 


378 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


given  way,  through  long  ages,  to  for- 
eign domination,  and  the  traveler  stands 
sad-hearted  among  the  ruins  of  the 
Acropolis,  or  marks  with  astonishment 


l.XAMILE   OF    RACE   DETEKIOKATION — KOMAN   BEGGARS. 


the  miserable  goat  houses  built  over  the 
oracle  of  Delphi.  The  Rome  of  an- 
tiquity, whose  solid  walls  of  stone  and 
tremendous  legions  clanking  their  armor 
on  the  stone  slabs  of  the  Appian  Way 
have   become    onlv   a    tradition    and    a 


name,  has  shrunk  from  her  ancient  cir- 
cuit of  the  hills  to  a  commonplace  city, 
the  throne  of  superstition  and  conserva- 
tism, and  haunt  of  beggary. 

3.  The  care- 
ful reader  of 
the  preceding 
pages  will  not 
have  failed  to 
note  that  many 
of  the  monu- 
mental  re- 
mains of  an- 
tiquitybetoken 
unmistakably 
the  energies 
and  genius  of 
a  superior  peo- 
ple. Some  of 
the  most  prim- 
itive memori- 
als of  the  hu- 
man race  are 
.  L  m  o  n  g  the 
most  convinc- 
ing and  sub- 
stantial evi- 
d  e  n  c  e  s  of 
power  and 
grandeur.  The 
granite  obe- 
lisks and  pyra- 
mids of  Egypt, 
the  so-called 
Cyclopean 
ruins  in 
Greece,  the  old 
Etruscan  aque- 
ducts, such  as 
the  Cloaca 
Maxima   at    Rome,    the   great   military 

mounds     and     fortifications    Monumental  re- 


mains indicate 


in  North  America,  and  SiJ greatness  of 
particularly  the  Peruvian  ancient  peoples, 
ruins  on  the  plateau  of  the  Andes,  mark 
and  emphasize  the  activities  of  races  of 


PRL]rE]\4L   MAN.— CONDITIONS   OF  SAVAGE  IJl-R. 


379 


men  hardly  inferior  to  the  strongest  and 
most  skillful  known  in  history.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  in  many  of  these 
localities  barbarism  long-  flourished  and 
ran  rampant  after  the  tremendous 
monuments  reared  by  preceding  civil- 
ized peoples  had  gone  down  to  ruins. 
The  Peruvian  monuments  were  in  their 
origin  as  far  anterior  to  the  domination 
of  the  Incas  as  the  Incas  are  remote 
from  the  Peruvians  of  to-da}-.  The 
earthworks  and  mounds  of  North  Amer- 
ica antedate  the  epoch  of  the  Red  men 
by  a  span  of  ages.  The  massive  foun- 
dations laid  by  the  Etniscans  in  their 
own  district  and  in  Latium  are  far  more 
ancient  than  even  the  traditions  of  the 
primitive  Latin  race.  So  also  are  the 
Cyclopean  remains  of  Greece  far  more 
remote  than  even  the  age  of  the  heroes ; 
and  as  to  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  it  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  the  oldest  of  them 
are  the  grandest  and  most  enduring. 

4.   In  the  fourth  place,   the  evidence 
of  language  points  to  a  primitive  condi- 
tion of  mankind  in  which 

Language  seems 

to  have  begun  in  the    intelligence    and 

an  age  of  reason.  , . 

reason  were  the  supreme 
characteristics.  Whatever  may  have 
been  the  origin  of  human  speech,  it  is 
clearly  a  rational  product.  The  oldest 
languages  with  which  we  are  acquainted 
are  the  most  perfect  in  their  kind.  If 
we  consider  that  great  group  which  we 
call  the  Aryan,  or  the  Indo-European, 
languages,  we  find  them  to  improve  as 
we  trace  up  their  descent  toward  their 
origin.  This  is  to  say  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
older  dialectical  form  is  fuller,  more 
complete,  and  more  rational  than  its 
descendent  derivative.  The  modern 
languages  of  Western  Europe  are,  as  a 
rule,  devoid  of  grammatical  structure, 
and  are  in  reality  rather  the  detritus  of 
a  perfect  speech  than  the  speech  itself. 
The  Anglo-Saxon    tongue  had   a  more 


extensive  grammar,  if  not  a  fuller  vo- 
cabulary, than  the  English  of  to-day. 
Moesogothic  was  richer  in  inflections  and 
rational  forms  than  its  descendent  Ger- 
man. Latin  was  more  inflected  and 
developed  than  Gothic,  and  Greek  pre- 
served many  of  the  forms  which  had 
already  decayed  and  fallen  out  of  Latin. 
Sanskrit  was  far  more  nearly  perfect  in 
its  structure  and  inflections  than  anv 
later  Aryan  tongue.  With  its  eight 
cases  and  three  numbers  for  nouns,  with 
its  full  verbal  development  and  its  in- 
flected adjectives,  it  stands  to-day  as 
perhaps  the  most  complete  .structural  ex- 
pression of  human  thought.  Thus  we 
see  that  the  higher  we  trace  the  streams 
of  the  Indo-European  languages,  the 
broader  and  fuller  are  the  forms  which 
we  encounter.  Xot  a  trace  of  evidence 
is  discoverable  that  any  one  of  the  multi- 
farious languages  descended  from  this 
common  source  had  an  origin  in  bar- 
barian ejaculations,  or  in  any  form  of 
irrational  utterance.  And  if  we  look 
still  more  closely  into  some  .standard 
form  of  this  speech  we  shall  find  that 
it  has  been  evolved  by  the  logical  proc- 
esses of  abstraction  and  generalization, 
the  noun  being  derived  from  the  verb 
and  the  adjective  from  the  noun,  by  an 
evident  effort  to  abstract  a  substance  or 
thing  from  an  action  and  a  qualit}'^  from 
a  substance. 

It  will  thiis  be  seen  that  many  rea.sons 
may  be  assigned  for  accepting  and  per- 
petuating the  old-time  be-  Arguments  may 
liefs  of  the  human  race  in  HHl^^lf,^, 
the  splendor  of  its  own  posmg  theory, 
ancestry  and  the  reality  of  the  age  of 
gold.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  many 
reasons  may  be  given  for  rejecting  such 
belief  and  putting  in  its  place  the  hy- 
pothesis of  an  ascent  from  barbarism 
instead  of  a  descent  from  heroes.  Titans, 
and  gods.     The  principal  arguments  in 


380 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKLXD. 


favor  of  the  theory  of  savagery  as  the 
original  condition  (jf  mankind  ma}'  be 
stated  as  follows : 

I.  Our  first  actual  historical  knowl- 
edge reaching  into  the  past  touches  only 
Backward  look  conditions  of  barbarism, 
of  history  reach-  n^    ^j^^  historian  or  ethnol- 

es  barbaric  be- 
ginnings, ogist  the  primeval  state  of 

man,  as  seen  from  his  point  of  view,  ap- 


of  progress  and  development  have,  mani- 
festly, been  borne  forward  by  evolution- 
ary forces  out  of  barbarian  conditions 
only  a  little  more  remote  than  the  peo- 
ples themselves.  Such  nations  as  the 
primitive  Greeks  were  evidently  result- 
ant from  an  ag^g-lomeration  of  semicivil- 
ized  tribes  who,  settling  down  from 
migratory    habits,    entered    into    union 


BARUARIAX  LIFE  ILLUSTRATED— Chase  in  the  Ace  of  Bkunze— Drawn  by  Ru 


pears  to  be  one  of  savagery.  It  is  true 
that  many  nations  are  discovered  in  the 
far  horizon  of  antiquity  that  on  our  ear- 
liest acquaintance  with  them  appear  al- 
read}^  in  a  state  of  intellectual  activity  and 
swift  progress  toward  the  civilized  forms 
of  life.  But  close  scrutiny  will  discover 
just  behind  thciii  a  lower  tribal  condition, 
and  behind  that  a  still  lower.  In  other 
words,  the  peoples  Avho  on  our  first  ac- 
quaintance with  them  appear  in  a  state 


with  each  other  and  began  to  develop 
into  rational  activities.  So  also  of  the 
Roman  gens  in  Latium  and  other  parts 
of  the  Italic  peninsula. 

All  this  is  a  .statement  of  the  case  as  it 
stands  in  the  backward  vision  of  the  his- 
torian or  ethnologist.  His  actual  ac- 
quaintance with  the  races  of  men  can 
not  well  penetrate  beyond  the  conditions 
of  savagery  7uhich  he  sees,  and  ascend  to 
a  primeval  of  intellectual  elevation  and 


PRIMEVAL    MAX.—COXDiriOXS    OF  SArAGE   LIFE. 


381 


social  happiness  which  /u-  docs  not  scr. 
He  need  not  deny  the  existence  of  such 
a  primitive  state,  but  his  discernment 
can  not  reach  it  throua^h  the  intervenino" 
darkness. 

2 .  Not  only  is  the  first  discernible  con- 
dition of  mankind  one  of  barbarism,  but 
Races  are  dis-  the  evidence  of  an  emer- 
^cruXoces?'  gence  therefrom  is  abun- 
of  evolution.  jant.  This  is  to  say  that 
under  the  eye  of  history  early  peoples, 
savage  or  half-savage  in  their  manners, 
are  in  many  instances  sciit  in  the  actual 
process  of  evolution  toward  the  higher  form 
of  rational  existence.  No  condition  in 
the  primitive  annals  of  mankind  is  more 
certainly  established  than  the  fact  that 
peoples  do  improve.  They  are  seen  to  do 
it.  If  we  measure  the  condition  of  a 
barbarous  tribe  and  compare  it  with  the 
condition  of  the  same  people  after  a  cen- 
tury or  two  centuries  of  growth,  we  can 
easily  discover  the  process  of  evolution 
and  its  results. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  improve- 
ment of  barbarian  races  is  in  many  cases 
sio-w  rate  of  race  slow-paced.  Scarcely  notice- 
7^^T^r  ^-ible  after  the  lapse  of  a  long 
agery.  period.      It    may    even    be 

admitted  that  many  barbarous  peoples 
have  not  improved  at  all.  It  is  probably 
true  that  the  original  forces  with  which 
some  tribes  are  impressed  are  not  suffi- 
cient to  bring  them  out  of  the  savage 
state.  They  continue  as  they  were  from 
age  to  age.  They  become  as  iixed  in 
their  habits  and  methods  of  life  as  are 
the  birds  and  beasts.  They  build  as  the 
beaver  builds,  and  the  concept  of  a  high- 
er state  is  totally  wanting  in  their  under- 
standing. But  in  most  instances  there 
is  a  forward  march — slow  it  may  be,  but 
still  a  movement  that  may  be  seen  and 
measured. 

History  is  filled  with  illustrations  of 
human    development.      Tribes    become 


peoples.       Peoples    become   states    and 
kingdoms  and  nations.      The  expansive 

force  of  the  social  and  civil    History  replete 

instinct    in  man     is     seen  '"^'tii  examples 

of  human  devel- 

working  powerfully  in  the  opment. 
evolution  of  higher  forms  of  activity  and 
better  expressions  of  right  reason.  The 
whole  story  of  the  human  career  is  in 
good  part  a  story  of  progress,  ameliora- 
tion, development.  It  is  the  law  of  life. 
The  hitman  race  shares  it  in  common 
with  all  other  forms  and  modes  of  exist- 
ence. Aye,  it  is  most  manifest  in  man. 
In  him  the  evolution  is  strongest,  and 
the  tendency  toward  a  higher  state — the 
dream  of  something  beyond  and  above — 
is  always  discernible  in  his  actions  and 
language.  The  roving  tribes  in  ancient 
Hellas  became  the  bronze-clad  warriors 
of  the  heroic  age.  The  returning  war- 
riors became  the  rhapsodists  and  orators 
of  the  age  of  patriotism  ;  and  the  rhapso- 
dists and  oi^ators  became  the  philosophers 
and  poets  of  the  most  intellectual  epoch 
of  the  human  race.  The  robbers  gath- 
ered on  the  Capitoline  Hill  plant  a  city 
and  organize  a  state.  Their  wolfish 
manners  give  way  to  the  culture  of  the 
market  place  and  the  early  forum.  An- 
other evolution,  and  we  see  the  senate- 
house,  the  tribune,  and  the  temple.  Still 
another,  and  the  marble-built  city,  with 
its  marching  armies  and  citizens  in  toga, 
its  columns,  its  busts,  its  trophies,  its 
roaring  circus  with  its  multitudes  are 
seen  —  finally  the  domination  of  the 
world. 

In  subject  Gaul  the  half-savage  and 
wholly  barbarous  Franks  hoist  their  chief- 
tain on  their  shields,  and  Clovis  appears 
as  the  primitive  king  of  a  The  Greek  evo- 
primitive  people.  Further  ^"rthaTofth^ 
on  are  Charlemagne  and  Gauis. 
his  school  of  the  palace.  Already  they 
are  reading  the  annals  of  the  past,  send- 
ing polite  messages  to  Haroun-al-Rashid, 


382 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


and  studying  the  stars.  Still  further  on, 
Godfrey  and  Raymond  and  vSaint  Louis 
gather  their  helmeted  warriors  and,  un- 
der an  ideal  enthusiasm,  would  rescue  the 
tomb  of  the  Christ  from  barbarians  and 
infidels.  Further  on  stands  forth  the 
French  nation,  breaking  the  fetters  of 
feudalism,  rising  through  the  bloodiest 
of  revolutions  into  a  splendor  and  free- 
dom hitherto  unknown  among  the  peo- 
ples of  the  earth — Napoleon  the  Great, 


splendor  of  the  Plantagenets ;  the  greater 
glory  of  Shakespeare  and  the  bards ;  the 
establishment  of  liberty  by  war;  over- 
throw and  rebuilding ;  emergence ;  Eng- 
lish liberty  ;  .  the  colonization  of  the 
world ;  the  triumph  of  letters  and  art. 

Everywhere  the  story  is  the  same. 
Progress  and  development,  the  first  law. 
Foundations  are  laid;  then  comes  con- 
quest, first  of  savagery  and  then  of  the 
forces  of  nature — the  bending  down  of 


THREE  STAGES  OF  CIVILIZATION  ILLUSTRATED-SKETCH  FROM  FORT  LARAMIE. 


his  conquering  armies,  victory,  renown, 
the  republic. 

In  the  oak  woods  of  primeval  Britain 
are  the  barbarian  Saxons  gathered  around 
Rise  of  the  Sax-  their  chiefs.  They  have 
b^A^t^Tre^V  filled  themselves  with  raw 
''^ss.  meats,   coarse  cheese,  and 

fiery  drinks,  but  they  found  their  petty 
states  —  a  heptarchy  of  possibilities. 
Then  come  Egbert  and  Alfred  and  the 
foundations  of  the  immovable  kingdom ; 
the  Conqueror;  Chaucer;  the  mediaeval 


the  tremendous  energies  of  the  material 
world  to  the  purposes  of  human  will  and 
endeavor — the  mastery  of  the  earth  and 
its  fullness.  All  these  are  the  very 
law,  the  fundamental  method  of  human 
existence  on  the  earth.  These  facts  are 
palpable.  The}^  are  seen  and  touched. 
They  are  known  and  manifest ;  and  in  so 
far  as  they  are  the  demonstrable  rule  by 
which  mankind  are  guided,  it  appears 
undeniable  that  the  history  of  humanity 
is  the  history  of  a  development  from  a 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— CONDITIONS   OF  SAVAGE  LIFE. 


383 


lower  into  a  higher  form  of  life — from 
barbarism  to  civilization. 

3.  In  the  third  place  it  must  be  acknowl- 
edged that  the  condition  into  which 
many  civilized  nations  have  fallen  and 
The  faUen  estate  relapsed  is  a  condition  very 

of  races  differs  t-rr  4    r  ji     j      ^   ^     ■      ■ 

whoUyfromsav-  'i'prcHt  from  that  of  prim  i- 
^^^'  tivc  savagery.   It  would  seem 

that  nations  iiaving  once  occupied  a 
high  plane  of  political  and  intellectual 
power  do  indeed  lapse  into  effeminacy, 
vice,  slavery,  and  moral  degradation; 
but  they  do  not  become  barbarous  or 
savage.  We  should  look  in  vain  for  a 
single  instance  in  which  a  civilized  peo- 
ple, Avhetherof  ancient  or  modern  times, 
has  fallen  back  into  an  aspect  of  life  at 
all  analogous  to  that  of  the  cave  dwell- 
ers of  Europe  or  the  Red  men  of  North 
America.  They  do  indeed  relapse.  The 
heroic  Greeks  of  the  fourth  century 
B.  C.  have  become  the  degenerate  weak- 
lings of  modern  Greece.  The  Romans 
of  the  sturdy  republic  have  left  as  their 
descendants  the  mendicant  mi:sicians  of 
Florence,  the  dirt}'  boatmen  of  the 
Venetian  canals,  and  the  lazzaroni  of 
Naples.  The  Spanish  warriors  and 
navigators  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  who  found  a  new  world  and 
took  it  for  their  sovereign,  have  as  their 
living  representatives  the  mandolin 
players  of  Cadiz  and  the  brandishers  of 
stilettos  in  the  half-lighted  streets  of 
Madrid.  The  evidence  cf  retrogression 
and  decay  is  sufficiently  striking  to  the 
philosopher  and  painful  to  the  philan- 
thropist. But  the  modern  Greeks,  the 
Italians,  and  the  degenerate  Spaniards  of 
to-day  have  no  likeness  or  kinship  with 
the  savage  races  whom  we  discover  on 
the  fiirther  confines  of  history.  This  is 
to  say  that  the  ascending  and  descend- 
ing phases  of  national  life  present  whol- 
ly diverse  aspects;  insomuch  that  one 
can    scarcely    be    compared    with    the 


other.  The  true  savage  appears  to  have 
in  him  the  potency  of  the  time  to  come, 
while  the  effeminated  and  degraded  de- 
scendant of  a  great  ancestry  has  in  him 
only  the  potency  of  death.  In  so  far  as 
this  dissimilarity  between  the  barbarian, 
under  the  influence  of  forces  that  may 
bring  him  into  the  civilized  state,  and 
the  depraved  posterity  of  great  ancestry 
does  exist  as  a  fact,  it  seems  to  be  an 
evidence  of  the  original  barbarity  of  all 
peoples  and  the  evolution  of  a  few  into 
the  higher  forms  of  life,  rather  than  an 
evidence  of  the  relapse  of  races  into 
original  savagery. 

4.  The  believer  in  the  hypothesis  of 
an  ascending  movement  of  human  nature 

from      a     primitive     savage    Monuments  and 

condition  into  light  and  Sd'tww 
freedom  and  greatness,  conditions, 
may  well  urge  that  the  great  monumental 
remains  of  the  remotest  antiquity  and 
the  perfected  languages  which  we  find 
at  the  daydawn  of  civilization  are  the 
work  of  races  which  had  already  /assed 
through  the  stages  of  thve/opiiient  from 
original  barbarism  to  the  higher  condi- 
tions of  life.  In  our  present  state  of 
knowledge  it  would  be  rash  to  allege 
that  the  striking  memorials  of  civiliza- 
tion belonging  to  the  remotest  antiquity 
are  certainly  the  work  of  peoples  who 
had  been  developed  from  savagery 
through  preceding  ages  of  discipline  and 
endeavor ;  but  it  would  be  ^qualh  rash 
to  allege  that  such  memorials  of  pri- 
meval greatness  are  the  work  of  nations 
who  began  their  career  in  civilization 
and  enlightenment.  vSo  also  of  human 
speech.  It  is  true  that  such  languages 
as  the  Sanskrit  appear  as  the  highest 
grammatical  and  logical  formulae  which 
have  ever  been  invented  for  the  expres- 
sion of  human  thought,  and  that  sub- 
sequent linguistic  developments  have 
been,   so  far  as  the  structural  forms  of 


384 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


speech  are  concerned,  retrogressive 
rather  than  progressive.  But  no  one 
can  say  that  the  apparition  of  Sanskrit 
was  not  itself  the  result  of  preceding 
ages  of  progress  and  development. 

On     the    whole,     it     appears     rather 
against  right  reason  than  in  conformity 

Not  reasonable       '^vith  what  WC   knOW    of  the 

JliSesb^gan  ^i^man  mind  and  its  princi- 
atonce.  pies  of  growth  to  suppose 

that  a  vast  structure  of  speech  like  the 
Sanskrit  should  come  forth  at  one  effort 
from  the  brain  and  tongue  of  a  perfect 
race.  It  would  seem  too  much  a  marvel 
that  the  Aryan  house-folk  of  the  primi- 
tive Indian  valle3'S  should  have  begun  to 
speak  with  the  perfected  formulae  of 
language.  It  is  not  alleged  that  such  a 
phenomenon  is  impossible,  but  the 
development  of  a  language  from  small 
beginnings  and  in  constant  correlation 
with  the  opening  powers  of  the  mind 
seems  to  conform  more  nearly  with  the 
progressive  order  of  human  nature  and 
of  univer.sal  nature  than  the  sudden 
phenomenal  efflorescence  and  fruitage  of 
a  full-grown  language. 


Such,  then,  are  the  principal  argu- 
ments for  and  against  the  theories  which 
have  been  advanced  to  explain  the  fact 
of  barbarism.  Both  views  of  the  begin- 
nings of  the  barbaric  life  have  been  sus- 
tained with  such  hot  contentions  as  are 
born  of  preconception.  The  historian 
may  frankly  admit  that  the  arguments 
on  either  side  are  weighty  and  important, 
and  if  for  the  present  he  suspends  a  judg- 
ment, it  will  not  be  thought  to  proceed 
from  a  reluctance  to  decide  according  to 
the  evidence  before  him,  but  rather  from 
the  incompleteness  of  the  data  thus  far 
attainable.  Meanwhile  the  argument 
strongly  preponderates  toward  that  the- 
ory which  makes  barbarism  and  savagery 
to  have  been  the  primitive  condition  of 
mankind,  and  civilization  to  be  the  result- 
ant of  the  slow  processes  of  ethnic  evolu- 
tion. The  statement  of  the  various 
reasons  for  and  against  such  a  vieAv  pre- 
sented in  the  current  chapter  has  been 
given  as  a  digressive  study,  preparatory 
to  a  notice  of  some  of  the  general  and  ac- 
tual conditions  of  barbarism,  and  to  that 
great  topic  we  now  turn  our  attention. 


Chapter  XXII. — barbarisxi  Illustrated. 


T  is  painful  to  reflect 
how  great  a  portion 
of  the  earth  is  still 
under  the  dominion  of 
savage  races.  Europe, 
the  smallest  of  the 
continents,  has  long 
emerged  from  her  primitive  condition. 
Large  tracts  of  Asia  have  been  occupied 
by  civilized  nations  from  a  remote  an- 
tiquity. A  new  world  has  within  the 
last  three  centuries  been  reclaimed.  A 
powerful  race  has  planted  itself  in  place 
of    the    scattered     aborigines.       South 


America  has,  within  the  current  century 
at  least,  presented  the  redeeming  aspect 

of    Latin  civilization.       But    Large  areas  of 

the  rest  of  the  world  is  still  f^^°']tt^ 

dominatea  by 

dominated  by  races  of  men  barbarism, 
whose  manners  and  customs  lie  close  to 
original  barbarity.  The  islands  of  the 
sea  present  some  of  the  most  striking 
aspects  of  this  current  savagery  of 
mankind.  Africa  throughout  nearlv  its 
whole  extent  is  untouched  with  the  sun- 
shine  of  the  higher  life.  The  boreal 
regions,  whether  in  the  Old  World  or  the 
New,   are  still  occupied  by  races  on  a 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— BARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED. 


385 


very  low  plane  of  development.  It  is 
among-  such  peoples  that  we  must  now 
seek  and  find  our  examples   of  existing 


•iv  r 


■!ni. 


NATIVE   AUSTRALIAN   FROM    JHE    DARLING   RIVER 
(headdress   of   FEATHERS). 

forms  of  barbarity  in  illustration  of  the 
prehistoric  life  of  man. 

One  of  the  most  striking  facts  in  con- 
nection Avith  the  savagely  of  the  human 
FUthiuessof  race  is  filth.  There  is 
example  of  Hot-  perhaps  no  single  example 
tentots.  among     aboriginal    tribes 

of  anything  like  cleanliness.  Those 
dispositions  which  we  observe  in  man}' 
birds  and  animals  to  plume  and  cleanse 
themselves  and  to  protect  their  nests 
and  lairs  from  the  grosser  forms  of  filth 
are  strangely  absent  among  the  ruder 
savages.  The  historian  Kolben  has  re- 
marked of  the  Hottentots  that  they  maj' 
be  regarded  as  the  filthiest  animals  in 
the  world!  Not  content  with  the  ofiien- 
sive  accumulations  of  nature  and  con- 
stant contact  with  the  dirt,  they  actually 
cultivate  gross  forms  of  defilement,  ren- 
dering them  in  their  personal  habits  re- 


pulsive and  disgusting  to  the  last  degree. 
In  his  description  of  these  heathen  the 
author  says:  "Their  bodies  were  cov- 
ered with  grease,  their  clothes  were 
never  washed,  and  their  hair  was  loaded 
from  day  to  day  with  such  a  quantity  of 
soot  and  fat,  and  it  gathers  so  much  dust 
and  other  filth,  which  they  leave  to  clot 
and  harden  in  it,  for  they  never  cleanse 
it,  that  it  looks  like  a  crust  or  cap  of 
black  mortar.  They  wore  a  skin  over 
the  back,  fastened  in  front.  They 
carried  this  as  long  as  thej-  lived,  and 
were  buried  in  it  when  they  died.  Their 
only  other  garment  Avas  a  square  piece 
of  skin,  tied  around  the  waist  by  a 
string,  and  left  to  hang  down  in  front. 
In  winter,  however,  they  sometimes 
used  a  cap.  For  ornaments  they  wore 
rings  of  iron,  copper,  ivory,  or  leather. 
The  latter  had  the  advantage  of  sendng 
for  food  in  bad  times." 


TYPES  OF  SAVAGERY — BUSHMAN  WOMAN  AND  CHILDREN. 

The  bath  has  been  practiced  by  nearly 
all  peoples,  whether  savage  or  civilized. 
But   among  heathen    tribes  the    act   is 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— BARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED. 


387 


performed  with  little  respect  to  personal 
purification.  The  sensuous  change  of 
Savages  bathe  temperature,  from  cold  to 
mhtTanpuri-  ^^-arm  or  from  warm  to  cold, 
fication.  with  the  mere  pleasure  of 

splashing  like  a  porpoise  in  the  surf, 
seems  to  constitute  the  barbarous  idea 
of  the  bath.  Instead  of  desiring  to 
purify  themselves  from  all  animal  taint, 
from  defilement,  from  those  offensive 
odors  which  are  peculiar  to  tribes  in  low 
condition,  such  peoples  seem  to  take 
pleasure  in  intensifying  the  disgusting 
peculiarities  of  the  beast-life  which  they 
live.  It  requires  many  ages  of  develop- 
ment, as  a  rule,  to  change  this  horrid 
instinct  and  to  substitute  therefor  the 
instinct  of  personal  purity.  It  is  in 
proof  that  as  low  in  race  development 
as  the  beginnings  of  barbarous  song 
savages  are  accustomed  to  refer,  in  their 
rude  rhapsodies,  to  the  offensiveness  of 
their  bodies,  and  to  rejoice  in  it  as  an 
element  of  merit  and  preeminence ! 

The  Hottentots  are  also  a  good  ex- 
ample of  other  debasing  usages.  The 
Filth  in  food  gathering,  preparation, 
fiSpeTsonal  ^^d  taking  of  food  may  be 
^^"bit.  cited  as  a  second  strongly 

discriminating  feature  of  human  life. 
One  must  needs  reflect  upon  the  vast 
difference  in  the  method  of  refined  eat- 
ing and  that  of  barbarism.  The  savage 
man  eats  very  much  after  the  manner 
of  brutes.  As  to  materials,  he  selects 
first  of  all  native  roots  and  wild  fruits, 
such  as  yield  themselves  readily  to  his 
appetite,  without  cultivation  or  much 
search.  The  proportion  of  animal  food 
in  tropical  countries  is  always  consider- 
ably less  than  in  higher  latitudes,  but 
the  Hottentots  are  none  the  less  great 
eaters  of  meat.  As  a  rule,  they  take 
their  flesh  food  raw.  If  they  cook  it  at 
all  they  prefer  a  kind  of  broil  in  the  blood 
of  the   animal,  the  whole  being  mixed 


with  milk.  Xo  pains  whatever  are 
taken  for  cleanliness,  either  of  the  meat 
itself  or  of  the  utensils.  Unless  the 
meat  is  thus  taken  fresh  in  the  blood 
they  prefer  to  let  it  remain  until  it  is 
half-putrid,  regarding  the  odor  and 
taste  of  decaying  flesh  as  delicious. 
Such  other  victuals  as  they  possess  are 
boiled  in  leathern  sacks,  among  heated 
stones.  Sometimes  earthen  pots  are 
used.  The  materials  of  the  larder  are 
kept  in  leathern  bags,  in  the  bladders  of 
animals,  or  in  baskets  rudely  constructed 
of  rushes.  Tobacco  is  in  common  use 
by  the  people,  and  is  carried  in  pouches 
made  of  the  skins  of  animals.  The  pipe 
is  of  stone  or  wood.  The  whole  stock 
of  provisions  is  borne  fromi  hut  to  hut, 
or  from  one  camping  place  to  another. 

Australia,  on  the  whole,  furnishes  one 
of  the  most  interesting  and  satisfactory 

fields     in     which     to     study   Australians  an 

the  native  aspects  of  hu-  ^^aTedta^v-''^' 
man  life.  The  barbarians  agery. 
inhabiting  this  island-continent  when  it 
became  known  to  the  European  nations 
were  as  truly  aboriginal  in  their  charac- 
ter as  any  people  with  whom  scientific 
observation  has  had  to  deal.  Nor  can  it 
be  .said  that  the  lapse  of  time  since  the 
coast  regions  of  Australia  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  civilization  has  materially 
changed  the  native  inhabitants.  They 
are  to-day  virtually  as  they  were  when 
they  were  first  made  known  to  the  West- 
ern nations.  And.  it  is  still  possible  to 
study  their  manners  and  customs  with- 
out having  to  make  allowance  for  the 
influence  of  other  peoples  upon  them. 

The  Australian  houses  are  perhaps 
the  smallest  and  most  insignificant  which 
have- ever  been  used  as  human  abodes. 
They  are  scarcely  large  enough  to  con- 
tain a  single  person.  They  are  shaped 
much  like  an  inverted  oven.  The  frame- 
work consists  of  a  series  of  reeds,  not 


p 
I 


<! 

a 

< 


« 

H 
D 
O 

CO 

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a 

H 

I 

fl 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— BARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED. 


889 


more  than  an  inch  in  diameter,  bent 
over  so  as  to  bring  the  two  ends  to  the 
earth,  in  which  they  are  driven.  The 
covering  of  the  hut  is  of  palm  leaves  or 
bark,  and  the  protection  afforded  to  the 
inhabitant  is  very  small.  One  side  of 
the  hovel  is  open,  and  there  is  little  pre- 
tense of  shelter.  When  the  inhabitant 
enters  he  must  sit  or  lie  down,  as  the 
concavity  overhead  is  not  high  enough 
to  permit  him  to  stand.  Xo  evidences 
of  artistic  taste  or  adornment  have  been 
discovered  in  connection  with  these 
primitive  habitations.  Xor  could  such 
houses  avail  anything  in  a  country  whose 
climate  was  less  mild  than  that  of  Aus- 
tralia. Many  inhabitants  go  without 
houses  at  all,  sleeping  on  the  groimd 
and  making  no  effort  to  secure  a  local 
habitation  of  their  own.  In  .some  places 
the  effort  at-  housebuilding  proceeds 
only  so  far  as  setting  up  two  or  three 
poles  and  leaning  against  them  large 
pieces  of  bark,  forming  a  sloping  roof, 
which  furnishes  a  simple  protection  from 
the  sun  and  wind. 

In  matters  of   taste  and  cleanliness, 
the  Australians  are  but  little  superior  to 
the  Hottentots.     Their  personal  appear- 
ance approaches  .somewhat 

Feeding  as  the 

beasts;  the  the  better  type  of  human- 
w  aecarmva.     ^^^^^    ^^^^^    ^^    daily  habits 

of  life  are  low  down  among  the  elements 
of  savagery.  The  food  of  the  people 
consists  of  roots  and  nuts,  certain  kinds 
of  wood  fungfus,  or  mushroom,  shellfish, 
frogs,  snakes,  worms,  moths,  birds, 
birds'  eggs,  turtles,  dogs,  kangaroos, 
seals,  and  sometimes  whales.  All  of 
these  things,  however,  or  nearly  all,  are 
eaten  without  preparation,  and  are  taken 
with  no  sense  of  cleanliness  or  decency. 
It  will  be  .seen  from  their  li-st  of  edibles 
that  most  of  the  articles  are  such  as  may 
be  grabbled  from  the  earth  or  the  sea- 
shore.     The   kangaroo  is   a  wild,   fleet 


animal,  and  is  taken  with  considerable 
difficulty.  The  dog  is  only  eaten  under 
stress  of  hunger  and  necessity. 

The  whale  is,  of  course,  bej-ond  the 
reach  of  capture  to  these  barbarians,  but 
he  is  .sometimes  stranded  from  the  deep 
or  washed  up  dead  on  the  .shore.  When 
this  happens  bonfires  are  kindled  as  a 
signal,  and  there  is  a  holiday  for  the  na- 
tives. It  is  their  great  providence,  which 
they  accept  with  as  much  gratitude  as 
they  are  capable  of  knowing.  The  in- 
habitants gather  from  the  region  about, 
and  pounce  upon  the  carcass  with  the 
avidity  of  beasts.  It  makes  no  differ- 
ence in  what  stage  of  putridity  the  flesh 
may  be.  They  gorge  them.selves.  to  ut- 
ter repletion.  They  clamber  about  the 
dead  body,  and  quarrel  for  the  choicer 
parts.  Notwithstanding  the  heat  of  the 
climate,  the}'  stuff  themselves  with  blub- 
ber until  they  are  distended  with  the 
fatty  mass.  They  eat  holes  into  the  in- 
terior, and  go  inside  to  find  what  they 
can  not  devour.  They  smear  themselves 
with  the  offen.sive  oil,  and  remain  for 
days  together  half -suffocated  around  the 
scene  of  their  feast.  Perhaps  the  an- 
nals of  barbarism  furnish  no  example  of 
bestiality  more  gross  and  revolting. 

It  is  b}-  no  means  intended  in  this 
connection  to  give  a  full  description  of 
the  manners  and  customs  TheVeddahs 
of  the  Australians  or  of  f^TeTo-nfsfof 
any  other  barbarous  nation .  barbaric  ufe. 
The  whole  object  in  this  part  is  to  illus- 
trate the  primitive  life  of  man  by  a  few 
citations  from  the  current  conditions  of 
savagery.  In  another  part  of  the  work 
it  will  remain  to  illustrate  more  fully  the 
tribal  condition  of  the  barbarous  peoples 
lying  along  the  outskirts  of  the  civilized 
world.  In  further  illustration  of  the 
present  state  of  savage  peoples,  a  few 
citations  may  be  made  from  the  life  of 
the  Veddahs,  or  aboriginal  inhabitants 


390 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  These  people 
are  among  the  rudest  and  most  primitive 
of  any  with  whom  modern  observers 
have  come  in  contact.  They  are  small 
in  stature,  the  adult  male  rarely  reach- 
ing the  height  of  five  feet. 

With  the  exception  of  a  piece  of  skin 
suspended  in  front  of  the  body  the  Ved- 
dahs  go  entirely  naked.  Their  habits 
are  as  coarse  and  low  as  those  of  the 
other  barbarians  whom  we  have  been 
describing.  They  live  upon  the  wild 
products  of  the  woods  and  by  gathering 
shellfish  from  the  shore.  They  are  in 
possession  of  axes  and  spears  and  bows 
and  arrows.  These  are  employed  almost 
exclusively  in  the  chase.  The  peculiar 
feature  of  the  Veddah  life  seems  to  be 
its  secretiveness,  or  silence.  Even  in 
the  hunt  they  are  silent,  attempting  to 
.slip  upon  and  strike  their  game  un- 
awares. The  chase  consists  in  a  noise- 
less approach  to  the  animal  which  the 
hunter  wishes  to  take.  In  prosecuting 
this  kind  of  capture  the  natives  adopt 
several  devices,  the  most  prominent  be- 
ing the  training  of  bi.son  to  the  purposes 
of  the  chase.  The  hunter  hides  behind 
the  tame  animal,  which  is  taught  to  feed 
along  so  near  to  the  wild  one  that  the 
hunter  may  spring  from  behind  and 
strike  it  down.  It  is  a  species  of  stalk- 
ing, almost  panther-like  in  its  method 
and  success. 

The  Veddahs,  like  the  Australians 
and  the  Hottentots,  have  no  social  or 
Marriage  cus-  civil  institutions,  but  one  or 
ucTodfof r:"  two  customs  are  marked 
Veddahs.  f,ji-  their  peculiarity.    They 

do  not  indulge  in  polygamy,  each  man 
having  one  wife,  and  the  tribal  code  be- 
ing very  severe  in  demanding  fidelity  of 
the  one  to  the  other.  The  rule,  how- 
ever, does  not  exclude  intermarriage  in 
the  family.  Brothers  and  sisters  may 
marry  with  impunity,  subject  only  to  the 


restriction  that  the  sister  must  be  the 
younger  of  the  two.  Otherwise  the  tribe 
is  scandalized. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Andaman 
islands  have  been  cited  by  some  travel- 
ers as  the  lowest  existing  species  of  men. 
In  some  respects  it  is  doubt-  „ 

■^  .  .        Debased  condi- 

less  true  that  their  habits  tion  of  the  ah- 

.  r    1T  i-    daman  islanders 

and  manner  ot  lite  are  oi 
the  most  degraded  and  savage  order. 
They  build  their  houses  by  planting  four 
rude  posts,  two  being  much  lower  than 
the  others.  A  rude,  inclined  roof  is 
thus  formed  of  bamboo,  palm  leaves,  and 
bark.  This  is  their  only  structure. 
The  people  appear  to  live  exclusively 
upon  the  wild  gifts  of  nature  and  by 
means  of  the  primitive  chase.  There  is 
a  species  of  wild  pigs  that  live  in  the 
jungles,  which  are  sometiines  taken  and 
eaten  by  the  natives.  The  best  piece  of 
Andaman  workmanship  is  the  rude 
canoe,  hollowed  by  means  of  a  stone 
ax  and  fire.  The  people  use  the  bow 
and  arrow,  and  point  their  missiles  with 
such  bits  of  glass  and  iron  as  they  are 
able  to  gather  from  the  wrecks  of  vessels. 
Travelers  have  admired  their  skill  in 
marksmanship,  which  is  generally  accu- 
rate to  the  distance  of  fifty  yards.  They 
take  fish  by  means  of  hooks  and  nets 
and  harpoons.  It  has  been  noted  that 
they  are  exceedingly  agile  in  the  water, 
and  the  tradition  exists  that  the  diving 
native  is  sometimes  able,  by  the  rapidity 
of  his  action,  to  clutch  a  fish  with  his 
unaided  hand. 

In  their  personal  habits  the  Anda- 
maners  are  exceedingly  filthy  and  coarse. 
They     smear     themselves 

.  Filthiness  of 

With    mud,    and   wear   no  personal  habits; 

1,1-  m   ii      •         ■    j.1.      uses  of  the  dead. 

clothing.     Tattooing  is  the 
common  practice   of  the  tribe,  but  the 
cicatrices    exhibit    less   skill    in   design 
than  in  the  case  of  other  tribes.     It  is 
the  custom  of  the  people  to  dig  up  and 


392 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


distribute  the  bones  of  the  dead,  the 
skull  being  reserved  for  the  widow. 
This  she  suspends  by  a  cord  around  her 
neck  and  uses  as  a  casket  for  her  orna- 
ments and  vahiables !  It  is  believed  that 
these  savages  have  not  succeeded  in 
domesticating  any  of  the  animals,  though 
it  has  been  noted  that  tame  fowls  are 
seen  about  their  huts.  For  the  rest, 
their  state  is  one  of  absolute  savagery. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Tasma- 
nians.  Captain  Cook  has  left  a  record 
Low  estate  of  to  the  effect  that  these 
Selnd™reser!'  peoplc  have  neither  houses 
vationoffire.  jjor  clothes.  Nor  does  it 
appear   that  they   possessed   canoes   or 


Dacota  fire-drill  bow.  Iroquois  fire-pump  drill. 

MANNER   OF   PRODUCING   FIRE. 


implements  for  taking  fish.  They  seem 
to  subsist  on  mussels,  cockles,  and  peri- 
winkles. The  bow  and  arrow  were 
wanting  at  the  time  of  Cook's  visit  to 
the  island,  the  only  weapon  of  the  peo- 
ple being  a  long  wooden  spear. 

Most  of  the  barbarians  to  whom  we 
have  referred  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graphs are  acquainted  with  the  use  and 
preservation  of  fire.  The  Australians 
imderstand  the  method  of  kindling  ma- 
terials by  friction.  It  is  of  record  that 
this  knowledge  does  not  extend  to  all 
the  tribes.  In  some  districts  the  fire 
goes  out  and  must  be  relighted  from  the 
resources  of  a  neighboring  tribe.     Most 


of  the  natives,  especially  those  of  Tas- 
mania, are  very  careful  to  avoid  the 
loss  of  their  fire,  and  it  is  generally  car- 
ried about  from  place  to  place.  It  has 
been  noted  that  in  Tasmania  the  duty  of 
preserving  the  fire  is  assigned  to  the 
women,  and  they  are  held  responsible 
for  its  loss. 

It  is  not  intended  in  this  connection  to 
discuss  what  may  be  called  the  moral 
ideas  of  barbarians.     Indeed,    it  might 

be  difficult  to  speak  intelli-    Moral  ideas  and 

gently  of  what  has  little  or  ^folf  l^g  "ir-- 
no  existence.     It  is  still  in  barians. 
doubt  whether  the  barbarous  peoples  re- 
ferred to  in   the   preceding  pages   have 
I  any  true  concept  of  religion 

or  of  its  duties  and  ceremo- 
nial. The  matter  is  in  dispute 
even  by  observant  travelers 
who  have  visited  these  coun- 
tries and  familiarized  them- 
selves with  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  people.  It 
has  •  been  recorded  that 
among  the  Australians  cer- 
tain dances  and  ceremonies 
are  celebrated,  which  would 
seem  to  imply  a  service  of  re- 
ligion. But  this  is  doubt- 
ful. It  is  not  clear  that  the  natives  of 
Australia,  of  Tasmania,  and  Ceylon 
have  any  notion  of  a  Supreme  Being 
or  of  a  life  after  death.  If  such  notions 
do  really  exist  they  are  in  such  a  germi- 
nal and  undeveloped  condition  as  to  be 
little  indicative  of  a  higher  nature  in  the 
people.  Certain  customs  and  obliga- 
tions do  exist  among  them,  which  are 
observed  under  a  sense  of  duty ;  but  it 
may  be  fairly  alleged  that  no  general 
morality  or  religious  bond  exists. 

If  we  leave  the  natives  of  these  east- 
ern waters  and  turn  to  those  of  the  South 
Pacific,  we  find  at  least  two  principal 
races  of  barbarians.     These  are  the  Ne- 


PKf.\fE]'AL  jr.i.v.—n.i/^n.iK/sjf  illvstra t/id. 


393 


grito  peoples  and  the  so-called   Polyne- 
sians.  Among  the  most  jjrominent  of  the 
former  mav  be  mentioned 

Character  of  the 

Pelagian  Blacks,  the     Black    inhabitants    of 

or  Sea  Negroes.      ,,        t-,...    .   .,        -,  » 

the  riji  islands.  In  gen- 
eral, they  are  of  darker  complexion  than 
the  Polynesians,  and  are  of  larger  stat- 
ure and  stronger  frames.  The  features 
are  more  prominent  and  pronounced, 
and  the  hair  is  frizzled.  There  are, 
however,  traces  of  Polynesian  descent 
discoverable  in  the  Fijians,  especially 
in  their  language  and  in  their  manners 
and  customs.  In  their  use  of  conso- 
nants, and  especially  in  the  peculiarity  of 
placing  in  or  n  before  the  consonants  b, 
d,  and  g,  the  people  appear  to  be  of  the 
same  linguistic  family  with  the  .\frican 
Nigritians. 

The  structures  of  the  Fijians  are,  first 
of  all,  their  dwellings.     These,  however, 

are  much  larger  and  more 

Buildings  and  ,       .  , 

jurnishings  of       skiUfuUy  built  than  those 

the  Fijians.  i   •    i  i  ^     i      • 

which  we  ha^■e  noted  m 
Australia.  They  are  made  for  the  most 
part  of  the  trunks  of  cocoa  trees  and 
ferns  framed  in  a  rectangular  manner, 
somewhat  like  the  log  houses  of  pioneers 
in  North  America,  but  by  no  means  so 
substantially  built.  Regular  doorways 
are  made  in  the  sides,  and  the  houses 
are  as  much  as  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in 
length,  and  sometimes  fifteen  feet  in 
height.  In  anotlier  variety  of  house  the 
posts  are  set  up  at  intervals,  like  the 
framework  of  a  like  building  designed 
by  a  modern  carpenter,  and  the  spaces 
between  the  posts  are  filled  with  wicker 
work  of  bamboo  and  palm  branches. 
The  roof  is  thatched  with  sugar  cane  and 
fern  leaves;  and,  considering  the  mild- 
ness of  the  climate,  the  abode  may  be 
regarded  as  fairly  convenient  and  com- 
fortable. Hanging  mats  take  the  places 
of  door  shutters.     In  the  middle  of  the 

floor    some    flat  stones    arc  laid   down, 
M.— Vol.  1—26 


which  .serve  the  purpose  of  a  hearth. 
Here  the  fire  is  kept  burning,  and  such 
rude  cooking  is  done  as  is  known  to  the 
people. 

The  Fijians  surpass  most  other  native 
islanders  in  the  building  and  manage- 
ment of  boats.  Thcv  build  Making  and  . 
their  canoes  with  consider-  ^^Tt^^tTois^nd 
able  skill,  and  have  small  pottery, 
masts  and  sails.  The  framing  of  the 
bottom  is  strongly  done,  and  the  joints 
are  calked  and  filled  with  a  kind  of 
gum  prepared  from  the  bread-fruit  tree. 
When  the  islands  were  first  known  to 
White  men  stone  tools  were  universally 
employed,  but  these  have  given  place 
in  part  to  the  employment  of  iron. 
Native  materials  are  still  used  in  the 
fabrication  of  goods  and  in  such  rude 
arts  as  are  cultivated  in  the  islands.  The 
natives  have  been  observed  in  the  work 
of  carving  and  engraving,  using  for 
their  tools  the  teeth  of  rats  and  mice. 
They  have  a  way  of  preparing  knives 
from  the  outside  layer  of  the  bamboo, 
which  is  exceedingly  hard  and  close. 
After  the  blade  of  the  implement  has 
been  cut  into  shape,  it  is  charred  and 
then  brought  to  an  edge  so  fine  and 
strone  that  the  instrument  can  be  used 
in  surgery.  The  Fijians  understand 
the  art  of  pottery,  but  are  unacquainted 
with  the  use  of  the  wheel.  Their  earth- 
en vessels  are  manufactured  by  mere 
handicraft,  flat  stones  and  slips  of  wood 
being  used  by  the  women  in  bringing 
the  vessels  into  shape.  This  work  is  so 
skillfully  done  as  to  resemble  the  prod- 
uct of  the  turning  wheel,  and  it  some- 
times requires  careful  observation  to 
decide  whether  the  vessel  has  been  actu- 
ally turned  or  wrought  by  hand.  The 
other  tablewares  of  the  Fijians  are  some- 
what superior  to  those  in  common  use 
among  barbarians.  Forks  are  employed 
in   taking   food,   and   other    usages   in- 


394 


GREAT  RACES    OE  MANKIND. 


dicate  at  least  the  beginnings  of  refine- 
ment. 

The  cannibalism  of  these  islanders  is 
proverbial  the  world  over.  The  eating 
of  human  flesh  was  until 
recent  times  the  ilniversal 
practice.  It  was  done  as  a 
matter  of  course,  and  without  the  slight- 


Open  and  as- 
tovmding  can- 
nibalism of  the 
Fijians. 


fowl  among  civilized  peoples.  Any  one 
might  kill  and  eat  his  own  women.  It 
is  in  evidence  that  the  Fijian  looked 
upon  his  living  companions  with  con- 
stant regard  to  their  edibility.  It  was 
the  custom  of  those  who  expected  to 
feast  upon  young  women  and  boys  to 
speak   of   the   lusciousness    of    their    in- 


BARDAklSM   li.I.U^-'lK  A'ri.i '. — Fijian  in  a  Banana  Grove.— Drawn  by  Thirial,  from  a  photograph. 


est  repugnance  or  disgust.  It  was  the 
custom,  first  of  all,  to  eat  the  bodies  of 
the  enemy  slain  or  taken  in  battle. 
Those  recently  killed  were  preferred, 
but  it  was  not  against  usage  to  eat  tha 
bodies  of  those  who  had  been  dead  for 
a  considerable  period.  Young  people, 
especially  girls,  were  chosen  for  the 
feast.  The  preliminary  murder  was  no 
more  regarded  than  the  slaughter  of  a 


tended  victims.  It  has  been  declared, 
with  probable  truth,  that  the  Fijians  have 
no  word  in  their  language  to  denote  a  hu- 
man body  except  such  as  convey  the  notion 
of  food.  One  of  the  common  descriptive 
epithets  of  human  flesh  vs,  puaka  balava, 
which  signifies  "long  pig !"  it  is  impos- 
sible to  convey  an  impression  sufficiently 
horrifying  of  the  cannibalism  of  these 
people  and  its  attendant  degradation. 


PRIMEVAL   MAN.— BARBARISM  ILLCSTRA  TED. 


395 


The  manner  of  life  among  the  Red 
barbarians  of  North  America  is  suffi- 
ciently well  known,  at  least  to  readers 
in  our  own  country.  The  investigations 
Barbarism  iiius-  of  Schoolcraf t  and  Morgan 
TeM^T^r  and  a  score  of  other  dis- 
America.  tinguislied  and  painstaking 

writers  have  revealed  to  the  American 
people,  in  an  imperishable  record,  the 
customs,  beliefs,  and  habits  of  those  pe- 


ing  all  the  way  around  from  Siberia  to 
Greenland  and  from  Greenland  to  Si- 
beria. By  race  affinity  they  are  allied 
to  the  North  American  Indians,  but  it 
is  al.so  clear  from  their  physiognomy 
and  other  ethnic  traits  that  they  have  a 
kinship  to  the  Chinese  and  the  Tartars. 

It  may  be  of  interest,  in  passing,  t» 
note  the  fact  that  in  several  other  in- 
stances  in  ethnic   history  we  have  the 


BARI5ARISM  H.LUSTRAl  ED —Esquimau  Huts  at  Etah.— Drawn  by  A.  de  Xeuville. 


culiar  tribes  of  the  woods  who  preceded 
the  White  race  on  this  continent.  It  is 
not  needed,  therefore,  in  this  connec- 
tion to  make  any  extended  citations 
from  the  manners  and  customs  of  our 
Indian  races  in  illustration  of  the  prob- 
able methods  of  antiquity.  In  the  case 
of  the  Esquimaux,  however,  the  matter 
is  diiTerent.  The  latter  are  perhaps  the 
most  widely  disseminated  race  of  bar- 
barians on  the  earth.  They  belong  on 
the  shores  of  the  arctic  oceans,  stretch - 


same  contradictory  evidence  in  regard 
to  race  descent.  The  Innuit  language 
has  unmistakably  the  same  Race  features  oi 
radical  structure,  and  to  "^Jl^t^S 
some  extent  the  same  o"gin. 
vocabulary,  with  that  of  the  Red  men  of 
North  America.  But  the  stature,  the 
form,  the  features  of  the  Esquimaux, 
especial!}'  the  physiognomy  about  the 
eyes  and  the  structure  of  the  skull, 'are 
clearly  derivable  from  a  common  source 
with  the  Tartars.      The  manner  of  life. 


BARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED-THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  MANNER.-T.m  Ghost  DANca.-Drawn  by  J.  Steeple  Davis. 


PRIMirn-R  MAX.— BARBARISM  ILLUSTRA  TED. 


397 


^Pinter  aspect  of 
Esquimau  bar- 
barism. 


moreover,  of  the  Esquimau  nations  is 
as  much  in  affinity  with  the  customs  and 
usages  of  Northern  Asia  as  with  the 
tribal  habits  of  the  New  World.' 

Living  as  they  do  in  the  most  frigid 
regions  of  our  planet,  the  Esquimau  bar- 
barians are  obliged  to  defend  themselves 
eummerand  from  the  rigor  of  the  cli- 
mate. The  three  great 
elements  of  such  defense 
against  the  hardships  of  nature  are,  of 
course,  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  The 
vicissitude  of  this  region  of  the  earth 
makes  it  desirable  for  the  inhabitant  to 
have  one  manner  of  life  for  the  summer 
and  another  for  the  winter.  It  is  in  a 
large  measure  the  difference  between 
day  and  night — between  extreme  rigor 
of  cold  and  a  comparatively  temperate 
climate.  Two  kinds  of  houses  are 
therefore  necessary,  the  one  for  the 
mild  and  the  other  for  the  severe  aspect 
of  nature. 

The  Esquimaux  are,  perhaps,  the 
greatest  eaters  in  the  world,  and  tlieir 
food  is  almost    exclusivelv  of    fish    and 


'  The  reader  need  not  be  especially  surprised  at 
the  fact  of  a  race  descent  from  one  source  and  a 
ling'uislic  descent  from  another.  Such  phenomena 
have  actually  occurred  in  the  clear  light  of  day  and' 
under  the  open  eye  of  history.  The  Northmen  who 
came  down  in  a  horde,  in  their  pirate  ships,  from  Scan- 
dinavia, under  the  leadership  of  Kolph  the  Ganger, 
in  the  ninth  century,  and  who  possessed  themselves 
of  the  fairest  portion  of  France  and  founded  in 
Neustria  a  dominion  which  has  projected  itself  far 
and  powerfully  into  the  modern  world,  spoke  a  lan- 
guage as  certainly  Teutonic,  or  Norse,  as  they  were 
themselves  of  that  descent.  But  within  a  hundred 
years  after  their  settlement  in  the  South,  that  speech 
had  strangely  given  way  to  another  which  they  had 
absorbed  from  the  subject  peasantry  of  Normandy, 
and  which  became  ever  afterwards  the  vernacular  of 
the  conquering  race.  So  that  when  William  the 
Bastard  came  with  his  barons  into  England  and 
planted  there  the  Norman  dynasty,  he  brought  with 
him  a  race  descent  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  a 
linguistic  utterance  derived  from  the  softened  dialects 
of  the  Southern  Romance. 


flesh.       The  reindeer,  the  mu.sk  ox,  the 
walrus,  the  seal,  land  and  water  fowl,  and 
salmon  constitute  the  prin-  omnivorous 
cipal     varieties    of    living  ^^bit and giut- 

•i^  o    tony  of  the  Es- 

creatures  upon  which  they  qnimaui. 
prey.  But  there  is  scarcely  any  kind  of 
animal,  whether  marine  or  dryland,  that 
they  do  not  use  for  food.  The  fatty 
portions,  heavy  in  carbonaceous  mate- 
rials, are  greath'  preferred.  As  to  the 
bones  of  animals,  the  E.squimaux  have 
the  exact  method  of  antiquity:  they 
.split  them  or  bunst  them  open  by 
pounding  with  stones,  and  take  the 
marrow  as  the  greatest  delicacy. 

In  the  manufacture  of  their  utensils 
the  Esquimaux  have  considerable  ingc- 
nuitv.  The  methods  em-  swu  in  the  man- 
ployed  are  nearly  identical  ^[:r„nnd- 
with  those  which  we  have  utensils, 
already  described  as  peculiar  to  the  age 
of  stone.  Arrowheads  and  spearpoints 
are  produced  by  spalling  off  flakes  from 
blocks  of  flint.  This  is  not  done,  how- 
ever, by  percttssion,  but  by  pressure. 
The  block  is  set  in  rest  and  pressed  with 
a  beam  of  wood  until  it  .splits,  flinging 
off  a  flake.  Iron  and  bone  are  consider- 
ably employed  for  pointing  arrows, 
spears,  and  harpoons.  The  method  of 
making  and  rigging  the  bow  is  nearly 
identical  with  that  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indians.  The  arrows  are  short,  and 
the  flight  of  the  shaft  is  made  steady  by 
an  arrangement  of  feathers.  It  has  been 
noted,  however,  that  the  Esquimaux  are 
by  no  means  so  expert  in  the  use  of  the 
bow  and  arrow  as  the  primitive  Red  men 
of  our  own  country.  The  heads  of  ar- 
rows and  spears  are  frequently  barbed. 
The  most  formidable  of  the  Esquimau 
weapons  is  the  harpoon,  the  point  being 
fixed  to  a  rather  heavy  shaft  of  wood 
and  secured  by  means  of  a  line. 

When  the  hunters  attack  a  whale  it  is 
customary  to  affix  bladders  to  the  ends  of 


•ij'^! 


^ 


PRIME  VA  L   MA  X.  —BA  RBA  RISM  IL  L  US  TRA  TED. 


399 


the  harpoon  lines  so  that  the  position 
of  the  wounded  animal  may  be  seen  at  a 
Manner  of  har-  distance  and  his  course 
rhTie^Vd'^the  throughthewaterimpeded. 
ss^-  The    same    plan    is    used 

in  the  less  exciting  and  dangerous  hunt 
of  the  seal.  In  harpooning  their  game 
the  weapon  is  so  arranged  that  the  head, 
or  barb,  generally  loosens  itself  from  the 
shaft  and  is  retained  by  the  line  which 
holds  the  bladder  at  the  other  end.  In 
seal  hunting,  it  is  the  plan  of  the  hunter 


tion  of  music.  They  sing  a  sort  of 
monotonous  songs,  in  both  solo  and 
chorus,  accompanying  themselves  with 
drums  and  other  rude  instruments. 
The  choral  effect  of  this  alleged  music 
is  not  unpleasant  to  the  trained  ear  of 
civilized  travelers.  Xor  does  it  appear 
that  the  Esquimau  songs  are  intended 
for  ceremonial  or  for  exciting  the  pas- 
sions of  the  chase  and  war.  It  is  amuse- 
ment, or  entertainment,  properly  so 
called,  and  therefore  falls  in  the  same 


Hs-^==>^r>s:^^^#Bir^-t-rfe'^4>^ 


jg-MI  .^^-^,f13.»^-?iH:T^g3 


;)f^'t^;/^HFf|,Fif-rfii-^ 


5:E»^^!!aM7^rrr  ^w^w^;:u 


^^^Ms^.^:ii^st^A?:^i.\rr\i'!'%iu\  mHHLa^jaj^ 


B&f '^^^..^s^  ^■'V^t'^f^         I^ta.HtlL.'^^S"'?^ 


ART  WORK  OF  BARBARIANS. 


to  watch  carefully  for  the  reappearance 
of  the  harpooned  animal  and  to  strike  it 
instantly  on  its  emergence  at  the  surface. 
The  Esquimaux  are  not  without  skill  in 
pursuing  the  dry  land  animals.  They 
stalk  the  reindeer  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, and  are  able  to  deceive  many  ani- 
mals by  imitating  their  cry  or  call. 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  Esquimaux 
Songs  and  mu-  have  in  their  character  and 
customs  the  rudiments  of 
This  is  man- 
ifest in  at  least  two  particulars.  In 
the  first  place,  they  have  some  apprecia- 


eical  instru 
ments;  amuse- 
ment the  motive,    an  ideal  life. 


I  category  with  the  music  of  civilized  peo- 

j  pies. 

But  a  still  more  remarkable  evidence 
of    ideality   among   the    Esquimaux   is 

;  found  in  their  disposition  Taste  of  the 

1  to  draw  and  sketch.  The  LTanYma'^'" 
taste  for  this  kind  of  work  making, 
among  them  amounts  almost  to  a  pas- 
sion. They  have  a  real  talent  for  de- 
picting the  outlines  of  natural  objects. 
This  extends  to  a  considerable  degree 
of  skill  in  the  production  of  maps.  The 
people  have  a  fairly  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  topography  of  the  ,  neighborhood 


PRIMEl'AL   JfAX.— BARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED. 


401' 


bone  and  ivory; 
subjects  of  art 
"work. 


and  country  in  ^vhicll  they  dwell. 
Travelers  in  the  arctic  regions  have 
frequently  drawn  upon  the  natives  in 
the  work  of  sketchingf  the  coasts  and 
physical  features  of  the  countrv.  In 
many  instances  the  natives  have  pro- 
duced maps  for  their  visitors  Avliich 
have  proved  in  application  to  be  more 
accurate  than  could  have  been  expected 
at  the  hands  of  barbarians. 

Still  more  striking  is  their  skill  in  the 
•work  of  drawing  proper.  Nearly  all  the 
Drawing  on  Esquimau    ornaments   and 

utensils  are  decorated  with 
the  outlines  of  men  and 
birds  and  beasts.  The  tusks  of  walruses 
and  the  fossil  ivory,  Avhich  is  frequently 
obtained,  are  covered  with  such  sketch- 
ing, and  no  little  degree  of  skill  is  dis- 
played in  the  work.  The  Esquimau's 
fancy  takes  up  the  scenes  and  incidents 
of  daily  life,  the  little  dramas  of  the  hut 
and  seashore,  the  hazards  of  the  chase 
or  of  fishing,  and  even  the  farcical 
happenings  of  their  barbarous  society, 
and  depicts  the  same,  with  no  little 
humor,  on  the  surface  of  their  drawing 
materials.  It  is  probably  true  that  no 
other  people,  ancient  or  modern,  with 
whom  the  ethnologist  and  historian  have 
acquaintance  have  exhibited  in  a  corre- 
sponding stage  of  development  so  much 
aptitude  and  skill  in  the  pictorial  repre- 
sentation of  natural  objects. 

Otherwise  the  Esquimaux  have  little 
intellectual  force  and  no  attainments. 
Weakness  of  the  It  is  Surprising  to  the  trav- 
eler to  observe  their  labored 
efforts  in  attempting  to 
grasp  general  ideas.  They  have  no 
mathematical  ability  whatever.  Their 
minds  in  respect  to  number  and  permu- 
tation are  as  weak  ac  those  of  children. 
They  are  rarely  able  to  count  as  much 
as  ten,  and  beyond  this  they  are  unable 
to  go.     They  have  large  families,  which 


Esquimaux  in 
abstraction;  in- 
ability to  count, 


in  the  northern  regions  are  a  blessing 
rather  than  a  discomfort.  It  has  been 
observed  that  the  man  of  the  hut  can 
rarely  tell  the  number  of  his  children. 
He  will  attempt  to  enumerate  them  on 
his  fingers,  will  fail,  and  the  matter  will 
result  in  an  animated  dispute  between 
himself  and  his  wife !  The  perceptions 
properly  so  called  are  in  a  better  state  of 
development  than  the  judgment.  Tho.se 
faculties  which  have  been  brought  into 
exercise  by  the  conditions  of  the  E.squi- 
mau  environment  have  been  quickened 
into  tolerable  activity.  But  the  rest  of 
the  mind  lies  dormant,  as  in  a  state  of 
absolute  savagery. 

The  .social  .system  of  these  people  is 
miserable   in   the   last   degree.       They 

practice      polvgamv.        The    Degradations 

chief    men     particularly  ^^--^^^y^rnT 
encumber  themselves  with  polyandry. 

multiple  wives,  and  the  usage  attracts 
no  comment.  Polyandry  is  akso  in 
vogue,  but  is  not  so  common  as  polyg- 
amy. A  woman  of  unusual  attractive- 
ness will  frequently  have  two  or  three 
husbands,  but  the  common  lot  are  con- 
tent with  one.  The  sanctity  of  the 
relation  of  the  man  and  the  woman  is 
not  regarded.  The  cu.stom  which  has 
been  noted  among  many  savage  nations 
of  loaning  to  a  visiting  stranger  the  wife 
of  the  man  who  is  visited  prevails  among 
the  Esquimaux.  The  act  is  regarded  as 
a  social  compliment,  and  any  refusal  to 
accept  the  same  on  the  part  of  the 
visitor  would  be  a  gross  violation  of 
etiquette. 

As  to  moral  qualities,  the  Esquimaux 
have  very  little  appreciation  of  duty, 
obligation,   or  dependence  ^^^^^^^^, 

on  a  higher  power.       Their   moral  nature;  a 
,  rude  humanity. 

promise    or    pledge,    how- 
ever solemnly  made,  is  generally  worth- 
less.    It  does  not  appear  that  they  will- 
fully  deceive  or  purposely  break  their 


402 


GREAT  RACES    OF  MANKIND. 


word.  But  the  changing  conditions  of 
to-morrow  making  it  of  advantage  to 
violate  a  pledge  of  to-day  furnish  an 
easy  reason  to  the  barbarian  for  doing  so. 
Of  religious  duty  and  ceremony  they 
know  but  little  or  nothing.  In  their 
relations  with  one  another,  however,  they 
are  generally  kind,  humane,  accom- 
modating. The  neighborly  feeling  pre- 
vails in  the  Esquimau  settlements. 
There  is  much  of  common  interest 
among  them.  The  people  support  each 
other    in  their    rude    enterprises,    and 


Drawing  of  an  ibex. 


Group  of  figures. 
ART   WORK   OF   THIS   ESQUIMAUX — DRAWIXG   OK   BONE   AND    IVORY 


generosity  is  by  no  means  unknown. 
The  poorer  members  of  the  tribe  are 
supplied  in  times  of  want.  The  hunter 
■divides  the  results  of  his  successful  pur- 
suit with  his  less  successful  companion. 
Two  or  three  fishermen  who  have  had 
the  good  fortune  to  take  a  walrus  are  by 
no  means  niggardly  in  distributing  to 
others  a  portion  of  their  fortune. 

In  one  striking  particular  the  Esqui- 
maux rise  above  their  contemj^oraries  of 
the  American  forest.  They  are  never 
willfully  and  maliciously  cruel.  There 
is,  perhaps,  no    authentic   instance   on 


record   of   vindictive   and  preconcerted 
cruelty     toward     their    fellows.       The 

absence    of   this  disposition    Absence  of  cru- 

among  them,  however,  is  :il^„rirmff^r."' 
rather  in  the  nature  of  ^nce. 
apathy  than  of  a  positive  virtue.  They 
are  simply  indifferent,  and  are  incapable 
of  cruelty  or  revenge  because  of  their 
passionless  character.  They  are  cold  in 
life  and  manners,  and,  though  little  dis- 
posed to  do  actual  harm  or  to  inflict  pain 
upon  their  fellows,  they  are  equally 
indisposed  to  do  them  positive  good. 
Such,  in  brief,  is  the  manner  of  life,  the 
habit,  the  taste,  the  intellectual  capacity, 
and  general  disposition  of  these  widely 
disseminated  barbarians  of  the  North. 

The  foregoing  account  of  the  general 
condition  of  several  barbarian  races  is 
little  more  than  a  sketch  of  present  disser- 
superficial  aspects.  There  ^.^.^o^or:"" 
is  no  pretense  in  this  than  a  sketch. 
connection  of  making  a  complete  picture 
of  savage  life  as  it  exists  at  present  in 
various  quarters  of  the 
world.  That  work  is  re- 
served for  another  part  of 
this  treatise  on  the  Great 
Races.  What  is  here  pre- 
sented is  merely  illustra- 
tive of  savage  manners 
and  customs  as  they 
now  prevail,  and  the  meaning  of  the 
illustration  is  simply  to  throw  light,  by 
reflection,  upon  the  condition  of  man- 
kind in  prehistoric  ages.  In  every  epoch 
since  the  appearance  of  human  beings 
on  the  globe  men  have  been  men. 
Their  essential  characters,  dispositions, 
and  tendencies  have  always  been  the 
same,  or  at  least  in  close  analogy.  The 
human  animal  has  always  had  his  own 
habits,  peculiarities,  and  possibilities  of 
development.  The  present  state  of  the 
barbarous  races,  therefore,  is  of  much 
value  to  the  historian  and  ethnologist  in 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— BARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED. 


403 


determining  the  primitive  condition  of 
mankind,  and  it  is  for  this  purpose  that 
the  foregoing  imperfect  sketches  of 
several  savage  peoples  have  been  pre- 
sented. The  current  savagery  of  the 
world  is  exponential  of  that  prehistoric 
barbarism  \vhich  prevailed  before  the 
beginnings  of  authentic  history;  and, 
although  much  allowance  must  be  made 
for  the  varying  conditions  of  environ- 
ment and  instinct  in  the  prehistoric  ages 
and  at  the  present  time,  it  can  not  be 
doubted  that  the  current  aspect  of  bar- 
barous life  is  in  most  respects  a  faithful 
picture  of  that  which  prevailed  before 
the  Vedas  were  chanted  in  the  valley  of 
the  Indus,  before  Abraham  took  his 
journey  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  before 
the  sea-beaten  ^^neas  and  his  Trojan 
companions  had  found  a  footing  on  the 
western  coasts  of  Latium. 

Besides  the  condition  of  absolute  sav- 
agery described  in  the  preceding  para- 
piace  of  semi-  graphs,  Certain  secondary 
th^ltcendiiTg  Stages  of  barbarism  may 
scale  of  races.  well  be  noticed.  We  may 
not  say  with  certainty  that  the  semi- 
barbarity  of  the  world  is  the  resultant  of 
such  antecedent  savagerj'  as  Ave  have  de- 
scribed ;  but  no  doubt  such  is  the  fact. 
Neither  may  we  affirm  certainly  that  the 
semibarbarous  peoples  are  to  be  the 
progenitors  of  highly  civilized  races.  It 
is  probable  that  the  analogy  of  the  tree 
should  here  again  be  applied  to  the  human 
race  as  a  whole.  Branches  put  out  and 
are  developed  to  a  certain  stage.  Be- 
yond this  they  do  not  expand.  Pres- 
ently they  decay  and  die.  Then  they 
fall  away  from  the  vital  trunk  which 
supports  the  more  vigorous  and  ex- 
pansive branches  above. 

It  will  not  do  to  say  that  all  branches 
of  a  vital  organism  are  equally  potent  in 
development.  It  is  only  the  more  cen- 
tral  and    stronger  that    shoot    up    and 


spread  and  flourish.  This  is  probably 
true  of  the  evolution  of  mankind  con- 
sidered   as    one     orgfanic, 

-uT     41        Philosophy  of 
living  thing.      Possibly  the    the  semibarbar- 
.  -11  ic  estate  of  man. 

present  residual  savagery 
of  the  world  will  never  reach  much  be- 
yond its  present  stage  of  evolution. 
This  may  be "  true  also  of  the  semibar- 
barous peoples.  For  the  present  it  suf- 
fices that  such  peoples  exist  and  occupy 
a  considerable  part  of  the  earth's  surface. 
Their  manners,  customs,  and  modes  of 
existence  differ  much  from  those  of  the 
savages  whom  we  have  described  above. 
They  also  differ  much  from  the  usages 
of  the  civilized  races — most  of  all  from 
the  refined  and  cultivated  peoples  of 
Europe  and  America. 

Such  types  as  we  here  contemplate 
may  be  found  widely  distributed 
throughout  Northern  Asia.  The  TuiK^uses 
They  are  of  vast  terri-  ^.thTs'^atfc 
torial  expansion  and  of  a  barbanty. 
comparatively  low  manner  of  life.  As 
an  example  of  the  whole  class  the  Tun- 
g^ses  of  North-Central  Asia  may  be 
cited.  Their  customs  are  above  the 
horizon  of  savagery,  but  greatly  below 
the  line  of  civilization.  What  is  said  of 
their  customs  may  be  repeated  of  their 
intellectual  and  moral  qualities.  We 
note  among  them  a  considerable  devel- 
opment of  the  mental  faculties  and  a 
measure  of  moral  obligation  and  duty. 
But  these  terms  must  be  defined,  not 
according  to  the  standards  with  which 
we  are  familiar,  but  by  a  criterion  fixed 
for  the  particular  thing  to  be  defined. 

The  Tungusic  barbarians  live  the 
wild  life  of  hunters  and  fishermen. 
They  tame  the  reindeer,  using  that  ani- 
mal for  both  food  and  draught.  In  like 
manner  they  train  their  dogs  to  draw 
their  sledges.  They  live  a  half-seden- 
tary life,  having  a  rude  society  and  the 
beginnings    of   usages    that  in    higher 


404 


GREAT  RACES   OF  J\LL\A7X/). 


progress  would  be  defined  as  civil.  The 
domestic  estate  is  in  a  corresponding 
stage  of  development.  The  religious 
life  has  been  vaguely  determined  by  a 
native  faith  which  is  called  Shamanism, 
and  by  the  vague  outreaching  influences 
of  Lamaism  from  the  side  of  the  Mon- 
golian countries,  and  the  touch  of  Greek 


and  others  in  the  other;  that  is,  one  as- 
pect of  the  Moorish  life  seems  to  ap- 
proximate the  conditions  present  in  Eu- 
rope and  the  Americas,  while  another 
aspect  is  distinctly  barbarous. 

In  their  commercial  transactions,  and 
indeed  in  all  of  those  parts  of  their  pub- 
lic life  in  which  they  are  brought  into 


SF.MlliARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED— THE  NORTH  ASIATIC  MANNER. -Tingusic  Sukleki 
Drawn  by  Victor  Adam,    after  a  sketch  of  the  Cnunt  de  Rcchhcrg. 


Catholicism    out    of     .Siberia    and    the 
West. 

We  may  note  also  a  grade  of  semi- 
barbarity  peculiar  to  North  Africa  and 
to  some  portions  of  Eastern 

Semibarbarism  ^ 

of  the  Moors  and  and  Southeastern  Asia. 
Perhaps  the  s  e  m  i  b  a  r- 
barous  life  of  the  Moors  is  the  high- 
est estate  of  mankind  below  the  level  of 
civilization.  Some  of  the  usages  of  the 
Moors  and  Berbers  look  in  one  direction 


contact  with  foreign  nations,  the  Moors 
have  the  manners  peculiar  to  the  ruder 
forms  of  civilization.  But  in  their  race 
customs — those  which  they  have  de- 
rived from  the  past — they  arc  distinctly 
barbaric.  Their  personal  manners 
among  themselves  have  the  sense  and 
flavor  of  a  remote  and  barbaric  past. 
Their  wild  dances  and  crude  religious 
ceremonies  all}-  the  race  with  the  barba- 
rians,  leaving  only  a  small  reason  for 


406 


GREAT  RACES   OE  JfAXA'LVD. 


classifying  them  with  the  civilized  peo- 
ples of  the  world. 

Several  important  inferences  are  now 
to  be  drawn  from  the  subject-matter  of 
the  present  chapter.  It  remains  to  sum- 
marize the  results  and  to  state  their 
meaning.  The  reader  will,  doubtless, 
already  have  deduced  several  conclusions 
from  his  study  of  the  preceding  chap- 
ters; but  it  will  be  of  additional  interest 
to  state  in  a  few  paragraphs  the  leading 
truths  which  follow  as  a  logical  conclu- 
sion from  premises  furnished  by  the 
study  and  comparison  of  prehistoric  and 
modern  barbarism. 


repulsive  features.  What  the  cave  men 
of  Western  Europe  and  the  shell-mound 
people  of  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  were 
in  the  post-pliocene  era — when  the 
mammoth  was  still  a  denizen  of  West- 
ern Europe  and  America,  when  the 
hairy  rhinoceros  and  the  reindeer  were 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Seine  and  the  Loire, 
when  the  cave  bear  and  the  cave  hyena 
and  the  Bos  primigciiiiis  still  maintained 
their  existence  from  the  northern  ocean 
to  the  Pyrenees — that  the  native  Austra- 
lians, theVeddahsof  Ceylon,  the  savages 
of  the  Andaman  islands,  and  the  Fue- 
gians  of  South  America  are' to  the  pres- 


PICIORIAI,  WORK  OF  THE  ESQUIMAUX. 


I.  In  the  first  place,  it  will  be  noted 
that  the  prehistoric  age  and  the  current 
AU  ages  furnish  epoch  of  human  history 
"^tZ:'^Z-  alike  furnish  examples  of  the 
dition.  lozvest  stages  of  human  devel- 

opment. This  is  to  say  that  at  the  two 
extremes  of  human  history,  the  one  ly- 
ing below  the  daydawn  of  authentic 
annals  and  the  other  reaching  to  the 
very  feet  of  the  present,  tribes  of  men 
are  found  in  similar  stages  of  degradation 
and  savagery.  This  signifies  that  the 
whole  of  human  history  has  not  been 
sufficient  to  extinguish  barbarism  from 
the  earth,  or  even  to  obliterate  its  most 


ent  day.  Some  variations  and  departures 
of  tribal  character  doubtless  exist  be- 
tween the  prehistoric  barbarians  and 
their  fellows  of  the  modern  world.  No 
doubt  there  are  conditions  prevalent, 
forces  operative  in  the  processes  of  our 
planet  life  which  have  effected  changes 
and  diversities  of  character  between  the 
ancient  and  the  modern  savages ;  but  the 
fact  remains  of  their  characteristic  and  es- 
sential identity.  In  food  and  clothing, 
in  weapons  and  utensils,  in  hut  building 
and  the  rude  beginnings  of  artisanship, 
in  coarseness  of  manners  and  brutality 
of  life,  the  two  extremes  of  the  ethnic 


PRIMEVAL   MAX.— BARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED. 


407 


history  of  man  may  be  brought  together, 
and  the  difference  might  be  hard  to 
seek. 

2.  The  life  of  man  in  the  prehistoric 
ages  and  in  the  modern  barbarian 
^i^®  ^^,^''®"^^      world   presents    similar   cx- 

of  developmeut  •■ 

present  in  an-       treDies  of  development .     This 

cient  and  mod-       .  ,  .  .      . 

em  times.  IS  to  Say  that  in  the  primi- 

tive -world  great  variety  is  discovered  in 
the  life  of  tribes  and  peoples,  and  in  the 
degree  of  development.  In  some,  the 
evolutionary  forces  had  already  worked 
a  considerable  result  at  our  earliest  ac- 


expansion  and  possibility.  In  general, 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Western 
Europe  were  as  low  in  development  as 
may  well  be  conceived.  The  cave  men 
and  the  coast  people  were  in  the  extreme 
of  savagery,  and  it  is  difficult  to  point  to 
a  single  evidence  among  the  relics  and 
memorials  which  they  have  left  to  ar- 
chaeolog}^  and  historj'  of  even  a  tendency 
to  reach  a  higher  stage  of  life. 

This  same  contrariety  between  the 
higher  and  lower  aspects  of  human 
existence  in   the  prehistoric  world   finds 


NONPROGRESSIVE  STATE  OF  BARBARISM.— Chippewas  of  Sai  lt  SArNte  Makik. 


quaintance  with  a  given  people,  while 
in  others  the  grossness  of  savagery 
was  unabated.  If  we  scrutinize  the 
old  house-folk  of  Arya  or  study  the 
characteristics  of  some  of  the  better 
peoples  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  West, 
such  as  the  Pelasgians  of  Greece,  or 
the  Etiiiscans  of  Italy,  we  shall  find 
them  to  have  been  vigorous  and  growing 
races,  great  builders  of  stone,  makers  of 
towns  and  treasure-houses  and  fortifica- 
tions and  aqueducts.  But  if  we  glance 
at  other  aspects  of  prehistoric  humanity 
we  find  no  such  promising  symptoms  of 


an  exact  analogy  among  modem  barba- 
rians. Here,  also,  we  have  Existing  barba- 
mixed  evidences  of  the  ^Z^^^^t 
progressive  and  nonpro-  nonprogressiTe. 
gressive  disposition.  Many  of  the  exist- 
ing barbarous  races  are  as  absolute  in 
their  savagery  as  were  any  of  the  pre- 
historic tribes,  while  others  give  proof 
of  a  forward  movement  and  of  actual  at- 
tainment, which  may  well  elicit  hopeful- 
ness and  even  challenge  admiration. 
The  general  principle  is  that  the  same 
diversity  which  we  find  evidenced 
among  the   races  of  the  primitive  world 


408 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIXD. 


exist  among  the  barbarous  peoples  of  tlie 
present  time;  from  which  it  would  ap- 
pear that  beyond  the  pale  and  influence 
of  the  civilized  nations  a  state  of  human 
society  still  exists  which  is  little  dissimi- 
lar to  that  which  the  ethnolotjist  discov- 


I'litioH  of  inaiikiiid.        In    contemplating 
the  barbai'ous  races  now  inhabiting  the 

outskirts    of    the  world,   we    The  barbaric  Ufe 

discover   little    or  nothing  f.^rrongTor 

to  inform  the  judgment  as  spread. 

to  //('Ti' savagery  begins  or  ends,  or  as   to 


PROGRESSIVE  ELEMENT  IN  BARB  ARISM— ILLUS  I'RATED  IN  WEAPONS  OF  NEW  ZEALANDERb. 
I,  saw  ;  a,  chisel ;  3,  knife  ;  4,  nx  of  chipped  flint ;  5,  spe.-ir  of  ground  stone  ;  6,  ax  of  polished  stone. 


ers  on  the   remotest  horizon  of  his  in-  !  the  ethnic  soi/nr  from   which   such   peo 


quiry. 

3.  The  study  of  the  existing  forms  of 
barbarism  throws  very  little  light  on 
fundamental  questions  relative  to  f//c  ori- 
gin of  savagery  and  tlic  prifuitivc  distri- 


ples  have  descended.  Their  traditions, 
as  already  remarked  are  valueless,  and 
their  monuments  and  arts  serve  only  to 
illustrate  the  passing  phases  of  their 
social  condition.     It  is  possible  for  the 


PRIMEVAL    MAX.— BARBARISM  ILLUSTRATED. 


409 


historian  to  see  in  the  actions  of  existing 
barbarians  those  unconscious  movements 
of  man  which,  in  some  instances  at  least, 
precede  the  birth  and  early  struggles  of 
civilization.  Savage  tribes  in  such  a 
state  of  development — if,  indeed,  they 
are  developing  at  all — arc  in  close  anal- 
ogy with  the  unconscious  period  in  hu- 
man life.  There  is  a  sense  in  which  the 
species  is  always  epitomized  and  ex- 
pressed in  the  individual.  What  the 
child  does  without  consciousness  of  its 
own  actions  or  tendencies,  that  the 
species  does  in  an  analogous  stage  of  de- 
velopment. But  the  evidence  of  the 
child  with  respect  to  its  own  past,  or 
even  with  respect  to  its  own  purposes, 
would  be  little  regarded  by  any  candid 
inquirer.  It  is  a  period  in  individual  or 
tribal  life  characterized  by  dreams  and 
vagaries  of  the  fancy ;  and  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  fancy  is  frequently 
distorted  by  abnormal  conditions  and 
even  by  disease  and  delirium.  On  the 
whole,  the  impartial  student  of  the 
primitive  condition  of  mankind  is  able 
to  discover  as  much  evidence  out  of  the 
memorials  of  the  prehistoric  ages  rela- 
tive to  the  origin  and  essential  charac- 
ter of  barbarism  and  the  beginnings  of 
tribal  life  in  different  quarters  of  the 
world,  as  he  is  able  to  discover  from  the 
closest  scrutiny  of  the  actions  and  man- 
ner of  life  of  the  existing  barbarous 
peoples. 

4.  The  chief  difference  between  the 
aspect  of  modern  barbarism  and  that  of 
Ancient  and         the    primitive   world  is   in 

current  barba-  y  cranrniphical  distribution. 
Tism  differently  {^     t>      i 

distributed.  The  disposition  of  modern 
savagery  is  very  different  as  it  respects 
the  habitable  surface  of  the  globe  from 
that  of  the  ancient  world.  In  the  earli- 
est epochs  accessible  to  our  information 
savagery  was   distributed  into  all   parts 

and  places.       It  had  possession  of    the 
M.— Vol.  1—27 


choicest  regions  of  the  globe.  There  was 
a  time  Avhen  it  was  the  central  fact  in 
Asia,  in  Europe,  and  in  the  two  Ameri- 
cas. Until  the  present  century  it  was 
still  the  central  fact  in  Australia,  but 
the  growth  and  spread  of  civilization 
has  displaced  its  barbaric  competitor. 
At  the  first  the  savage  state  gave  away 
in  the  river  valleys  of  the  East  and  in 
those  choice  peninsulas  which  drop 
down  from  the  northern  continents 
into  the  southern  waters.  In  a  later 
stage  barbari.sm    receded  from   the   re- 


\ 


UM'ROGRESSIVE   CONDITION — MINCOPA   5IAN.  FROM    THB 
ANDAMAN    ISLANDS. 

gions  north  of  the  great  mountain 
chains.  The  central  portions  of  the 
continents  were  reclaimed,  and  there 
was  a  recession,  a  retreat,  of  savagery 
toward  the  borders  of  the  world. 

The  general  result  has  been  the  ex- 
tirpation of  the  barbarous  condition  in 
all  the  central  and  better  civilization  has 

crowded  sav- 

parts  of  the  habitable  globe,  agery  out  of  the 

^        .        .  ,  .        ,  better  parts  of 

It  is  in  these  best  re-  the  world, 
gions  of  the  world  that  the  great  powers 
are  planted.  Here  they  flourish,  and  in 
proportion  as  they  are  vigorous  and 
possess  the  elements  of  perpetuity,  they 
extend  themselves,  by  varying  con- 
quests,  toward   the  horizon.     Savagery 


410 


GREAT  RACKS    OF  JfAXKlXD. 


has  fallen  back  before  this  movement 
and  is  now  compelled  to  occupy  the  fur- 
ther coasts  of  the  planet.  In  the  far 
regions  of  the  north  it  is  still  able  to 
maintain  itself,  at  least  for  a  season. 
In  parts  of  .South  America  and  in  nearly 
the  whole  of  Africa  it  still  prevails, 
flourishing-  as  it  were  under  the  :egis  of 
a  climate  which  seems  to  forbid  the  de- 
velopment of  a  higher  civilization.  As 
for  the  rest,  barbarism  plants  itself  in 
what  will  perhaps  prove  its  last  .strong- 
hold, the  remote  islands  of  the  great 
oceans.  It  is  easy  to  discover  how  vastly 
the  position  and  relative  importance  of 
civilization  and  the  barbaric  life  have 
been  changed  in  their  geographical 
place,  with  a  constant  advantage  in  fa- 
vor of  the  civilized  condition. 

5.  The  principal  lesson  deducible 
from  the  present  aspect  of  savagery  is 
the  emphasis  which  it  places  on  the  dif- 

Difference  be-  fcrclliC  bct'd'CCIl  tllC pros^rcssivc 
tween  progress-    -^  . 

ive  and  nonpro-    and  tlw  iioiiprogrfssive  parts 

gressive  parts  of      ^       ,        ,  .  ..-,^ 

human  life.  "f  t'^'^  liunian    spccies.     We 

have  seen  above  that  many  forms  of  ex- 
isting savagery  are  as  low  and  unprom- 
ising as  any  which  prevailed  in  the  pre- 
historic era.  The  flint  implement  of 
to-day  is  in  no  %\-ise  superior  to  that 
which  the  cave  dweller  used  in  his  bat- 
tle with  the  extinct  mammalia  of  West- 


ern Europe.  The  manners  and  cusloni.s 
of  the  Andamaners  and  the  Veddahs, 
and  the  method  of  life  of  the  Digger 
Indians  in  Western  America  are  in 
every  wise  as  gross  and  degrading  as 
any  which  are  suggested  by  the  memo- 
rials and  relics  of  the  primitive  world. 

It  appears  c()nclusi\-e  that  a  considera- 
ble part  of  the  human  race  is  at  the 
present  time  in  a  condition  Lowest  savage- 
as  degraded  and  unpro-  ^J^^^^^ 
gressive  as  any  which  is  the  globe, 
suggested  by  our  knowledge  of  the  pre- 
historic races  of  the  Old  World.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  have  the  fact  of  evolu- 
tionary progress  splendidly  illustrated 
in  the  history,  tendencies,  and  prospects 
of  the  civilized  races.  It  is  apart  from 
the  present  purpose  to  speak  of  the  in- 
dustry, the  enterprise,  the  letters,  the 
art,  the  triumph  over  the  obdurate  forces 
of  the  natural  Avorld,  which  have  been 
practiced  and  achieved  by  the  great  peo- 
ples now  holding  dominion  in  the  earth. 
It  is  sufficient  to  note  and  to  emphasize 
the  contrast  which  is  afforded  by  the  de- 
graded and  the  elevated  a.spects  of  hu- 
man life,  and  this  contrast  is  brought 
most  vividly  to  the  mind  of  the  inquirer 
as  he  considers  the  aspect  of  barbari.sm 
set  darkly  against  the  blazing  disk  of 
civilization. 


(^ 


• 


^) 


RACE  CriART  No.  1. 

EXPLANATION. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  Chart  to  show  THE  Distribution  of  the 
Races  of  Mankind,  on  the  theory  that  they  have  all  proceeded  from  a 
common  source.  That  source  is  indicated  by  the  heavy  black  line  at  the  left, 
marked  "  Orig^-inal  Stock  of  Mankind."  From  this  original  slock  several 
great  divisions  branch  off,  the  first  of  which  is  the  stem  of  the  prehistoric 
Black  races;  the  second,  the  stem  of  the  prehistoric  Brown,  or  Mongoloid, 
races:  and  the  third,  the  stem  of  the  prehistoric  Ruddv,  or  While,  races. 
Each  of  these  stems  divides  into  many  branches. 

In  general,  the  latitude  of  the  given  race  is  indicated  in  the  Chart  as  on 
an  ordinarj^  map;  that  is,  those  races  having  the  most  northernly  distribu- 
tion are  above ;  those  in  the  temperate  zones  come  next,  as  nearly  as  prac- 
ticable ;  and  those  in  the  tropical  regions  fall  in  the  center  or  lower  part  of 
the  Chart. 

Wherever  the  red  lines  extend,  there  the  White,  or  Ruddy,  races  are 
distributed ;  wherever  the  brown  lines  reach,  there  the  Brown,  or  Mongoloid, 
races  are  found;  while  the  black  lines  indicate  the  distribution  of  the  Black 
races. 

Nearly  one-fourth  of  the  Chart  at  the  left  indicates  the  prehistoric,  or 
unknown,  period  of  race  distribution.  Out  of  this  prehistoric  period  the 
various  races  emerge.  There  is  an  Aryan,  or  Indo-European,  familj- ;  a 
Semitic  family;  a  Hamitic  family;  a  Mongoloid  familj- ;  and  .sundry  Black 
races,  little  known  to  the  present  day.     ' 

In  the  greater  part  of  the  center  of  the  Chart,  and  to  the  right,  wherever 
the  names  of  races  or  stocks  are  printed  in  black  letters,  those  races,  or 
stocks,  are  extinct ;  that  is,  they  have  either  ceased  to  exist,  or  are  repre- 
sented only  in  their  descendants.  Examples  of  such  are  the  Visigoths,  the 
Carthaginians,  the  Etruscans,  etc. 

All  the  names  of  races,  families,  and  stocks,  printed  in  red  letters,  are 
existing,  or  living,  peoples.  These  are  found,  for  the  most  part,  distributed 
to  the  right  at  the  end  of  race-stems.  Thus  we  have,  as  examples  of  living 
races,  beginning  above,  the  Welsh,  the  Icelanders,  the  Red  Russians,  the 
Montenegrins,  the  English-speaking  races,  the  High  Germans,  the  Swiss,  the 
Brazilians,  the  Esquimaux,  the  Magyars,  the  Osmanlis,  etc. 

The  Chart  enables  the  reader,  in  particular,  to  trace  the  race  descent 
of  any  living  variety  of  mankind.  Thus,  the  English-speaking  races  are  de- 
rived (read  back  from  right  to  left)  from  Anglo-Saxons,  Saxons,  Ingavo- 
nians,  Moeso-Goths,  out  of  the  German  stem,  of  the  Teuto-Slavic  division,  of 
the  West  Aryan  branch,  of  the  Indo-European  family,  of  the  prehistoric 
Ruddy,  or  White,  races. 

So,  in  all  the  cases  of  race-histon',  the  Chart  is  intended  to  show,  at  a 
single  survey,  all  of  the  leading  developments  of  mankind.  Many  minor 
varieties  are  necessarity  omitted  ;  but  all  of  the  principal  stocks  of  the  human 
race  are  here  displayed  in  their  proper  ethnical  and  historical  development. 
(For  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  various  races,  see  Race  Charts  Nos. 
2  to  9,  inclusive. ) 


%^MS^^^^^^^^^^^^'y--  -'ft^fe&«*^telfe^ 


BOOK  IV.-DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES. 


Chapter    XXIII.— Classification    ok  the    Human 

Species. 


T  has  already  been  re- 
marked that  migration 
constitutes  one  of  the 
leading  facts  in  the 
history  of  the  primitive 
world.  Movement  was 
the  mood  of  the  first 
men  who  possessed  the  earth.  It  was 
by  means  of  tribal  and  national  migra- 
tions that  mankind  were  distributed  into 
the  various  regions  where  they  subse- 
quently established  themselves  in  com- 
munities and  states.  From  certain  cen- 
ters  the  human  streams  arose  and  flowed 
in  different  directions,  bearing  afar  the 
fecund  waters  of  future  national  life. 

Nearly  all  of  these  movements  are 
hidden  under  the  obscurity  that  clouds 
Obscurity  of  the  the  beginnings  of  history. 
mJ^sTfm'an-  The  very  best  penetration 
«^°<i-  of  the    historian    and   eth- 

nologist can  reach  no  further  than  the 
shadowy  confines  of  the  countries  and 
ages  in  which  these  primitive  motions  of 


the  human  race  took  their  origin  and 
expended  their  force.  The  task  of  de- 
lineating the  migrations  and  dispersions 
of  the  early  races  may  well  challenge 
the  profoundest  inquiry,  and  the  prob- 
lem must  even  then  be  attempted  with 
extreme  diffidence  and  much  distrust  of 
the  existing-  resources  of  knowledg-e. — 
It  is  the  purpose  in  the  present  book  to 
delineate  at  least  the  leading  migrations 
of  the  early  races  of  man. 

In  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  migratory 
movements  of  primitive  mankind  have 
left  only  incidental  traces  in  

•^  .   .  why  a  classifica- 

histor}' and  tradition.     For  tion  of  the  races 

^ ,  .        '  . ,  .J  is  necessary. 

this  reason  the  evidences 
of  human  distribution  have  to  be  gath- 
ered, for  the  most  part,  by  indirection 
out  of  collateral  branches  of  inquir)-. 
As  preparatory  to  a  description  of  these 
movements,  upon  which  all  future  history 
in  some  sense  depended,  it  is  necessary  to 
frame  an  adequate  analysis  of  the  hu- 
man family  according  to  those  distinc- 

411 


412 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


tions  upon  wiiich  the  tribal  and  national 
life  of  one  people  is  discriminated  from 
that  of  .another.  It  is  impossible  to 
speak  intelligently  of  the  early  migra- 
tions of  mankind  without  a  division  and 
classification  of  the  human  species,  to 
the  end  that  its  various  parts  may  be 
considered  in  detail  and  in  relation  the 
one  with  another.  Such  a  classification 
into  different  races,  families,  and  stocks 
is  the  first  task  imposed  upon  the  eth- 
nologist,  and  is  a  work  in  every  way 


race  according  to  its  true  ethnic  distinc- 
tions  has  never  been  satisfactorily  ac- 
complished. The  principle  according 
to  which  the  division  or  divisions  aie  to 
be  made  has  never  been  well  determined, 
and  the  problem  at  the  present  day  is 
still  to  be  considered  in  its  original 
elements. 

It  can  but  be  of  interest  in  this  con- 
nection to  present  in  brief  some  of  the 
leading  methods  which  have  been  adopt- 
ed in  the  attempted  classification  of  the 


A  MtlrHOD  OF  MIGRATION.— Eastern  Caravan.— Drawn  by  W.  J.  Morg;in. 


method  of  clas. 
sifying  yet  dis- 
covered. 


essential   to  the   understanding   of   the 
beginnings  of  human  history. 

The  division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
by  Linnaevis,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
No  adequate  animal  world  into  genera 
and  species  and  varieties 
by  Cuvier,  were  not  more 
essential  to  the  understanding  of  those 
two  great  departments  of  nature  than  is 
an  adequate  classification  of  mankind 
into  races,  families,  and  types  essential 
to  a  knowledge  of  ethnic  history.  Great, 
therefore,  is  the  embarrassment  of  the 
inquirer  to  find  that  even  to  the  present 
day  this  work  of  classifying  the  human 


human  race.  The  most  learned  of  the  an- 
cients were  profoundly  ignorant  of  the  af- 
finities of  the  different  f  am-  The  ancients  bo- 
ilies  of  mankind,  and  found  "^^^^^^ 
no  pleasure  in  tracing  races, 
such  relationshijDS.  On  the  contrary,  the 
mental  tone  of  antiquity  was  against  the 
notion  of  the  kinship  and  common 
descent  of  the  nations.  Each  people 
disseminated  the  belief  in  its  own  prior- 
ity and  preeminence,  and  discarded  as 
much  as  possible  those  democratic  tradi- 
tions which  seemed  to  reduce  themselves 
to  a  common  level  with  barbarians  and 
heathen.    Not  until  long  after  the  eclip.se 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.— ETHNIC   CLASSIFICATION.     413 


of  the  classical  ages,  not  until  the  bar- 
barism of  mediaeval  Europe  had  at  length 
been  pushed  back  by  the  revival  of 
learning,  did  men  attempt  in  a  more 
thoughtful  and  philanthropic  spirit  to 
investigate  the  beginnings  of  human 
development  and  the  affinities  of  the 
different  peoples  who  inhabited  the 
earth. 

At  the  time  of  this  reenlightenment 
of  the  European  nations  the  Roman  Cath- 
scripturai  opin-  olic  Church  was  dominant 
T.l°:^Z^  throughout  the  West.  This 
unity.  great      organization      was 

based  upon  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  and  from  these  ancient 
books  were  derived,  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  the  greater  part  of  the  learn- 
ing of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  came  to  pass, 
therefore,  that  the  first  rational  views 
with  regard  to  mankind  considered  as  a 
race  and  the  dispersion  and  affinity  of 
the  nations  were  derived  from  scriptural 
sources.  It  was  from  this  origin  that 
the  prevalent  opinions  of  several  cen- 
turies were  deduced,  and  it  will,  there- 
fore, be  appropriate  in  this  connection  to 
present,  first  of  all,  the  long  prevalent 
beliefs  which  were  derived  from  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures. 

I.  The  Biblical  Ethnology. — In  the 
tenth  chapter  of  Genesis  we  have  an  ac- 
The  biblical  eth-  count  of  the  departures  and 
Sut°Sn=ofsw  migrations  of  primitive 
and  Ham.  mankind.      The   narrative 

begins  with  the  descendants  of  Noah, 
the  survivors  of  a  deluge.  His  three 
sons  become  the  progenitors  of  the  three 
dominant  races  which  go  forth  to  people 
the  world.  The  progenies  of  Shem, 
Ham,  and  Japheth,  according  to  their 
families  and  tribes,  are  dispersed  in 
the  various  countries  of  Western  Asia, 
Northern  Africa,  and  Eastern  Europe. 

In  general,  this  account  assigns  to 
Shem  and  his  family  the  Elamites,  the 


Assyrians,  "  Arphaxad  and  Lud  and 
Aram."  According  to  this  scheme  Eber 
is  the  grandson  or  descendant  of  Arphax- 
ad, from  which  we  are  able  to  sec  emerg- 
ing dimly  at  least  three  historical  peoples 
— the  Elamites,  the  Assyrians,  and  the 
Hebrews.  Among  the  sons  of  Ham  are 
mentioned  Cush,  and  Mizraim,  and  Phut, 
and  Canaan,  with  their  respective  de- 
scendants. To  Cush  is  assigned  Nimrod 
and  his  historical  progeny.  Mizraim  is 
doubtless  the  original  tribal  name  of  the 
Egyptians,  while  Canaan,  whose  sons  are 
Sidon  and  Heth,  is  clearly  the  ancestor 


CUSHITE   TYPE — SHEIK   OF   CHAMARS. 
Drawn  by  H.  Thiriat,  from  a  photograph  by  Mougal. 

of  the  Canaanitish  races  of  subsequent 
times. 

The  generations  of  Japheth  are  said 
to  be  Gomer  and  Magog  and  Madai 
and  Javan  and  Tubal  and  japheth  dissem. 
Meshech  and  Tiras.  To  '^t^'tX^^ 
each  of  these  is  given  a  fam-  gentiles." 
ily  of  sons  and  descendants,  and  they 
are  .said  to  have  distributed  themselves 
among  the  "  isles  of  the  gentiles,"  "  ev- 
ery one  after  his  tongue,  after  their  fam- 
ilies, in  their  nations."  In  the  case  of 
Japheth,  also,  we  are  able  to  detect  the 


414 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


historical  beginning  of  nations,  especial- 
ly in  the  case  of  his  son  Madai,  who  is 
thought  to  have  given  his  name  to  the 
ancient  Aledes.  Besides  what  is  here 
presented  in  outline,  a  place  must  be  left 
in  the  ethnic  scheme  for  the  direct  de- 
scendants of  Noah,  who  is  said  to  have 
lived  for  more  than  a  century  after  the 
Deluge,  and  to  have  begotten  sons  and 
daughters. 

Such,  in  a  word,  is  the  biblical  scheme 
which  the  first  ethnologists  of  modern 
Europe  employed  to  account  for  the  dis- 
Snmmaryofthe  persion  of  the  human  race 
nleofp^Se  in  the  earth.  It  gives  a  fair- 
peoples.  ly  adequate  outline  of  the 

peopling  of  Western  and  Southwestern 
Asia  and  of  the  countries  around  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  We 
may  even  allow  for  the  dissemination  of 
the  descendants  of  Noah  eastward  from 
Armenia,  and  thus  cover  a  still  Avider 
area  of  the  habitable  globe.  A  sum- 
mar}'',  then,  of  the  biblical  schedule  of 
the  primitive  peoples  will  give  the  fol- 
lowing results : 

1.  Japhcthites,  with  seven  tribal  divi- 
sions, migratory  in  habit,  journeying  to 
the  west,  and  peopling  the  gentile  lands 
beyond  the  limits  of  Asia. 

2.  Hainihs,  with  four  family,  or  tribal, 
divisions,  three  of  which,  at  any  rate, 
may  be  located,  respectively,  in  Cush  and 
Canaan  and  Egypt. 

3.  Scviitcs,  with  five  tribal  branches, 
of  which  the  Assyrians,  the  Elamites,  the 
people  of  ancient  Aram,  called  Aramse- 
ans,  and  the  Hebrews,  became,  in  their 
respective  countries,  the  leading  repre- 
sentatives. 

4.  Noac/iitcs  proper,  of  the  divisions  of 
which  the  biblical  narrative  has  given  us 
no  outline,  but  concerning  which  a  ra- 
tional inference  of  eastern  migration 
may  be  drawn. 

'i"he    account    in     Genesis      indicates 


clearly  a  disposition  of  the  Noachite 
families  to  part  company  and  disperse 
into  various  resfions.     The 

^  Value  of  the  eth- 

diiterentiation      of     tribes  mc  scheme  out- 

1         1  I  lined  in  Genesis. 

IS  clearly  announced  as 
the  fundamental  fact  in  the  first  epoch 
after  the  traditional  destruction  of  the 
Old  World  by  water.  There  is  thus  a 
certain  conformity  in  the  account  given 
in  Genesis  to  the  actual  facts  which  we 
discover  on  the  furtherest  horizon  of  the 
primeval  world.  The  jostling  and  di- 
vision of  tribes  under  the  impulse  of  the 
migratory  instinct  is  a  fact  which  pre- 
sents itself  with  equal  clearness  to  the 
historian,  the  ethnologist,  and  the  an- 
tiquary; and  the  correspondence  of  the 
primitive  Hebrew  narrative  with  this 
manifest  tendency  among  the  primeval 
families  of  men  gives  force  and  credibil- 
ity and  corroboration  to  both  branches 
of  the  inquir}\ 

Concerning  the  above  biblical  scheme 
of  the  dispersion  of  mankind  in  the 
primitive  world,  it  may  be  fairly  urged 
that  it  is  hardly  as  ample  as  the  facts  to 
which  it  is  applied.  Within  the  limits 
of  the  peoples  and  countries  referred  to 
in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis,  it  ap- 
pears to  cover  approximately  the  facts 
as  they  have  been  revealed  by  other 
methods  of  investigation,  but  it  leaves 
man}'  parts  of  the  world  unprovided 
with  the  populations  which  they  are 
known  to  have  possessed  even  before 
the  dawn  of  authentic  histoiy. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  strain 
and  exaggerate  the  biblical  ethnology, 
and  to  compel  it,  by  attenuation  and  hy- 
pothesis, to  cover  all  parts  points  of  inap- 

of  the  habit-ible  (rlobe  pi'cability  in  the 
01      me      uauiuiuie       glOUC.    Hebrew  classifi- 

These  efforts  appear  to  have  cation. 
been  inspired  by  a  zeal  beyond  knowl- 
edge, and  to  have   had  little   .success  in 
application,  except  in  the  minds  of  those 
who  had  been  already  fixed  in  belief  by 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— ETHNIC   CLASSIFICATION.     415 


preconceived  opinions.  This  is  to  say 
that  the  attempt  to  derive  such  races  as 
the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Western 
Europe — the  cave  men,  the  people  of 
the  shell  mounds,  and  the  tumuli — from 
some  branch  of  the  Semites,  the  Japheth- 
ites,  or  the  Hamites,  as  those  families 
are  outlined  in  the  tenth  chapter  of 
Genesis,  would  have  no  ground  on 
which  to  rest — at  least  in  the  pres- 
ent state  of  human  knowledge.  In 
like  manner,  the  attempted  deriva- 
tion of  the  North  American  In- 
dians, of  the  Aztecs,  of  the  South 
Pacific  Islanders,  of  the  Fuegians, 
of  the  native  Australians,  or  of  the 
Hottentots,  from  the  Hebrew  plan 
of  dispersion  would  be  equally 
without  avail,  at  least  with  such 
data  as  are  now  in  the  possession 
of  scholars. 

The  scheme  of  family  and  tribal 

division  given  in  the  tenth  chapter 

of  Genesis  appears  to 

The  scheme  sat- 

isfactory  within    the  historian  and  eth- 

narrow^  limits.  .        •   j.  j.     i_  i  •   ir 

nologist  to  be  satisfac- 
tory within  the  narrow  limits  of  the 
races  and  countries  to  which  it  ap- 
plies;  but  it  also  appears  that  there 
are  many  parts  of  the  globe  which 
are  known  to  have  been  inhabited 
at  a  time  even  more  remote  than 
current  chronology  assigns  to  the 
rise  of  the  Noachite  nations  for 
which  the  plan  of  dispersion  pre- 
.sented  above  seems  to  provide  no 
likelihood  or  even  possibility  of 
inhabitants.  How  far  the  Hebrew 
scheme  of  dispersion  and  development 
from  a  Noachite  origin  through  its  three 
leading  branches  of  Hamites,  Semites, 
and  Japhethites  conforms  to  other  ethno- 
loeical  outlines  derived  from  different 
data  and  by  means  of  different  methods 
of  investigation,  remains  to  be  elucidated 
in  the  following  pages. 


II.  Historical  Ethnology.  —  With 
the  progress  of  historical  investigation 
during  the  last  three  or  four  origin  and  da- 
centuries   so   much    infor-  ^«iop°>ef  of 

mstoncal  eth-    . 

mation  has  been  gathered  noiogy. 
relative  to  the    first  races  of  men  and 
their  movements  across  the  ancient  land- 


INDO-EUROPEAN  TYPE — THE   SULTAN   MACOUD  MIRZA. 
Drawn  by  H,  Thiriat,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Diculafoy. 


scape,  that  a  system  of  ethnic  classifica- 
tion has  been  adA-anced  from  a  purely 
historical  basis.  It  was  known,  or  sus- 
pected, by  the  Romans  and  Greeks  two 
thousand  years  ago  that  they  were  re- 
lated in  their  descent.  Later  on  it  be- 
came known  that  such  peoples  as  the 
Medes  and  Persians  were  of  the  same 
race-origin   with    the   Macedonians  and 


416 


GREAT  RACES   OE  JELVAV.VD. 


the  Hellenes.  In  still  more  recent  times 
it  was  discovered  that  the  Teutonic  races 
had  an  ethnic  affinity  with  the  Graeco- 
Italic  family  and  with  the  Celts  of  West- 
em  Europe.  Still  more  recently  it  be- 
came known  that  the  Hindu  races  were 
descended,  in  all  probability,  from  a 
common  origin  with  the  Greeks,  the  Ro- 
mans, and  the  Teutonic  branches  of  man- 
kind.    A  still  higher  view 

Glimpses  of  a  1-1  11  •  1 

wide  appUcation  of  the  whole  question  has 

»>f  this  method.      ii,.i.-ui-i-       r^i  1 

led  to  the  belief  of  the  ul- 
timate affinity  of  the  Semitic  nations  with 
the  great  peoples  mentioned  above,  and 


SEMITIC   TYPE— THR  ARAB   BENI   LAAM. 
Drawn  by  H.  Thiriat,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy, 

of  the  Hamites  with  all  the  rest.  As 
the  historical  horizon  has  widened  and 
the  vision  of  the  observer  has  become 
clearer  with  the  increase  of  knowledge, 
the  true  relations  of  the  various  families 
of  men  have  been  discovered  to  the  ex- 
tent of  warranting  a  classification  on  the 
basis  of  actual  history;  and  many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  produce  on 
this  basis  a  scheme  of  ethnic  dispersion 
as  broad  and  comprehensive  as  the  far- 
reaching  facts  which  it  is  intended  to 
explain. 

As   a   result  of   this  method,  several 


races  of  men  have  been  distinguished 
from  each  other  and  classified  according 
to  their  ethnic  descent  and  affinities. 

1.  T/ie   Indo-European     Race. — It    has 
been  definitely  ascertained  that  two  of 
the  great  Asiatic   families  Meaning  and 
and  at  least  four  of  the  prev-  terr' °i"do- 

alent     peoples     of      Europe    European  race." 

have  had  a  common  descent  from  a  com- 
mon ancient  origin.  To  this  community 
of  nations  the  name  Indo-European,  or 
Indo-Germanic,  has  been  applied  by  his- 
torical writers.  The  term  signifies  the  two 
extremes  in  place  and  time  of  the  nation- 
al dispersion  from  the  common  origin 
referred  to.  It  signifies  that  an  Indie 
branch  of  the  human  family,  including 
with  this  term  the  Iranic,  or  Persic,  di- 
vision of  mankind,  has  been  derived 
primarily  from  the  same  fountain  with 
the  Grasco-Italic  race  and  with  the  Celtic 
and  Teutonic  divisions  of  mankind  in 
Europe.  From  the  common  fountain, 
two  Asiatic  streams  flowing  to  the  south 
and  the  east  are  known  to  have  arisen  in 
common  with  the  four  westward  flow- 
ing streams  that  were  destined  to  bear 
into  Europe  and  through  all  the  west 
the  primitive  waters  of  Hellenic,  Italic, 
Teutonic,  and  Celtic  nationality.  The 
term  Indo-European  is  thus  devised  to 
cover  the  wide  extremes  of  human  de- 
velopment which  span  the  world  from 
the  valley  of  the  Indus  to  California. 

2 .  The  Semitic  Race. — Under  this  head 
the  historians  have  developed  a  classifi- 
cation very  nearly  analogous  to  that  em- 
braced under  the  same  clas-   Races  included 

sification  in  biblical  ethnol-  Tt^^'f^^^^' 

mtion  01  bem- 

ogy.  There  is,  historically  Mis- 
speaking, some  indistinctness  on  the 
further  borders  of  Semitic  development. 
Whether,  for  instance,  the  ancient  Chal- 
dees  were  to  be  included  under  this 
designation  may  be  regarded  as  doubt- 
ful.    It  is  sufficient  to  note  that  the  He- 


DISTRIBUTIOX  OF   THE  RACES.— ETHNIC   CLASSIFICATION.    417 


brew  race,  in  its  several  divisions,  ancient 
and  modern,  is  included  under  the 
Semitic  division  of  mankind,  and  consti- 
tutes, indeed,  its  most  striking  repre- 
sentatives. So  also  the  more  recent 
Arabs  are  included  as  a  cognate  branch 
of  the  same  great  family;  and  the  an- 
cient Aramaeans  prevalent  in  Syria, 
Mesopotamia,  and  other  western  dis- 
tricts of  Asia  must  in  like  manner  be 
classified  with  the  Semitic  division  of 
mankind.  The  reader  will  not  fail  to 
observe  that  history,  considered  as  a  sci- 
ence, and  the  scriptural  account  of  the 
dispersion  of  the  human  race  are  very 
nearly  in  accord  as  it  respects  the  divi- 
sions, migrations,  and  historical  devel- 
opment of  the  Semitic  family  of  men. 

3 .  The  Hamitic  Race. — This  division  of 
mankind  is  known  to  history  chiefly  by 
its  greatest  representatives,  the  ancient 
•WTio  the  Ham-  Egyptians.  As  planters 
d^Xtfas'to  °f  the  strongest  and  most 
certain  races.  enduring  civilization  of  re- 
mote antiquity,  these  people  could  but 
make  a  strong  impression  on  the  earliest 
historical  developments  of  the  world. 
Cognate  with  the  Egyptian  race  were 
several  other  branches  of  Hamites, 
but  nearly  all  of  them  are  obscured 
with  doubt  as  to  their  origin  and  classi- 
fication. Such  are  the  old  Chaldasans, 
who  planted  their  empire  on  the  Lower 
Euphrates  as  much  as  two  thousand 
years  before  our  era ;  and  such  are  the 
Joktanian  Arabs  of  the  south,  bordering 
on  the  ocean,  and  such  are  several  of 
the  Canaanitish  rations,  with  whom  the 
greater  historical  peoples  came  into  con- 
tact from  the  seventh  to  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  C.  Many  historians  have  re- 
garded the  Phoenicians,  the  Sidonians, 
and  the  Carthaginians  as  of  Hamitic 
descent,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that 
some  of  these  peoples  were  at  least  com- 
posite in  their  ethnic  origin.      As  a  gen- 


eral fact,  it  appears  that  the  Semitic  and 
Hamitic  peoples  of  antiquity  were  less 
completely  separated  from  each  other's 
influence,   less    perfectly    differentiated 


HAMITIC   TYPE — THE  EGYPTIAN   SAIS. 
Drawn  by  A.  de  liar. 
> 

into  diverse  types  of  race  development, 
than  any  other  two  branches  of  the 
primitive  family  of  men. 

4.    Tlie  Altaian  Races. — The  great  no- 
madic peoples  having-  the  highlands  of 


418 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


the  Altais  as  their  original  habitat  have 
been  designated  by  many  terms,  and 
The  Altaian  there  is  yet  mucli  confusion 
ZZnt^ZT'  in  their  attempted  classifi- 
Tartars.  cation.       Evcn    the    major 

divisions  of  these  races  are  not  well 
made  out.  One  of  the  broadest  divisions 
is  the  Tartar  family,  spreading  to  the 
north  and  east  over  a  great  part  of 
Asia.      It    is  still    in   di.spute    whether 


v^  can 

>  «  •»  SI  B  « 


.'p^^/lT. 


ALTAIAN   TYPE — OLD   TARANTCHI. 
Dr.iwn    by    R.    Ronj.'it,    from    a   plintograph. 


the  Tartars  and  Mongolians  should  be 
considered  as  primary  ethnic  divisions 
of  mankind,  or  whether  the  Llongolian 
branch  of  the  south  has  been  deflected 
from  the  Tartar  group  of  the  nortli.  As 
we  shall  presently  see,  this  great  assem- 
blage of  semicivilized  races,  nomadic 
over  the  vast  steppes  of  the  north  and 
in  a  low  grade  of  development  in  the 
wuth,  is  defined  by  the  term  Turanian 


in  the  linguistic  division  of  men.  But 
for  historical  purposes  the  whole  group 
may  best  be  classified  and  named  from 
its  geographical  center  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Altais.  The  White  Tar- 
tars,  or  Turcomans,  as  the  westernmost 
division  of  the  great  Altaian  group, 
have,  by  their  aggressions  in  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Eastern  Europe,  brought  the 
family  of  nations  to  which  they  belong 
into  historical  relationship  with  the  Indo- 
European  race,  and  have  thus  preserved 
unto  the  present  time  at  least  the  rem- 
iniscence of  the  prowess  for  which 
they  were  characterized  in  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries. 

5.  Western  Aborigines. —  Besides  the 
greater  peoples  with  whom  history  has  had 
to  deal  in  Western  Asia  and 

Aboriginal  races 

Europe,  the  progress  of  na-  of  the  western 

, .  .  ,  1         ,  .        hemisphere. 

tions  westward  has  brought 
them  into  contact  with  new  varieties  of 
the  human  family,  unknown  in  ancient 
times.  The  limited  geographical  knowl- 
edge of  the  ancient  peoples  shut  them 
out  from  an  acquaintance  with  the  wide- 
ly spread  barbarian  races  occupying  the 
New  World,  the  continent  of  Australia, 
and  the  islands  of  the  sea.  It  is  not 
meant  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  vast 
regions  here  referred  to  are  of  a  common 
ethnic  descent.  On  the  contrary,  as  we 
shall  see  hereafter,  many  original  stocks 
of  mankind  are  represented  in  the  exist- 
ing savagery  of  the  world.  But  for  his- 
torical purposes  the  aborigines  of  the 
West  and  of  the  ocean  lands  of  the 
South  and  west  may,  for  convenience,  be 
grouped  together  and  considered  as  an 
unclassified  mass  of  peoples,  in  varying 
stages  of  evolution. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  what  is 
here  attempted  is  merely  to  indicate 
such  results  in  the  way  of  classification 
as  are  afforded  from  a  purely  historical 
point  of  view ;  and  for  this  purpose  all 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— ETHNIC   CLASSIFICATION.     419 


the  outlj'ing  barbarous  peoples  that  have 
been  revealed  since  the  beginning  of 
Results  of  the  geographical  discovery  at 
ftol^on's'inX"  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
scheme.  century  may  be  grouped  as 

one,  and  considered  as  a  single  fact  in 
the  analysis  of  the  human  race.  If, 
then,  we  collect  the  results  derivable 
from  this  historical  view  of  the  disper- 
sion of  mankind,  we  shall  find  the  fore- 
going five  groups  of  peoples,  the  first 
three  of  which,  the  Indo-European,  the 
Semitic,  and  the  Hamitic  branches,  are 
tolerably  clearly  defined  and  separated 
by  ethnic  lines,  while  the  remaining 
two,  the  Altaian  group  of  nations  and 
the  Western  aborigines,  are  banked  to- 
gether rather  for  convenience  of  consid- 
eration than  by  exact  principles  of  clas- 
sification. 

III.  LiXGUiSTic  Ethnology. — Within 
the   present  century  the   study  of   lan- 
guage has  thrown  new  light  on  all  the 
In  what  manner    disputed  questions  relative 
'come  abasfs^o^/'  to  the  dispcrsion  and  race 
classification.       developments  of  mankind. 
The    scientific    investigation  of   speech 
has  made  clear  man}-  vexed  questions  in 
the  primitive  history  of  men  that  to  all 
seeming  could  have  found  no  other  so- 
lution.    The  general  effect  has  been  to 
confirm  and  establish  many  of  the  views 
already  received  from  tradition  and  his- 
torical inquiry,  and  to  disprove  and  ren- 
der untenable  many  other  opinions  con- 
cerning the  movements  and  affinities  of 
the  early  races.      Much  that  was  conjec- 
tural has  become  known  as  fact.     The- 
ories   have   been    demonstrated   or   de- 
stroyed, and  new  views  of  the  extent, 
variety,  and  true  character  of  tribal  and 
national  evolution  have  been  projected. 
In  some  departments  of  inquiry  the  new 
knowledge  has  amounted  to  a  revolu- 
tion.    On  the  whole,  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  overestimate  the    value  of  lin- 


guistic science  in  the  exposition  of  all 
questions  relative  to  the  prehistoric  con- 
ditions and  movements  ot  mankind. 

If  we  take  up  the  results  of  this  study 
of  human  speech  as  it  respects  the  eth- 
nic classification  of  the  race,  we  find  a 
certain  general  parallelism  to  what  has 
been  presented  above  as  proceeding 
from  biblical  and  historical  investiga- 
tion.    To    begin     with,   the    science  of 


WEST    AUVAN     IVrii — ALLllilAUtS. 

language    declares    with   emphasis  and 
demonstrates  the  existence  of — 

I.    Tlie  Aryan   Race. — This    term,    as 
elucidated  in  the  preceding  book,  relates 
primarily  to  a  primitive  nobility  claimed 
and  maintained  by  the  peo-  The  Aryan  race 
pies  called    Aryan,    which  ^^^^:^ 
nobility   was   based    upon  esses, 
the    agricultural    life    as   distinguished 
from  nomadic  and  pastoral  pursuits.     It 
is  not  needed  to  illustrate  further  in  this 
connection  the  meaning  and  application 
of  the  term.     It  suffices  to  note  the  fact 


420 


GREAT  RACES   OE  }rAXKIXD. 


that  the  study  of  language  has  defined 
and  proved  beyond  a  doubt  the  funda- 
mental affinity  and  kinship  of  the  Aryan 
folk  of  Asia — that  is,  the  great  Hindu 
family  of  Arj'ans  in  the  valleys  of  India 
and  the  Iranian,  or  Persic,  division  of 
mankind — with  the  Grasco-Italic  race 
and  the  Teutones  and  Celts  of  Europe. 

The  community  of  the  original  speech 
of  all  these  jjeoples,  spreading  in  its  wid- 
est development  from  the  base  of  the 
Himalayas  westwai'd  over  the  table-lands 
of  Iran,  through  the  southern  peninsulas 
Racemove-  ^mcl  the  transmontane  for- 

byThenorefa'  estsof  Europe  to  the  Atlan- 
of  language.  tic,  and  through  the  New 
World  to  the  Pacific  coast,  has  been  es- 
tablished by  proofs  irrefragable  as  those 
which  determine  the  truths  of  geology 
or  the  laws  of  the  physical  world.  The 
course  of  the  tribal  movements  by  which 
from  the  countries  east  of  the  Caspian 
these  great  and  progressive  streams  of 
human  life  pursued  their  way  to  their 
destination  can  be  traced  by  the  linguis- 
tic phenomena  which  they  left  in  their 
track,  and  the  elimination  of  the  great 
family  of  men  to  which  scholars  have  in 
recent  times  given  the  name  Aryan 
from  the  remaining  races  has  been  com- 
pletely effected. 

It  can  but  be  of  interest  at  this  point 
to  state  the  linguistic  facts  upon  which 
"WTiat  facts  in  the  classification  of  man- 
ianfTtrnilaT"  ^iud  has  bccu  attempted, 
conclusions.  jt  is  found  that  certain  peo- 
ples, like  the  Aryan  family  above  defined, 
speak  dialects  of  a  common  language. 
In  general,  they  havQ  a  vocabulary  and 
a  grammar  in  common.  When  we  find 
two  peoples  living  in  different  and  dis- 
tant parts  of  the  earth  naming  the  objects 
of  sense  and  reflection  with  the  same 
words,  and  combining  those  words  in 
sentences  under  the  same  laws  of  gram- 
matical and  logical  structure,  we  are  com- 


pelled to  conclude  that  the  two  languages 
have  had  a  common  origin  somewhere 
in  the  past ;  and  if  the  languages  have 
thus  arisen  from  a  common  source,  the 
two  peoples  who  spoke  them  had  also  an 
original  tribal  identity.  This  is  exactly 
the  case  with  the  great  nations  called 
Aryan.  The  six  branches  of  this  vast 
family  of  mankind,  namely,  the  Indie, 
the  Iranic,  the  Hellenic,  the  Italic,  the 
Teutonic  (including  the  Slavonic),  and 
the  Celtic,  are  not  only  identified  by  the 
laws  of  history,  but  also  by  the  laws  of 
speech.  The  vSanskrit,  spoken  in  ancient 
India,  the  Persic  dialects  of  the  plateau 
of  Iran,  the  different  varieties  of  Greek 
peculiar  to  Hellas  and  the  ^gean 
islands,  the  Latin  tongue  of  the  West, 
the  various  Teutonic  languages,  and  the 
Celtic,  with  its  two  or  three  derivatives, 
have  all  a  fundamental  linguistic  iden- 
tity. Their  vocabulary  as  it  respects 
the  primary  objects  of  sense  and  the 
common  actions  of  life  is  virtually  the 
same  in  all. 

More  striking  still  are  the  fundamen- 
tal peculiarities  of  their  respective 
grammars.  The  great  fea-  inflection  the 
ture  of  all  these  tongues  YZT^rlt^ 
is  inflection.  The  varia-  speech. 
tions  of  thought  as,  for  instance,  nurn- 
ber,  gender,  and  case  in  nouns,  mood 
and  tense  in  verbs,  comparison  in  adjec- 
tives and  adverbs,  are  indicated  by 
terminational  changes  in  the  words  of 
the  language,  and  these  changes  obey 
the  same  laws  and  present  the  same 
phenomena  in  all  the  speeches  above 
referred  to.  Only  the  student  of  lan- 
guage can  fully  appreciate  the  striking 
similarities  which  present  themselves  in 
all  branches  of  the  Indo-European,  or 
Aryan,  tongues.  It  is  as  though  we 
should  study  a  single  language  with 
dialectical  variations.  And  so  indeed  it 
is.    The  original  speech  of  all  these  peo- 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.— ETHNIC   CLASSIFICATION.     421 


pies  was  one.  Somewhere  in  the  past 
and  somewhere  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  before  the  era  of  tribal  migration, 
a  famih'  of  men  had,  by  reason  and 
experience,  developed  a  language  of  the 
inflectional  variety,  had  given  names  to 
the  objects  of  nature  and  the  concepts 
of  the  mind,  had  defined  by  certain 
words  the  actions  and  thoughts  peculiar 
to  their  volitions  and  imaginations. 

The  general  result  of  this  evolution 

was    the   production    of  a  great  typical 

speech,  which  was  spoken 

How  languages         '■  ^ 

are  modified  by     by    all     the    members    of 

environment.  ,/        ^    m  ■         -^  ±       ^ 

the  tribe  m  its  ancestral 
home.  From  this  region  the  migrations 
began,  and  each  band  of  emigrants 
carried  with  them  the  ancestral  speech. 
As  they  entered  into  new  relations  with 
nature  and  new  experiences  in  life, 
passing  through  belts  of  different  cli- 
mate, encountering  new  landscapes  and 
familiarizing  themselves  Avith  new  con- 
ditions and  environments,  their  tongues 
began  to  modify  the  original  language, 
and  to  adapt  it  to  the  changing  panorama 
of  nature  and  the  varying  concepts  of 
the  mind.  Generations  went  by.  Differ- 
ent regions  of  the  earth  were  reached. 
National  developments  ensued.  But 
still  the  fundamental  identity  of  the 
speech  of  all  these  peoples  was  main- 
tained. So  that  in  India,  in  Persia,  in 
Macedonia  and  Greece,  in  Italy,  in  the 
forests  of  Northern  Europe,  and  .in  the 
outlying  portions  of  Spain  and  Gaul 
and  Britain,  the  scholar  of  after  times 
discovers  the  broken,  but  clearly  identi- 
cal, fragments  of  a  common  language 
once  spoken  by  the  ancestors  of  all  these 
peoples.  Thus  it  is  that  the  stud}-  of 
language  has  furnished  one  of  the  surest 
criteria  by  which  to  determine  the  ethnic 
classification  of  mankind. 

2.    The  Semitic  Race. — Following  this 
same  clue,  we  discover  by  means  of  lan- 


guage another  family  of  men,  to  which  is 
given  the  name  of  Semitic.     Here  we  no- 
tice the  recurrence  of  the  Semitic  races 
same  term  which  was  given  ^ay  be  classified 

t>  by  means  of 

US  in  the  biblical  ethnol-  ti»eir  languages, 
ogy  and  repeated  in  the  historical  divi- 
sion of  the  races.  The  linguistic  inquirer 
finds  in  the  East  a  group  of  nations 
speaking  languages  totally  different  in 
structure  and  vocabulary  from  the  Aryan 
tongues  above  defined.  The  speech  of 
the  Hebrews,  the  old  Aramaeans,  and  the 
Arabs  is  as  distinct  in  its  essential  char- 
acter from  vSanskrit  and  Greek  and  Latin 
as  though  it  belonged  to  a  wholly  differ- 
ent class  of  phenomena.  The  words  of 
the  Semitic  languages,  instead  of  being 
of  all  lengths  as  to  syllables  and  letters, 
consisted  fundamentally  of  triliteral  sym- 
bols. Every  word  is  essentially  a  word 
of  three  letters  and  three  only.  These 
constitute  the  skeleton,  so  to  speak,  of 
the  vocal  symbol,  and  around  this  skele- 
ton the  vocalic  elements  are  arranged. 

Inflection  is  almost  unknown  to  the 
Semitic  languages.  The  grammar  of 
these  tongues  is  construct-  contrast  be- 
ed  upon  a  totally  different  ^rAryaTmeth- 
principle  from  that  of  the  ods  of  speech. 
Aryan  languages.  Even  the  superficial 
student  of  human  speech  must  be  struck 
and  astonished  from  the  ver}'  first  with 
the  essential  difference  and  contrast  be- 
tween the  Semitic  method  of  expressing 
thought  and  the  method  of  the  Aryan 
peoples.  It  is  from  this  distinction  that 
the  linguistic  inquirer  has  constructed 
the  classification  of  the  Semitic  races. 
The  Hebrews,  the  Aramaeans,  and  the 
Arabs,  with  their  derivatives  in  ancient 
and  modern  times,  are  grouped  by  them- 
selves, and  are  as  certainly  defined  by 
means  of  the  languages  which  they  speak 
or  have  spoken  as  they  are  clearly  divid- 
ed from  the  other  nations  in  historic  de- 
velopment. 


422 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JfA-VA'/XD. 


3.  T//C  Turanian  Races. — The  progress 
of  linguistic  science  has  revealed  another 
Peculiarities  of  great  group  of  languages, 
Tu/anrafran-  differing  entirely  in  struc- 
guages-  tural    character   from    the 

two    varieties    above    described.     It    is 
found  that  in  general  the  languages  of 


lURANlAN    TYPK — KIRGHKKZ    KAI.CONER. 
Drawn  by  Delort,  from  a  photograph  and  de^cripiion. 


the  nomadic  nations  of  Northern  Asia 
are  monosyllabic.  They  consisted  origi- 
nally of  words  of  a  single  syllable,  and 
are  never  inflected.      In  order,  however,  to 


express  the  necessary  inflection  of  ideas 
and  to  effect  the  construction  of  the 
sentence,  they  adopted  ^^■hat  is  called 
the  agglutinative  method  of  combina- 
tion. That  is,  several  mono.syllables  are 
put  in  juxtaposition  to  express  the  com- 
plex or  compound  notion  which  in  the 
Aryan  languages  would 
be  denoted  bj-  means  of 
inflectional  terminations. 
This  feature  of  combin- 
ing monosyllables  in 
long,  compound  expres- 
sions, partly  resembling 
words  and  partl}^  sen- 
tences, is  common  to  the 
languages  of  nearly  all 
the  nomadic  nations  of 
the  eai'th. 

It  is  believed  by  schol- 
ars that  such  languages 
have  not  yet  reached  the 

inflectional    Features  of  ag- 

stage  of  de-  f  "ti"<-^"^« 

&  tongues;  mean- 

Velopmen  t,    mg  of  "  tura." 

and  that,  in  obedience  to 
natural  laws,  they  will 
ultimately  pass  into  a 
form  of  structure  similar 
to  that  of  the  Aryan  vo- 
cabulary and  grammar. 
No  example  of  .such  trans- 
mutation, however,  has 
been  noted  in  any  quar- 
ter of  the  world.  The 
agglutinative  languages 
hold  fast  to  their  original 
character,  and  the  peo- 
ples who  speak  them 
prefer  to  retain  their  te- 
dious, periphra.stic  meth- 
ods of  expression  to  the 
adoption  of  the  briefer  and  more  elegant 
inflectional  forms  of  .speech.  Ba.sed  on 
these  agglutinative  dialects,  the  ethnic 
classification  of  races  has  been  extended  to 


W''% 


DISTRIBUTION   OF    THE   RACES.— ETHNIC   CLASSIFICATION.     42.3- 


include  the  great  group  called  Turanian. 
The  word  is  derived  from  turn,  "a 
horseman,"  and  has  respect  to  the  nation- 
al habit  of  life  peculiar  to  the  semibar- 
barous  races  of 


Northern  Asia. 
In  general,  the 
Turanian  fam- 
il)%  as  deter- 
mined by  the 
peculiarities  of 
language,  con- 
forms with  tol- 
erable identity 
to  the  Altaian 
group  of  na- 
tions as  deter- 
mined by  his- 
torical relation- 
.ships. 

4.  The  Gan- 
oivanian  Races. 
— In  addition  to 
the  three  major 
divisions  of 
mankind  thus 
determined  by 
the  evidence  of 
language,  a 
fourth  division 
has  been  sug- 
gested to  in- 
clude the  bar- 
barian races  of 
the  New  Wo  rid; 
and  for  this 
branch  of  man- 
kind the  name 
( ianowanian  has 
been     proposed 


as  indicating  the  most  universal  charac- 
teristic of  the  Indian  races.  They  are, 
and  have  always  been,  the  wearers  of 
the  bow.     Just  as  the   root  ar  has  fur- 


by  Pro  f  e  ssor 
Lewis  H.  Mor- 
gan, of  the  United  States.  In  the  Seneca- 
Iroquois  dialects  the  wavdi.  gano-xuano  sig- 
nifies "  bow-and-arrow,"  and  Professor 
Morgan  has  seized  upon  this  expression 


GANOWANI.W    TYPES — rCAYI.t    INDIANS. 
Drawn  by  P.  Fritel. 


nished  to  ^la.x  iliiller  and  other  Euro- 
pean scholars  the  hint  for  the  ethnic 
name  Arj-an,  meaning  the  races  of  the 
plow,  just  as  tura,  meaning  a  horseman. 


424 


GREAT  RACES   OE  JELVAVXP. 


has  furnished  the  root  of  the  word  Tu- 
ranian, descriptive  of  the  nomadic  races 
of  Asia,  so  the  word  Gan- 

The  Ganowan-  . 

ian,  or t)ow-and-  owaniau  may  properly  be 
arrow,  races.  employed  to  designate  the 
races  of  the  bow  and  arrow.     Linguis- 


SF.A  NEGRO   TYPES — NATIVES   OK    DOREV. 
Drawn  by  P.  Sellier,  .ifter  a  sketch  of  Dumont  d'Urville. 

tically  considered,  the  various  tongues 
of  the  Indian  family  of  men  belong  by 
analogy  to  the  same  group  with  the 
Turanian  languages  of  Asia.  They 
have  the  same  peculiarities.  They  are 
monosyllabic,  and  all  complex  and  com- 


pound ideas  arc  expressed  by  the  agglu- 
tinative process ;  that  is,  the  mere  jux- 
taposition of  one  monosyllable  with 
another,  until  the  mind  of  the  speaker 
is  satisfied  with  the  modification. 

IV.  Geographical  Ethnology. — We 
have  thus  considered  three  of  the 
general  methods  which  have  been 
adopted  for  classifying 

^  .  General  theory 

the   human  race    into  of  geographical 

,  ...  ethnology. 

species  and  varieties. 
Still  another  plan  has  been  proposed 
by  a  certain  class  of  writers  with  a 
view  to  the  ethnic  division  of  man- 
kind. This  we  will  now  consider 
as  the  fourth  attempt  to  group  the 
different  families  of  men  according 
to  their  origin  and  race  descent.  It 
has  appeared  more  feasible  to  many 
inquirers  to  use  geography  as  the 
basis  of  a  classification  rather  than 
alleged  affinities  of  blood  or  actual 
identities  of  language.  It  has  been 
thought  that  for  practical  results  the 
arrangement  of  the  human  race  ac- 
cording to  its  continental  distribu- 
tion and  its  local  developments 
would  be  of  greater  value  than  the 
somewhat  theoretical  analysis  of 
mankind  according  to  linguistic 
distinctions.  The  result  has  been 
a  more  elaborate  but  less  valuable 
classification  than  by  any  of  the 
other  methods.  The  plan  in  ques- 
tion begins  with  a  hypothetical  cen- 
ter for  the  human  race,  located  in 
the  Indian  ocean,  west  of  Hindu. 
Stan.  From  this  supposed  origin 
of  mankind  streams  of  ethnic  de- 
scent are  carried  shorewards  from 
Lemuria  until,  touching  the  various 
continents,  they  are  deflected  and  dis- 
tributed into  all  parts  of  the  earth. 
According  to  this  scheme  we  have  the 
following  results : 

I.  The  Papna)is,  with  their  derivative 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.— ETHXIC   CLASSIFICATION.    425 


families  of  Negritos,  Papuans  proper, 
Melanese,  and  Tasmanians.  These 
Summary  of  re-  peoples,  as  their  names 
gripS^''^^"'  indicate,  are  distributed 
method.  jn   IMalacca,  the  Philippine 

islands,  Papua,  ]\Ielanesia,  and  Tas- 
mania. 

2.  The  Hottentots,  with  their  two  lead- 
ing branches,  the  Hottentots  proper 
and  the  Bushmen,  both  inhabiting  Cape- 
land. 

3.  The  Kaffirs,  with  their  three  divi- 
sions, the  Zulu-Kaffirs,  the  Bechuanas, 
and  the  Congo  Kaffirs,  inhabiting  re- 
spectively the  eastern,  the  central,  and 
the  western  districts  of  South  Africa. 

4.  The  Negroes, 
with  their  four 
principal  divisions 
of  Tibbu  Negroes, 
Stidan  Negroes, 
Seneganibians, 
and  Nigritians, 
inhabiting  the  re- 
gions indicated  by 
their  respective 
names. 

5.  The  Austra- 
lians, with  the  two 
geographical 
branches  of  North 

Australians  and  South  Australians. 

6.  The  Malayans,  with  their  three  divi- 
sions of  Sundanese,  Polynesians,  and 
Madagascans,  the  first  two  inhabiting 
the  Sunda  archipelago  and  the  Pacific  is- 
lands, and  the  latter  the  island  of  Mad- 
agascar. 

7.  The  Mongolians,  with  their  three  va- 
rieties of  Indo-Chinese,  Coreo- Japanese, 
Altaians,  and  Uralians,  the  first  belong- 
ing to  Thibet  and  China,  the  second  to 
Corea  and  Japan,  the  third  to  Central 
and  Northern  Asia,  and  the  fourth  to 
Northwestern    Asia    and     Hungary    in 

Europe. 

M.— Vol.  1—28 


8.  The  Arctics,  with  the  two  principal 
divisions  of  Hyperboreans  and  Esqui- 
maux, belonging  respectively  to  North- 
eastern Asia  and  Northeastern  America. 

9.  The  Americans ,  with  four  leading 
divisions,  the  North  Americans  (In- 
dians), Central  Americans,  South  Amer» 
icans,  and  Patagonians,  distributed  ac- 
cording to  their  several  ethnic  names. 

10.  The  Dravidians,  with  two  race  de- 
velopments, the  Deccanese  of  India  and 
the  Singalese  of  Ceylon. 

1 1 .  The  Nubians,  with  their  three  va- 
rieties, the  Shangallas  and  Dongolese  of 
Nubia,  and  the  Fulahs  of  Fulah. 

12.  The  Mediterraneans,    divided    ac- 


ESQUIMAU   TYPES. 


cording  to  this  scheme  into  Caucasians, 
Basques,  Semites,  and  Indo-Europeans; 
the  first  of  these  four  being  named  from 
the  range  of  the  Caucasus,  the  .second 
belonging  to  the  northeastern  portion  of 
Spain,  the  third  being  limited  to  Eastern 
Europe  and  portions  of  Northern  Africa, 
and  the  Indo-European  branch  being 
nearly  coincident  with  the  European 
division  of  the  Aryan  race  as  defined  in 
the  linguistic  scheme  above. 

We  thus  have,  according  to  the  geo- 
graphical scheme,  no  fewer  than  twelve 
major  divisions  of  human  kind,  repre- 
sented by  thirty-seven  different  races. 


426 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JLIXKLYD. 


many  of  which  are  in  turn  divided  and 
subdivided  into  various  peoples  and 
tribes,  according-  to  their  localities,  lan- 
guages, and  ethnic  peculiarities. 

On  the  \vhole,  this  method  of  classifica- 
tion according  to  the  geographical  basis  is 

Unsatisfactory  leSS  Satisfactor}^  in  its  re- 
character  of  geo-  n.g  ^-^^^  an^'of  the  others 

g-apmcal  classi-  •' 

Bcation.  presented.    It  assumes  that 

tribes  of  a  given  stock  will,  as  a  rule,  mi- 


associated.  A  classification  like  the 
above,  which  places  so  old  and  radical  a 
stock  as  that  of  the  Semites  in  the  same 
group  with  the  Indo-European  races, 
lacks  every  element  of  accuracy,  and 
tends  to  perpetuate  the  worst  vices  of  the 
old  system  of  ethnology.  None  the  less, 
such  a  division  of  mankind  as  that  pre- 
sented in  the  geographical  scheme  above 
has  its  value  when  set  in  comparison  and 


NUBIAN  BOY— TYPE. -Dra«n  by  Ishrnael  Geiil7. 


grate  in  +he  same  direction  and  occupy 
the  same  territories.  It  is  based  upon  the 
hypothesis  that  an  aggregation  of  peo- 
ples in  any  given  part  of  the  world  is  of 
itself  s.  proof  of  a  common  race  descent. 
On  the  contrary,  it  is  well  known  that  in 
many  parts  of  the  world  races  and  tribes 
of  men,  as  wide  apart  as  the  poles  in 
their  ethnic  aiUnities,  are  geographically 


parallelism  with  other  and  more  rational 
ethnic  classifications. 

V.  Scientific  Ethnology. — In  the 
schemes  of  race  descent  thus  far  pre- 
sented   the    lingi:istic    plan    Klements  of  un- 

of  division  most  nearly  ^^^^^j^^j^^ 
approaches  a  scientific  ba-  of  race  division, 
sis.  There  are  in  the  same,  however, 
certain  unscientific  conditions  that  must 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— ETHXIC   CLASSIFICATIOX.     427 


be  eliminated  before  the  division  of  the 
human  race  by  language  only  could  be 
accepted  as  a  finality.  One  of  these  con- 
ditions is  the  patent  fact  that  a  people  of 
a  given  ethnic  origin  may,  in  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  history,  adopt  a  speech  other 
than  its  own,  and  thus  be  thrown  in  a 
classification  very  different  from  that  to 
which  it  really  belongs. 

Several  instances  might  be   cited  in 
which    this    phenomenon    has    actually 


and  probability  of  error  in  classifying  by 
means  of  language  only. 

But  there  are  other  means  of  a  more 
strictly  scientific  character  which  may  be 
employed  in  classifying  the  possibuity  of 
divisions    of    the     human  classifying  on 

variations  in 

race.  Differences  or  identi-  fo"°- 
ties  in  anatomical  structure,  persistently 
transmitted  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion, constitute  a  valid  evidence  of  eth- 
nic divergence  or  relationship.  The 
stature  of  a  given  people  is  generally 
uniform.  The  men  are  of  a  uniform 
height,  and  so  are  the  women.  In  this 
respect  the  different  families  of  man- 
kind have  presented  remarkable  varia- 


Dolicocephalic  skulL  Brachycephalic  skuU. 

CRANIAL  CONFIGURATION,  SHOWING  VARIATIONS  IN  HUMAN  FORM. 


presented  itself.  At  times  the  conquer- 
ing race  absorbs  the  language  of  the 
conquered  people,  and,  in  such  a  case, 
subsequent  investigation  would  be  put 
at  fault  if  the  linguistic  affinity  of  the 
people  were  accepted  as  the  sole  criterion 
of  its  race  relationship.  The  conspicu- 
ous modern  example  of  the  Normans, 
who  abandoned  their  own  Teutonic 
speech  and  adopted  French  as  their  ver- 
nacular, carrying  the  same  with  them 
into  England,  and  effecting  in  the  Eng- 
lish language  a  permanent  modification 
by  the  infusion  therein  of  linguistic  ele- 
ments which  they  had  borrowed  from 
another  people,  is  sufficiently  well  known, 
and  completely  establishes  the  possibility 


tions.  Some  approximate  the  stature  of 
giants,  and  others  of  p\-gmies.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  skeletons  likewise  con- 
stitute a  fair  basis  of  distinction  between 
people  of  one  race  and  those  of  another. 
The  character  of  the  hands  and  the  feet, 
the  length  and  proportion  of  the  arm 
bones  and  the  legs,  the  particular  figure 
of  the  chest,  and  especially  the  facial 
angle,  are  peculiarities  which  may  well 
be  employed  in  a  scientific  way  in  dis- 
tinguishing people  of  one  race  descent 
from  those  of  another. 

More  especially  the  figure  and  capac- 
ity of  the  skull  are  typical,  each  family 
of  men  having  a  cranial  configuration 
and    development     peculiar    to     itself. 


428 


GREAT  RACES   OF  2LlNKIiYD. 


Careful  investigations  have  shown  the 
limits  of  these  variations,  and  have  de- 
Crania  and  termincd  those  features  of 
Of  dete^^.:^^  the  Skull  and  brain  Avliich 
race.  are  distinctive  of  several 
races  of  men.  The  hair  of  the  head, 
likewise,  has  furnished  a  distinguishing 
mark  in  different  peoples.  It  is  found 
that  the  hair  in  different  races  ranges 
all  the  way  from  a  woolly  fiber,  present- 
ing a  triangular  section  and  having  its 
vital  channel  on  the  exterior  surface,  to 
the  straight,  tubular  filament  which 
constitutes  the  head  covering  of  some  of 
the  superior  races.  Between  these  ex- 
tremes are  all  varieties  of  capillary  for- 
mation.      These  varieties  are  found  to 


granite  crypts  of  Egypt,  where  they 
were  laid  more  than  two  thousand  years 
before  our  era,  exhibit  the  same  pecul- 


PAPUAN    TYPE,    SHOVVl.NO   CKISP    HAIK. 

be  persistent  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion and  from  century  to  century.  Spec- 
imens of  human  hair  recovered  from  the 


C, 


>■,.    f 


AMEKICAN    INDIAN   TYPE,    SHOWING   STRAIGHI'    HAIR. 
Drawn  by  Riou, 

iarities  and  diversities  of  structure  as  are 
found  on  the  heads  of  living  races.  Such 
specific  differences  in  the  external  cov. 
ering  of  the  skull  may  well  be  used  in  a 
scientific  way  as  ^  mark  or  criterion  by 
which  the  different  families  of  mankind 
may  be  discriminated  the  one  from  the 
other. 

The  human  skin  also  has  its  particu- 
lar features  and  peculiarities,  unlike  in 
the  different  types  of  man- 

.        .  .  T  Color  of  the  skin 

kmd.  This  is  said  more  a  true  test  of 
particularly  of  the  color.  Of  ^  "'°  ^  "'  ^' 
all  the  features  with  respect  to  which 
men  differ  in  physiological  constitution 
the  pigmentary  character  of  the  cuticle 
is  perhaps  the  most  marked,  invariable, 
and  persistent.  This  fact  has  been  se- 
lected by  many  ethnographers  as  the 
best  consideration  from  which  to  frame 
;i  scheme  of  division  for  the  human 
species.  It  is  found  that  the  different 
races  have  different  colored  skins;  that 
a  given  race  is  sufficiently  uniform  in  its 
hue ;  that  the  color  once  determined,  is 
persistent,  reproducing  itself  from  age  to 
age,  and  being  recognizable  even  after 
thousands  of  years  as  belonging  to  a  cer- 
tain species.  Why  not,  therefore,  adopt 
the  color  of  the  body  as  the  most  marked 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CLASSIFICATION.     429 


Scientific  classi- 
fication may  be 
made  from  color. 


and  invariable  characteristic  by  which  to 
distinguish  the  ethnic  classi£cation  of 
the  various  peoples? 

Such  a  principle  of  division  appears  to 
be  in  every  v.'ise  scientific.  The  color 
of  the  skin  is  a  physical  fact 
in  nature,  and  its  invaria- 
bility in  a  given  species 
assures  the  constancy  of  the  fact  and 
furnishes  a  guarantee  against  error.  Xo 
anomalous  depar- 
tures from  the 
given  standard  of 
color  need  be  ex- 
pected except  in 
the  case  of  indi- 
viduals, and  such 
exceptions  would 
in  no  wise  disturb 
the  regularity  of 
the  law.  More- 
over, the  other 
sources  of  infor- 
mation, the  other 
bases  of  division 
of  the  human  fam 
ily,  may  well  be 
used  as  auxiliary 
to  the  truly  scien- 
tific classification 
of  mankind  by 
means  of  color. 
All  that  is  known 
historically  of  the  different  races,  all 
that  is  known  of  the  various  branches 
of  the  human  family  as  determined  by 
mean?  of  the  languages  which  they 
speak,  may  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
problem  to  rectify  and  amend  whatever 
may  be  suspected  of  error  in  the  classi- 
fication by  means  of  color. 

Such  a  method  of  division  has  been 
many  times  attempted  by  scholars,  but 
until  recently  the  results  have  been 
variable  and  uncertain.  The  reason  of 
this  is  found  in  the  imperfect  observa- 


tion which  has  first  been  given  to  the 
question.  What  are  the  different  colors 
presented  on  the  covering  sources  of  for- 


of    the     bodies    of    men 


;,    mer  error  in  this 


method  of  clas- 

What  primary  or  secondary  siiying. 
hues  are  really  characteristic  of  the  hu- 
man skin  in  different  races  and  coun- 
tries? Error  in  deciding  these  questions 
has  been  at  the  bottom  of  all  diversity 
in  results. 


NIGRIIIAN  TYPES,    SHOWINC,   WOOLLY    HAll 
Drawn  by  Madame  Paule  Crampel. 


It  appears  strange  to  the  thoughtful 
inquirer  of  the  present  day  that  so  little 
accuracy  has  been  displayed  by  those 
who  have  attempted  to  note  and  de- 
scribe the  different  natural  colors  of  the 
human  skin.  It  will  readily  be  allowed 
that  an  examination  of  the  whole  race 
now  occupying  the  earth  will  discover 
nearly  all  colors  and  shades  of  color, 
from  one  extreme  of  the  spectrum  to 
another;  but  a  very  casual  examina- 
tion will  show  that  these  various  tints 
are   reducible   to   a   few,  and   these  to 


430 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


still  fewer  primary  pigmentary  distinc- 
tions. 

The  great  error  made  by  those  eth- 
nographers who  have  attempted  to  use 
color  of  the  skin  as  a  basis 

Only  three  pri-  .  ^       , .  i  , 

mary  colors  of      of   classihcation   has   been 

the  human  skin.      ■  1 1         ■  .  j  ■ 

111  allowing  too  many  dis- 
tinctions of  tint.  Inability  on  their  part 
to  generalize  the  facts,  and  to  reduce  the 


ENGLISH   TYPE   (MRS.    SIDDONS),    SHOWING   WAVY    HAIR. 


different  hues  to  a  few  radical  distinc- 
tions, has  been  the  fruitful  source  of  all 
inaccuracy  and  confusion.  The  first 
classifications  attempted  on  this  basis 
of  color  resulted  in  multiplying-  rather 
than  in  simplifying  the  classification  of 
the  human  race.  According  to  these 
first  efforts  there  were  white  men,  yel- 
low men,  olive-colored  men,  red  men, 


orange-colored  men,  copper-colored  men, 
brown  men,  black  men,  and  many  other 
slighter  distinctions  which  tended  to 
confuse  rather  than  to  establish  a  scien- 
tific division.  All  this  turned  upon  in- 
accuracy of  perception.  It  is  the  feature 
of  modern  inquiry  that  the  sense-percep- 
tion with  which  it  begins  has  become 
constantly  more  accurate  and  penetrating 
in  recent  times.  It  is  now 
clearly  perceived  that  there 
are  by  no  means  so  many 
fundamental  colors  to  be 
recognized  as  the  distin- 
guishing characteristics  of 
the  different  races.  On  the 
contrary,  there  are  but  few. 
Without  passing  through  all 
stages  of  the  inquiry,  it  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  the 
very  best  scrutiny  of  the 
actual  facts  shows  that  there 
are  only  tJircc  primary  colors 
peculiar  to  tlic  hiiinan  body ; 
and  that  these  colors  are 
ruddy,  black,  and  brown. 
From  these  fundamental 
and  characteristic  tints  of 
the  human  skin  all  the 
other  varieties  are  easily 
derived,  and  to  them  all 
minor  distinctions  are  read- 
ily referred. 

What,  then,  is  the  true 
nature  of  these  three  fun- 
damental colors  peculiar  to 
thei-aces.of  mankind?  It 
will  be  noted  that  the  term  zvhite  is 
rejected.  This  is  done  The  term  ruddy 
for  the  sufficient  reason  ;\^fe"ntws'°' 
that  there  are  not  now  treatise, 
and  never  were  any  tribes  of  people 
on  the  earth  to  whom  the  term  white 
could  properly  be  applied.  The  fairest- 
skinned  specimens  of  the  human  race 
are  very  far  from  white.     He  who  has 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE  RACES.— ETHNIC   CLASSIFICATION.     431 


not  himself  looked  candidly  and  care- 
fully at  the  fact  here  referred  to  must 
needs  be  surprised  to  note  how  great  the 
error  is  in  describing  the  color  of  any 
people  as  white.  The  races  that  have 
been  recognized  as  white  are  in  reality 
ruddy  in  color,  and  approach  much  more 
nearly  to  the  standard 
of  red  than  the  Indian 
peoples,  who  have  been 
erroneously  defined  as 
red  men. 

The  so-called  Cauca- 
sians, for  instance,  who 
perhaps  present  the  skin 
in   its   fairest   tint,   are 
truly   a    ruddy   people. 
The   peculiarity  of   the 
skin  is  its  transparency 
and  the  consequent  rev- 
elation of  the  blood  in 
the  capillaries.   The  red 
tinge    of   the    blood   is 
thus   discernible 
through  the  cuticle,  and 
the  flush  of  color,  slight- 
er or  more  emphatic,  is 
always  ruddy  in  its  char- 
acter.  The  peoples  hav- 
ing this  quality  of  skin 
are  the   blushing  races. 
"With  every  varying  de- 
gree of  excitement  the 
blood     appears    or    re- 
cedes in  the  skin  at  the 
surface,  giving  a  deeper 
or    paler   tinge   to    the 
body.       But    under    no 
conditions   can   the   skin  be  said  to  be 
^    white.      The     fairest     in- 

No  races  may  be 

properly  defined  fant  ever  born  into  the 
world,  even  when  bloodless 
and  cold  in  death,  is  so  far  from  being 
white  that  a  really  white  object  placed 
alongside  of  the  skin  furnishes  a  con- 
trast so  striking  as  at  once  and  forever 


to  disabuse  the  judgment  of  the  be- 
holder.  The  term  white,  therefore,  as 
one  of  the  definitive  epithets  descriptive 
of  the  color  of  the  human  race,  must  be 
rejected,  and  its  place  be  taken  with  the 
more  accurate  term  rudd}-.  We  thus 
have  in  a  scientific  classification  of  man* 


THE   RUDDY   TYPE — PAUL  CRAMPEL. 
Drawn    by    H.    Thiriat,    from   a   photograph. 


kind  based   on  the  distinction  of  color, 
first  of  all : 

I.  The  Ruddv  Races. — It  is  found 
when  this  distinction  of  color  is  applied  to 
the  great  facts  under  consideration  that 
the  larger  part  of  ilie  historical  nations  of 
the  earth  come  under  the  classification 
of  ruddy.      The  great    races  who  first 


432 


GREAT  RACES   OE  JLLVKEVn. 


redeemed  the  world  from  barbarism 
were  of  this  color.  It  is  quite  certain 
that  those  strong  and  heroic  peoples  who 
Mniat  races  may  appear  in  the  remote  hori- 
be  correctly  ^f  ^^^^  primitive  world 

Classinea  as  ^ 

ruddy.  were   ruddy   in  their 

complexions.  vSpeaking-  from  a  biblical 
point  of  view,  all  three  of  the  Noachite 


THE    BROWN    TYPE — MISTRESS   SENKI. 
Drawn  by  E.  Ronjat. 

races,  with  their  several  divisions,  had 
complexions  of  this  hue.  This  is  true 
alike  of  Hamites,  Semites,  and  Japheth- 
ites.  The  long  prevalent  notion  that 
the  Hamites  were  a  black  race,  corre- 
sponding roughly  to  what  we  call 
African,  in  modern  history,  is  utterly 
untenable.  They  had,  on  the  contrary, 
the   same    general    complexion — some- 


what intensified  by  the  scorching  sun  of 
the  climates  in  which  they  were  for  the 
most  part  developed — with  the  cognate 
races  of  Shem  and  Japheth.  Or,  if  we 
speak  from  the  historical  point  of  view, 
we  shall  find  the  same  indications  of  the 
fundamental  identity  in  color  of  the 
early  races  who  developed  civilization  in 
the  earth.  The  Indo-Europeans 
were  all  ruddy  in  complexion. 
From  the  foothills  of  the  Him- 
alayas across  the  table-lands  of  Per- 
sia into  Ionia  and  Macedonia  and 
Greece  and  Italy  and  the  "  isles  of 
the  gentiles  "  the  same  fundamen- 
tal race  complexion  is  discover- 
able. Likewise,  the  Semites  and 
the  Hamitic  races,  noted  from  the 
historical  point  of  view,  are  found 
to  be  of  the  same  bodily  color. 
Language  contributes  its  evidence 
also  to  establish  the  same  general 
fact  as  to  the  complexion  of  the 
Indo-European  and  other  Noachite 
families  of  men.  They  were  all 
ruddy,  and  the  hint  in  Genesis  of 
the  rcd-cartli  color  of  the  Adamite 
would  seem  to  be  justified  by  the 
facts  observable  in  several  of  the 
principal  divisions  of  the  human 
family. 

II.  The  Brown   Races. —The 
second     fundamental    division    of 
mankind  determined  on  the  line  of 
color  is  by  the  browti  complexion, 
which  characterizes   many  of   the 
leading  races.     It  will  be  observed 
from  the  selection  of  this  hue  that  many 
varieties  of  color  may  be  referred  there- 
to.    Several  shades  of  yel- 

•^  General  analysis 

low  and  of  red  may  be  cor-  of  the  Brown 
rectly  carried  back  into  a 
fundamental  brown,  which  is  the  com- 
posite of  black  with  one  of  the  two  tints 
referred    to.      Careful    observation  will 
show  that  this  is  the  actual  color  of  the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.— ETHXIC   CLASSIFICATION. 


433 


great  races  of  Northern  and  Eastern 
Asia,  as  well  as  of  all  the  aborigines  of 
the  two  Americas  and  Polynesia.  As 
the  major  division  of  these  races  we 
may  cite : 

1.  T\\.Q  Asiatic  Mongoloids,  correspond- 
ing in  general  terms  with  the  Mon- 
golian race  indicated  by  historical  in- 
quiry, or  witli  the  two  divisions  of  the 
Turanians  according  to  the  linguistic 
division. 

2.  The  Polynesian  Mongoloids,  or  the 
peoples  scattered  through  the  islands  of 
the  South  Pacific,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Melanesians  and  the  Australians. 

3.  The  Dravidians,  or  the  Deccanese 
and  the  people  of  the  Micronesian  is- 
lands north  and  east  of  Australia. 

III.  The  Black  Races. — It  is  clear, 
on  an  examination  of  the  facts,  that 
„^  ,  many      of      the      peoples, 

The  four  groups  .  . 

of  the  Black  even  the  primitive  races 
distributed  in  portions  of 
the  world  lying  in  the  equatorial  re- 
gions, are  properly  defined  as  Black. 
The  pigmentary  deposit  under  the  cuti- 
cle is  of  such  a  character  as  to  absorb  all 
or  the  greater  portion  of  the  rays  of 
light,  and  to  return  to  the  eye  only  that 
negative  sensation  which  we  define  as 
blackness.  The  line  of  chromatic  division 
between  these  races  of  Black  men  and 
those  who  were  defined  as  Brown,  is  that 
under  the  cuticle  of  the  skin  of  the  latter 
peoples  a  certain  percentage  of  coloring 
matter  is  combined  with  the  black  pig- 
ment, producing  the  various  shades  of 
color  known  as  brown. 

This  characteristic  difference  between 
the  two  colors  is  constant,  and  tends  to 
perpetuate  itself  by  the  physiological 
law  called  ' '  reversion  to  the  original 
type."  This  is  to  say  that  in  a  contact 
of  the  various  races.  Black  and  Brown 
and  Ruddy,  and  in  their  intermingling 
of  blood,  there  is  a  tendency  for  one  or  the 


other  of  the  elements  of  ethnic  constitu- 
tion to  declare  itself  and  become  domi- 
nant over  the  rest.  Given  a  sufficient 
lapse  of  time,  and  these  intermediate 
varieties  return  to  the  one  or  the  other  of 
the  original  types  from  which  they  are 
derived.  Geographically  speaking,  the 
Black  races  are  distributed  throughout 
the  larger  part  of  Africa  and  through 
the  whole  of  Australia  and  that  portion 
of  the  Pacific  archipelago  called  Melane- 
sia. These  are  the  limits  of  the  natural 
dispersion  of  the  Black  races.  The  eth- 
nic divisions  of  this  third  primary  family 
of  men  are : 

1 .  The  Negroes,  who  occupy  the  larger 
band  of  Central  Africa  from  east  to  west, 
and  are  also  distributed  through  a  great 
portion  of  the  southern  division  of  the 
continent. 

2.  The  Australians,  occupying  all  of 
Central  and  Southern  Australia,  except 
the  coast  region  on  the  east  and  north. 

3.  "YY^Q  Hottentots,  distributed  through, 
the  larger  part  of  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  Africa. 

4.  The  Papuans,  occupying  the  island 
of  New  Guinea,  the  northern  and  eastern 
maritime  districts  of  Australia,  the  is- 
land of  Tasmania,  and,  in  general,  the 
Melanesian  archipelago. 

The  foregoing  classification  of  the  hu- 
man race   on   the   scientific  method  and 
by  the  distinction  of  color  is,  perhaps,  as 
nearly  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem as  can  be  given  in  the  other  plans  of 
present  state  of  knowledge.  ^^^^^ 
The  three  distinctions    of  with  this. 
Ruddy,   Brown,   and    Black    races    are 
fundamental.     They  are  broad  enough 
to  include  the  whole  race  of  man,  with 
its  multiform  developments  in   ancient 
and  modern  times.     The  classification  is 
sufficiently  ample  to  embrace  in  its  major 
and  minor  divisions  all  the  races  and 
peoples  which  have  been  distinguished 


434 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIXJh 


from  each  other  by  means  of  historical 
and  linguistic  inquiry.  It  is  easy  to  con- 
form to  this  plan  of  division  all  the  others 
that  have  been  suggested,  and  to  make 
them  consistent  with  the  wider  and  more 
scientific  scheme.  Thus,  for  instance, 
the  biblical  race  of  Japheth,  the  histori- 
cal   divisions    of    mankind  called    Indo- 


THE   BLACK   TYPE — NEGRO   MAKUTULU. 
Drawn  by  Riou. 

European,  the  ethnic  branches  of  men 
called  Aryan  in  the  linguistic  classifica- 
tion, all  fall  under  the  common  designa- 
tion of  Ruddy  races.  "With  these  are 
grouped  by  means  of  the  same  color 
distinction  the  Semitic  families  of  men, 
and  also  the  Hamitic  divisions.  These 
ten  races  taken  together  constitute  the 
whole  group,  which  may  be  defined  by 
the  term  Ruddy  and  considered  as  of  a 
primary,  common  descent. 


In  the  second  place,  the  widely  dis- 
seminated Brown  races,  covering  nearly 
the    whole    of     Asia,    the 

General  distri- 

two  great  continents  of  the  button  of  the 

TTT      i  J   ii  i  <-    Brown  races. 

West,  and  the  greater  part 
of  Polynesia,  may  be  grouped  together 
on  the  line  of  color  and  considered  as  a 
common  family  in  its  origin  and  race 
descent.  It  will  be  the  purpose  in 
the  following  pages  of  the  present 
book  to  trace  out  the  lines  of  the 
great  tribal  and  race  divergencies 
and  migrations  which  in  the  lapse 
of  ages  have  carried  these  Brown 
peoples  over  by  far  the  largest  dis- 
tricts of  the  earth.  It  will  be  un- 
derstood, of  course,  that  the  race 
classification  of  the  peoples  of  the 
two  Americas  as  here  presented  re- 
lates to  the  original  peoples  of  these 
continents,  and  not  to  the  Indo- 
European  nations  that  have  taken 
possession  of  them  in  recent  times 
by  migration  and  conquest. 

The  third  general  division  as  indi- 
cated in  this  analysis  on  the  basis  of 
color  has  already  been  pointed  out 
in  its  ethnic  and  geographical  dis- 
tribution. No  branch  of  the  Black 
races  has  of  its  own  motion  crossed 
the  equator  of  the  earth  to  a  point 
higher  than  the  twentieth  degree  of 
north  latitude.  It  will  be  found  in 
the  subsequent  chapters  of  this 
book  that  the  dispersion  of  this  divi- 
sion of  mankind  was  by  means  of  a  west- 
ward stream  flowing  in  from 
Eastern  Africa  and  spread- 
ing in  many  branches 
through  all  those  parts  of  the  continent 
between  the  equatorial  region  and  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  while  the  eastern 
stream  bore  off  by  way  of  Southern  Hin- 
dustan into  the  great,  closely  distributed 
islands  lying  to  the  south  of  Asia.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  sufficient  is  now  known  of  the 


Outline  of  the 
dispersion  of  the 
Blacks. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— NOACHITE  DISPERSION.      435 


movements  of  the  Black  races  to  delin- 
eate their  tribal  divergencies  and  mi- 
grations with  tolerable  certainty,  and 
although  much  will  remain  to  be  rectified 
and  amended  by  subsequent  investiga- 
tions, something  may  be  at  present  ad- 
vanced to  enlarge  the  borders  of  com- 
mon knowledge  relative  to  this  the  least 
known  and  least  progressive  of  the  great 
divisions  of  mankind. 

From  these  considerations  and  others 
that  may  be  readily  deduced  therefrom, 
Mankind  to  be     it  has  been  determined  to 

divided  into 

Ruddy  races,       employ  in  the  present  work 

Brown  races,  ...  .  .^  .       -       . 

and  Black  races,  the  Scientific  method  in 
classifying  the  different  races  of  men, 
and  to  use  the  color  of  the  body  as  the 
fundamental  fact  in  considering  the 
scheme  of  division.  In  all  the  sub- 
sequent parts  of  the  present  work,  in 


the  description  of  the  migrations  of  the 
primitive  tribes  and  families  of  men,  in 
the  delineation  of  manners  and  customs, 
and  the  peculiarities  of  national  develop- 
ment which  will  in  great  measure  fill 
up  the  body  of  the  work,  it  is  purposed 
to  keep  always  in  mind  this  fundamental 
division  of  mankind  into,  I.  RUDDY 
Races;  II.  Browx  Races;  III.  Black 
Races;  with  their  manifest  divisions 
into  the  three  branches,  Hamite,  Semite, 
and  Aryan  in  the  first;  three  divi- 
sions of  Asiatic  Mongoloids,  Polynesian 
Mongoloids,  and  Dravidians,  in  the 
second;  and  four  branches,  Negroes, 
Australians,  Hottentots,  and  Papuans,  in 
the  third.  These  ten  race  classes  of  man- 
kind will  constitute  the  basis  of  much 
of  the  discussion  in  the  present  and  the 
succeeding  volumes. 


CHAPXER    XXIV.— NOACHITE    DISPERSION    CONSID= 

ERED. 


O  far  as  the  present  re- 
sources  of  human 
knowledge  have  indi- 
cated the  primary  seat 
and  early  movements 
of  the  Ruddy  races  of 
mankind,  the  same  be- 
gan on  the  north  shores  of  the  western 
gulf  of  the  Indian  ocean.  The  scene  of 
this  important  primitive  aspect  of  the 
race  Avas  probably  in  the  southern  part 
of  Beluchistan,  eastward  from  the  Per- 
sian gulf.  When  these  statements  are 
made  the  whole  of  our  knowledge  on  the 
subject  may  be  said  to 
have  been  delivered.  His- 
tory knows  little  besides  of 
the  time  or  the  advent  of  this  primary 
stream  of  human  existence;  but  it  can 
hardlv  be  doubted  that  this  is  the  real 


Primitive  seats 
of  the  Adamites. 


seat  of  the  Adamite  and  his  descendants. 
Ethnologists  ha\'tr  generally  been  dis- 
posed to  go  further,  to  trace  backwards  the 
stream  of  this  division  of  the  race  to  the 
shores  of  ocean,  and  thence  to  carry  it 
by  hypothesis  far  out  into  the  so-called 
Lemuria,  a  supposed  submerged  region 
in  the  bed  of  the  Indian  ocean. 

On  the  theor}'  that  the  Black,  the 
Brown,  and  the  Ruddy  races  of  man- 
kind have  all  had  a  single   .  ,  ^ 

°  .      Apparent  point 

ancestral  origin,    there    is  of  origin  for  au 

If.  ■,  the  races. 

some  ground  for  such  a 
hypothesis.  The  first  tribes  of  Black 
men  appear  to  have  struck  the  continent 
of  Africa  from  the  east.  In  like  manner 
the  Brown  races  seem  to  have  touched 
the  continent  on  the  coast  line  eastward 
of  the  Persian  gulf ;  while  the  ancestors 
of  the  Australians  and  Papuans  appear 


436 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


to  have  reached  their  destination  from 
the  northwest.  Thus  the  observer,  stand- 
ing on  the  western  shore  of  India,  the 
eastern  shore  of  Africa,  or  the  southern 
shore  of  Baluchistan,  would  seem  to  see 
the  three  major  divisions  of  mankind  ap- 
proaching from  the  deep,  as  if  from  some 
common  origin  under  the  sea. 

Nor  has  tradition  been  wholly  silent  in 
witnessing  to  such  a  primeval  movement 
Berosusre-  of  the  race  landwards  from 

counts  the  myth  ^j^  Qne  of  the  cldcst 

of  the  sea  god 

Oan.  traditions  on  record  is  pre- 

served in  a  fragment  of  Berosus,  and 
indicates  the  ocean  origin,  not  only  of 


the  day  with  men.  But  he  took  no  nour- 
ishment, and  at  sunset  went  again  into 
the  sea,  and  there  remained  for  the 
night.  This  animal  taught  men  lan- 
guage and  science,  the  harvesting  of 
seeds  and  fruits,  the  rules  for  the  bound- 
aries of  land,  the  modes  of  building 
cities  and  temples,  arts,  and  writing, 
and  all  that  pertains  to  civilization." 

In  the  fifth  chapter  of  the  book  of 
Genesis  we  have  an  account  of  the  Adamic 
race  from  the  beginning  down  to  the 
Deluge.  This  space  is  occupied  with 
ten  successive  patriarchs  and  their  ex- 
panding    families.       To     these     great 


LANDSCAPi;  OF  THE  NOACHITE  DISPERSION.— Bender-Dilem.— Drawn  by  Taylor,  afl<.-r  a  skitcl,  o(  Huu^^ay. 


the  arts,  but  of  man  himself.    A  portion 
of  the  story  is  as  follows : 

"Then  there  appeared  to  them  from 
the  sea,  on  the  shore  of  Babylonia,  a  fear- 
ful animal  of  the  name  of  Oan.  His 
body  was  that  of  a  fish,  but  under  the 
fish's  head  another  head  was  attached, 
and  on  the  fins  were  feet  like  those  of  a 
man,  and  he  had  a  man's  voice.  The 
image  of  the  creature  is  still  preserved. 
The  animal  came  at  morning,  and  passed 


longevity  is    attributed,    and    the  nar- 
rative indicates  in  various  „ 

Outline  in  Gen- 

ways   the   rapid  tribal  de-  esisofthe 

1  i      /•  ji  Ti    Adaimic  races. 

velopment  of  the  race.  It 
will  be  noted  also  by  a  comparison  of  the 
fifth  chapter  with  the  fourth  that  two 
parallel  lines  of  descent  are  recorded, 
the  one  through  Cain,  and  the  other 
through  Seth.  "For,"  said  Eve,  "  God 
hath  appointed  me  another  seed  instead 
of  Abel,  whom  Cain  slew." 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— XOACHITE  BISPERSIOX.       437 


The  Adamic  descendants  are  traced  in 
the  fourth  chapter  down  to  the  children 
of  Adah  and  Zillah,  the  two  wives  of 
Lamech;  that  is,  to  Jabal,  "the  father 
of  such  as  dwell  in  tents  and  such  as 
have  cattle;"  to  Jubal,  "the  father  of 
all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  organ;" 
and  to  Tubal-cain,  "an  instructor  of  ev- 
ery artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  Here 
the  narrative  ends,  and  the  other  branch 
of  the  Adamites,  that  is,  the  descendants 
of  Seth,  are  taken  up,  down  to  Noah,  the 
son  of  Lamech.  The  recurrence  of 
common  names  in  both  lines  of  descent 
introduces  a  good  deal  of  confusion,  but 
the  line  of  Seth,  considered  by  itself,  is 
straight  through  ten  generations. 

The  Hebrew  narrative  of  the  Adamite 
and  his  posterity  to  the  Deluge  is  here 
Value  of  the  cited  in  part  because  of  its 
founfo'X  Striking  parallelism  with 
Chaidaeans.  the  secular  tradition 
handed  down  by  Berosus.  This  cele- 
brated ancient  author  was  a  priest  of 
Bel,  at  Babylon,  and  flourished  there  in 
the  first  half  of  the  third  century  before 
our  era.  He  was  a  native  of  the  coun- 
try and  well  acquainted  with  its  earlier 
and  later  history.  He  knew  as  well  as 
one  might  know  in  an  uncritical  and 
credi;lous  age  the  annals  not  only  of  the 
later  Babylonian  empire,  but  also  of  the 
older  Chaldaean  dominion  which  had 
been  established  on  the  lower  Euphrates 
in  the  very  earliest  stages  of  human 
history. 

In  that  part  of  his  work  devoted  to 
the  chronology  of  the  Chaldsean  king- 
Ten  Chaidee        dom,  Berosus  describes  the 

mythical  kings ; 

conformity  to  epoch  bcfore  the  flood ;  for, 
scheme.  like    the     Hebrew    author 

of  Genesis,  he  has  an  account  of  a  uni- 
versal deluge  of  waters,  through  which 
a  single  great  captain  named  Xisi:thrus, 
with  his  family,  came  safely  in  a  ship 
and  descended  from  a  mountain,  to  re- 


people  the  earth.  To  the  antedeluvian 
era  Berosus  also  assigns  a  dynasty  of 
ten  kings.  To  these  reigns  of  fabulous 
duration  are  given  the  ten  eons  of  their 
dominion,  being  as  follows: 

Years. 

1.  .\lorus,  a  Chalclsan,  who  reigned 36,000 

2.  Aloparus,  son  of  Alorus,  who  reigned. . .    10,800 

3.  Almelon,  a  native  of  Sippara,  who  reigned.  46,800 

4.  Ammenon, a  Chaldsan,  who  reigned. .. .  43,200 

5.  Amegalarus,  of  Sippara,  who  reigned. . .  64,800 

6.  Daonus,  of  Sippara,  who  reigned 36,000 

7.  Edoranlchus,  of  Sippara,  who  reigned. . .   64,800 

8.  Amempsinus,  a  Chaldaean,  who  reigned.   36,000 

9.  Otiartes,  a  Chaldjean,  who  reigned 28,000 

10.  Xisuthrus,   the    Chaldsean    Noah,    who 

reigned 64,800 


A  total  of  ten  kings,  reigning 431,200 

The  general  conformity  of  these  two 
schemes  of  ethnic  descent  must  be  pat- 
ent at  a  glance.  The  Chaldaean  and  the 
Hebrew  accounts  of  this  dim  age  of  an 
ancestral  race  agree  in  the  important 
consideration  of  ten  successive  patri- 
archical  kingships.  It  is  easy  to  observe 
the  more  moderate  conception  and  out- 
line of  the  Hebrew  scheme  of  descent  and 
longevity,  and  the  wild  extravagance  of 
the  Chaldaean  tradition.  But  the  pattern 
and  outline  of  the  progress  of  the  race 
are  alike  in  both,  and  in  either  case  this 
line  of  long-lived  mj'thical  rulers  ends 
with  a  righteous  captain,  whose  virtue 
and  wisdom,  in  the  wickedness  of  his 
surroundings,  enable  him  to  go  safely 
through  the  waters  of  a  deluge  and  re- 
people  a  new  world  on  the  hither  side 
of  the  catastrophe. 

The  identity  of  the  two  narratives  in 
their  essential  spirit  and  leading  features 
can  hardly  be  doubted.  "We  „,    ^    ^ 

■^  The  neaomen 

thus   see  in  the  maritime  of  the  Adamite 
parts  of  Beluchistan,  at  a 
time  almost  imimaginably  remote,  even 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  oldest  histo- 
rians who  have  attempted  to  trace  the 
course   and    development  of   mankind, 


438 


GREAT  RACES   OF  jrANKlXD. 


the  apparition  of  a  ruddy  race  of  men 
expanding  through  a  mythical  age  of 
unknown  duration,  and  entering  at  least 
three  stages  of  civilizing  activity.  Jabal 
was  the  "father  of  such  as  dwell  in 
tents  and  of  such  as  have  cattle."  This 
is  manifestly  an  outline  of  the  begin- 
ning of  the  pastoral  life  which  occupied 
so  large  a  part  in  the  subsequent  his- 
tory of  the  races  of  Western  Asia.     Ju- 


instruments  as  have  pleased  the  senses 
of  men  in  all  subsequent  ages  with  the 
concord  of  sweet  sounds. 

To  the  same  epoch,  or  a  little  later,  in 
the  tribal  evolution,  is  assigned  Tubal- 
cain.  He  is  represented  as  Question  of  the 
a  worker  in  brass  and  iron.  f^^J^o^ti,'^''^' 
Very  notable  is  the  fact  Semites, 
that  the  composite  metal  brass  is  here 
mentioned  as  the  material  of  the  earliest 


THE  FATHERS  OF  "SUCH  AS  DWELL  IN  TENTS"— OLD  SEMITIC  TYPES. 


bal,  the  brother  of  Jabal,  is  represented 
as  being  the  ' '  father  of  all  such  as 
handle  the  harp  and  the  organ."  From 
this  we  are  to  infer  that  at  least  the 
musical  branches  of  art  made  their  ap- 
pearance in  the  East  contemporaneously 
with  the  development  of  the  pastoral 
life.  The  makers  of  tents  and  the 
keepers  of  flocks  and  herds  discovered 
harmonv,  and  became  the  makers  of  such 


metal  work  of  the  Adamites.  Iron  also 
is  named  as  the  other  substance  in  which 
Tubal-cain  and  his  successors  became 
proficient  as  workmen.  It  would  ajjpear 
in  accord  with  right  reason  that  both  of 
these  names  of  the  metals  are  errone- 
ously deduced  from  some  original  which 
has  been  misunderstood  in  translation. 
The  primitive  men  could  hardly  have 
begun  as  workers   in   brass,    since   the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— XOACHITE   DISPERSIOX.       139 


copper  and  zinc  of  which  it  is  composed 
must  first  have  been  employed  and  the 
ratio  of  their  combination  discovered 
before  brass  could  have  an  existence. 
Moreover,  the  extraction  of  iron  from 
the  matrix  is  a  process  so  difficult  and  so 
late  in  the  order  of  metallic  discovery 
that,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  another 
part  of  this  ^^•ork,  it  follows  and  does 
not  precede  the  discovery  of  copper,  of 
tin,  of  the  precious  metals,  and,  indeed, 
of  nearly  all  the  other  metallic  ele- 
ments common  to  the  surface  of  the 
earth. 

At  the  close  of  this  Adamite  period  in 

the  history  of  the  Ruddy  race  we  come 

to  that  o-reat  catastrophe. 

Dissemination  ^ 

of  traditions  of    the  Dclugc  of  watcrs.     In 
e  uge.  respect  to  this  event  tradi- 

tion was  busy  throughout  the  primitive 
world.  Among  almost  every  people 
there  was  a  mythical  reminiscence  of  a 
flood  by  which  their  ancestors  were 
destroyed  from  the  earth.  The  diluvian 
legend  generally  assigned  the  wickedness 
of  the  race  as  a  cause  of  its  overthrow. 
The  tradition  of  such  a  visitation  always 
presented  itself  most  emphatically  in 
countries  so  situated  as  to  be  subject  to 
inundations.  Perhaps  the  greatest  seat 
of  such  a  belief  was  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Lower  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  It 
was  from  this  region  that  the  Hebrew 
account  of  the  Deluge  was  transmitted  by 
Abraham  and  his  posterity  to  the  west, 
and  there  recorded  in  the  annals  of  that 
people.  At  the  same  time  a  like  tradi- 
tion was  handed  down  among  the 
Chaldseans,  and  at  a  later  epoch  in 
history  was  repeated  and  modified  by 
the  Assyrian  seers,  on  the  Upper  Tigris. 
The  story  of  Deucalion  and  his  survival 
of  the  Deluge  was  rife  among  the  primi- 
tive Greeks,  and  other  primeval  nations 
had  like  accounts  of  a  like  disaster. 
To  this  general  dissemination  of  the 


tian  race  pos- 
sessed no  such 
tradition. 


belief  in  a  deluge  of  waters  by  which 
the  race  of  man  was  swept  away,  the 
ancient  Egyptians  furnish  -miytheEgyp- 
a  remarkable  exception. 
Their  legends  and  mythol- 
ogy furnish  no  account  of  any  such 
event,  either  in  the  primitive  or  later 
ages  of  their  country.  It  is  easy  to  see 
in  this  fact  the  action  and  reaction  of 
natural  and  supernatural  elements  in  the 
primitive  history  of  a  people.  The  Nile 
is,  perhaps,  the  only  river  in  the  world 
whose  swellings  and  fallings  obey  a 
certain  law,  the  knowledge  of  which 
secures  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley 
from  disastrous  consequences.  The 
regularity  of  the  coming  and  the  reces- 
sion of  the  waters  furnishes  a  guarantee 
against  all  harm.  A  curse  is  thus  con- 
verted into  a  blessing;  and  the  river 
becomes,  instead  of  an  object  of  dread 
and  superstition,  an  obje'ct  of  reverence 
and  worship !  The  uniformity  of  nature 
stood  guard  over  the  welfare  of  the 
people  Avho  built  the  pyramids,  and  even 
if  a  prehistoric  deluge  had  occurred  be- 
fore the  civilized  development  of  the 
Egyptian  race,  the  tradition  of  it  would 
have  perished  in  the  presence  of  the 
future  beneficent  conduct  of  the  great 
river.  In  other  valleys  of  the  East 
irregularity  rather  than  uniform  flood 
and  subsidence  was  the  law,  and  where- 
ever,  as  a  result,  disaster  on  many  oc- 
casions and  from  natural  causes  must 
necessarily  have  ensued  to  the  people 
living  on  the  river  banks,  the  tradition 
of  a  great  catastrophe  overwhelming  all 
would  be  perpetuated  and  handed  down 
as  a  distinct  and  memorable  crisis  in  the 
past  history  of  the  world. 

However  this  may  be,  we  find  a 
remarkable  conformity  between  the 
Chaldaean  and  the  Hebrew  account  of 
the  disaster  by  which  the  race  of  man  was 
swept  away  at  the  close  of  the  Adamite 


440 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


era.  The  well-known  narrative  of  the 
Deluge  given  in  the  seventh  chapter  of 
the  Book  of  Genesis  need  not  be  here 
General  har-  repeated.  Nor  is  it  desir- 
dseanandHe-  able  to  rccount  m  full  the 
Of  trflo'or'  story  of  the  flood  asrecorded 
by  the  ancient  Chaldasans  and  Assyr- 
ians.     The   principal    features   of   the 


destroy  the  world  by  a  flood.  The  great 
captain  \Vas  ordered  to  bury  the  records 
of  his  country  in  Sippara  and  to  embark 
in  a  ship,  Avith  his  kindred  and  friends. 
He  was  also  directed  to  take  into  the  ark 
with  him  all  manner  of  living  creatures. 
When  everything  was  completed  and  the 
ship,  nine  thousand  feet  in  length,  was 


MESOPOTAMIAN  LANDSCAPE.— View  of  Jto'ssuL.— Drawn  by  E.  Flandin. 


latter,  however,  will  serve  to  show  the 
fundamental  identity  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal narratives  of  the  Deluge.  The 
Chalda;an  and  Assyrian  accounts  differ 
in  this,  that  the  latter  assigns  as  a  cause 
for  the  destruction  of  the  human  race 
by  a  flood  the  wickedness  of  mankind  in 
the  earth,  whereas  the  older,  or  Chal- 
dsean,  account  simply  recites  that  the  god  { 
Bel  revealed  to  Xisuthrus  his  purpose  to  \ 


closed,  the  Deluge  came.  In  course  of 
time  Xisuthrus  sent  oiit  birds,  which  at 
first  came  back  without  evidence  of  rest- 
ing, but  afterwards  with  mud  on  their 
feet.  At  length  the  ship  rested  on  the 
Gordyaean  mountain,  and  the  inhabitants 
came  forth  to  repeople  the  earth. 

In  the  Assyrian  account  the  divinity 
who  revealed  the  flood  is  Hea,  and  the 
Assyrian  Noah  is  named  Sisit.     He,  as 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.—NOACHITE  DISPERSION. 


441 


in  the  case  of  his  Chaldsean  protot}'pe, 
gathered  all  manner  of  living  creatures 
The  Assyrian  and  seeds  of  the  Vegetable 
p".S^':;e  world  into  his  ship.  Then 
older  forms.  Samas,  the  sun  god, 
sent  the  flood.  There  was  a  great  storm 
that  went  over  the  nations,  and  the 
waters  reached  up  to  heaven.  Even  the 
gods  had  to  ascend  to  their  highest 
thrones  and  sit  there  tin  til  the  subsid- 
ence. All  living  things  outside  were 
drowned.  At  last  the  Avaters  abated; 
the  ark  rested  on  ]Mount  Xizir,  and  Bel 
led  forth  Sisit  by  the  hand  to  repopulate 
the  countr)'.  It  is  sufficient  to  note  that 
the  narrative  given  of  the  great  catas- 
trophe in  the  seventh  chapter  of  Genesis 
is  much  more  serious  and  elevated  than 
the  two  forms  of  tradition  which  were 
preserved  to  after  times  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris. 

Apart  from  these  traditional  accounts 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  Adamite 
Early  division  of  Tsce  Came  to  its  termiua- 
int^o'thr  ™"^^  tion ,  we  turn  to  a  more  scien- 
branches.  tific  aspect  of  t^jp  question. 

It  appears  that  before  the  destruction  of 
this  people,  before  they  had  reached  the 
scene — at  least  the  central  scene — of 
their  disaster,  they  had  already  begun 
to  part  into  the  three  branches  of  ethnic 
life  already  mentioned  as  the  major 
divisions  of  the  Ruddy  family  of  man- 
kind. It  is  in  evidence  that  the  Noa- 
chite  race,  from  its  old  maritime  dtfboii- 
chiire  on  the  shores  of  Gedrosia,  the 
modern  Beluchistan,  made  its  way  first 
to  the  north,  in  the  direction  of  the  Car- 
manian  desert,  and  was  thence  deflected 
to  the  west.  It  was  here,  on  the  table- 
land of  ancient  Iran,  in  the  district  of 
country  east  of  Yezd,  that  the  ancestors 
of  the  Ruddy  races  of  mankind  seem  to 
have  felt  for  the  first  time  the  impulse 
of  westward  migration.     Here,   at  any 

rate,    they   were    deflected   toward   the 
M. — Vol.  I — 29 


setting  sun.  Here,  too,  they  appear  to 
have  begun  that  threefold  ethnic  separa- 
tion which  was  destined,  in  far  ages 
and  countries,  to  give  to  history  some  of 
its  most  vigorous  and  highly  developed 
peoples. 

If  we  fall  back  again  for  a  moment 
upon  the  classification  the  nomenclature 
of  which  is  derived  from  uncertain  eth- 
the  three  sons  of  Noah,  etriyMe's°opo^' 
we  find  here  the  begin-  tamians. 
nings  of  the  division.  So  that  if  we  re- 
gard the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris  as  the  center,  or  seat,  of  the  great 
diluvian  disaster  which  subsequently  oc- 
curred, we  must  conclude  that  the  Ruddy 
peoples  who  made  their  way  into  these 
valleys  from  the  east  had  already  sepa- 
rated, or  at  least  begun  to  separate,  into 
Hamites,  Semites,  and  possibly  Japheth- 
ites.  The  adoption  of  such  a  hypothe- 
sis would  tend  to  explain  or  remove  the 
difiiculty  which  historians,  ethnologists, 
and  linguists  alike  have  experienced  in 
the  attempted  classification  of  the  most 
ancient  peoples  of  the  Tigrine  and  Eu- 
phratine  valleys.  This  work  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  and  conclusively  ac- 
complished. In  a  general  way  it  has  been 
decided  that  the  oldChaldaeans  wereHam- 
itic  in  their  origin  and  development.  In 
like  manner  the  preponderance  of  evi- 
dence has  tended  to  show  that  the  Assyri- 
ans were  Semitic  in  their  race  descent  and 
character.  But  the  evidences  also  indi- 
cate much  mixture  and  confusion  in  the 
primitive  history  of  these  regions. 

It  is  extremely  difiicult,  either  by 
means  of  historical  traditions,  ethnic 
traces,  or  linguistic  proofs,  point  of  disper- 
to  determine  satisfactorily  t^^^^^ 
to  which  branch  of  the  orig-  ^^  Chaidaea. 
inal  threefold  division  the  Assyrians 
and  the  Chaldasans  respectively  belong. 
Moreover,  at  later  periods,  when  the 
Hamitic  race  has  well  emerged  from  this 


442 


GREAT  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


region,  and  is  discovered  witli  all  its  pecul- 
iar traits  in  Southeastern  and  Southern 
Arabia  and  in  Egypt,  and  when  the  Sem- 
ites have  likewise  appeared,  with  their 
distinctive  peculiarities  well  developed,  in 
the  West,  the  course  from  which  the  two 
races  have  manifestly  come  into  subse- 
quent fields  of  activity,  when  traced  back- 


the  center,  and  the  Japhethites  close  iip 
to  the  Caspian. 

From  these  evidences  and  by  this  just 
train  of  reasoning,  it  would  appear  con- 
clusive that  the  primary  division  of  the 
Noachite  family  took  place  in  the  up- 
lands of  ancient  Iran,  at  a  point  more 
than   ten   degrees  of  latitude    eastward 


IN  KUivDlbi'AN. — Vitw  OF  Little  Ararat,  with  Group  of  Kurds  in  Foreground.— Drawn  by  Alfred  Paris. 


wards,  shows  a  conjuncture  viitch  to  the 
east  of  the  Mesopotamian  region  and 
not  in  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Tigris.  This  is  to  say  that  at  the 
time  when  the  Hamite,  the  .Semite,  and 
the  Japhethite  races  made  their  way 
through  Mesopotamia  to  the  West,  they 
were  already  separated  geographically, 
the  Hamites  being  on  the  south,  pressing 
close  to  the  Persian  gulf,  the  Semites  in 


from  the  ilesopotamian  region,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  the  center  of  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  Deluge.  It  is  safe,  there- 
fore, in  the  ethnic  scheme,  to  mark  th& 
division  of  the  Xoachites  far  beyond  and 
to  the  eastward  of  the  low-lying  alluvial 
plains  of  Mesopotamia. 

If,  then,  the  observer  should  take  his 
stand  in  the  Arabian  desert  west  of 
Mesopotamia   and   look   thitherward  in 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.— NOACHITE   DISPERSION.      443 


the    earliest    epoch  of   human    develop- 
ment, he  might  see  emerging  from  the 
shadows    the  vanguard    of 

Issuance  of  the 

Noachites  to  the  two  races,  With  possibly  a 
^^^  '  third   on    the   north.     The 

Hamitic  division  of  mankind  would  be 
seen  making  its  way  to  the  westward, 
close  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Persian 
gulf  and  bending,  as- if  by  preference,  to 
the  south  into  Old  Arabia,  next  to  the 
sea.  The  central  phalanx  would  be  the 
descendants  of  Shem,  heading  for  the 
west,  and,  perhaps,  deflected  somewhat 
to  the  north,  on  its  way  from  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees  into  Canaan.  The  Japhetic 
division,  if  seen  at  all,  would  be  well  to 
the  north,  close  to  the  southern  shores 
of  the  Caspian,  and  bending  in  a  north- 
westerly direction  toward  the  eastern 
limits  of  the  Black  sea.  This  may  be 
called  the  Noachite  dispersion  of  the 
human  race.  The  lines  of  its  progress 
westward  lie  between  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Caspian  and  the  northern 
limits  of  the  Persian  gulf.  This  region 
is  to  Eui'ope  and  Southwestern  Asia 
what  the  wrist  is  to  the  extended  palm. 
Mesopotamia,  considered  longitudinally 
from  east  to  west  and  in  connection 
with  Kurdistan,  is  a  strait,  and  through 
this  strait  the  streams  of  the  Ruddy 
races  of  men  flowed  out  toward  the  open 
regions  in  the  prehistoric  ages. 

It  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  we 
may,  in  part  at  least,  apprehend  the 
Probable  direc-  cthnic  characteristics  of  the 
nr.tld'it  primitive  peoples  of  Elam 
persion.  and     Chaldsea.       Through 

these  most  ancient  countries  the  Ham- 
itic division  of  men  made  their  way 
in  their  earliest  departure  and  migra- 
tion from  the  parent  stock.  It  is,  per- 
haps, safe  to  say  that  the  Elamites  were 
the  first  development  of  a  Hamitic  na- 
tionality in  the  world.  This  earliest 
lodgment  of  the    oldest  branch   of   the 


Noachites  was  in  the  country  afterwards 
called  Susiana  by  the  Greeks,  and  the 
dominion  established  here  remained  for 
many  ages  a  seat  and  stronghold  of  the 
primitive  race.  Historical  traditions  in- 
dicate that  the  Hamites  came  into  this 
region  by  invasion,  and  that  they  dis- 
placed, by  conquest,  the  original  Semitic 
and  possibly  Turanian  peoples  who  were 
there  before  them. 

This  view,  however,  is  a  doubtful 
hypothesis.  As  already  stated,  it  is 
likely  that  the  disentangle-  Traces  of  ethnic 
ment  of  the  Semitic  and  ^^vTEran.- 
Hamitic  tribes  had  not  yet  "es. 
been  comiDletely  effected  when  the  Elam- 
ite  nationality  was  founded;  and  it 
may  well  be  confessed  that  Semitic 
influences  were  afterwards  discoverable 
in  the  development  of  what  was  traly 
a  Hamitic  dominion.  Geographically 
considered,  the  country  here  referred  to 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  river 
Diyalah,  on  the  east  by  the  Kebir  Kuh 
mountains,  on  the  west  by  the  Tigris, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  Persian  gulf. 
It  was  a  low-lying  countr}%  fertile  and 
inviting,  identical  almost  in  character 
with  those  other  regions  of  the  world — 
Chaldaea,  Southeastern  Arabia,  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nile — where  the  Hamites  es- 
tablished in  subsequent  ages  the  seats 
of  their  dominion. 

Primitive  Assyria  may  be  assigned  to 
the  Semites.  Asshur  was  the  son  of 
Shem.  The  position  of  First distribu- 
Assyria,  east  of  the  Tigris  '^ :llf,^::t- 
rather  than  in  ]\Iesopotamia  tJ"tes. 
Proper,  would  indicate  its  planting  by 
early  tribes  of  the  vSemitic  race  coming 
from  the  east.  There  are  evidences 
that  such  a  dominion,  north  of  the 
Greater  Zab  and  east  of  the  Tigris,  was 
planted  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury before  our  era. 

The  Japhetic  branch  is  generally  re- 


444 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


garded  as  the  oldest  division  of  the  No- 
achite  family.  The  movements  of  this 
race  have  been  by  far  the  most  compli- 
cated and  difficult  to  trace.  The  first 
deflection  from  the  jjarent  stem  was 
doubtless  to  the  north  or  northwest  of 
the  common  stream  flowing-  westward. 
The  point  of  departure  of  the  Japheth- 
ites  has  already  been  indicated.  It  is 
more  than  likely  that  their  first  course 
after  separation  from  the  ancestral 
tribes  was  so  well  to  the  north  as  to 
bring  them  into  contact  with  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  Caspian,  in  which 
event  they  would  be  turned  back  or  de- 
flected more  directly  toward  Northern 
Asia.  It  may  be  fairly  conjectured 
that  this  geographical  circumstance  lies 
at  the  bottom  of  the  formation  of  that 
great  ethnic  whirl,  or  center,  from 
which  the  Aryan  races  of  subsequent 
times  were  all  descended.  It  is  not  pur- 
posed in  this  connection  to  trace  out  the 
after  ramifications  of  the  Japhethites,  or, 
indeed,  of  the  cognate  races  of  the  south. 
It  is  sufficient  to  note  that  from  the 
Japhetic  center  the  subsequent  migra- 
tions took  place  in  both  directions,  east 
and  west,  Avhile  the  Semitic  and  Hamitic 
movements  followed  a  more  orderly 
progress,  the  one  toward  Canaan  and 
the  other  into  Southeastern  Arabia. 

It  has  been  intimated  above  that  the 
Old  Chaldsean  dominion  on  the  Lower 
Indications  that  Euphrates  was  Hamitic  in 
d'L'a™™''  its  origin.  Several  circum- 
Hamitic.  stances    besides    the    mere 

course  which  the  tribal  migrations  were 
then  pursuing  may  be  cited  for  assign- 
ing Chaldiea  to  the  Hamites.  Historical 
evidence  shows  almost  conclusively  that 
there  were  race  prejudices  and  frettings 
between  the  Chaldaeans  and  the  Assyri- 
ans on  the  north.  The  two  peoples  were 
hardly  ever  at  peace.  There  was  a  di- 
vergence of  language,  of  tradition,  and 


of  religious  ceremonials,  but  at  the  same 
time  such  striking  analogies  in  all  as  to 
indicate  close  affinities  of  race. 

It  was  the  preponderance  and  pressure 
of  the  stronger  Assyrian  nationality  on 
the  north  that,  at  the  close  Race  troubles 
of  the  fourteenth  century  ^.^^^^S^h^ 
B.  C,  finally  overpowered  em  Semites, 
the  Chaldasan  dominion  and  replaced  it 
with  Semitic  influence  in  the  south.  By 
careful  observation  we  are  able  to  see, 
long  anterior  to  this  period,  the  race 
troubles  between  the  northern  and  the 
southern  people.  There  are  indications 
of  invasion  and  oppression  on  the  part 
of  the  Assyrians  respecting  their  south- 
ern kinsmen.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
these  difficulties  Avere  at  the  bottom  of 
some  of  the  earliest  migrations  to  the 
west.  Perhaps  Eber,  the  father  of 
Abraham,  had  drifted  from  beyond  the 
Tigris  into  the  low-lying  country  of  the 
south.  His  name  is  said  to  signify 
"from  beyond;"  that  is,  from  beyond 
the  rivers.  Doubtless  he  was  either  an 
immigrant  into  the  low  country  or  an 
invader.  A  family  so  situated,  expand- 
ing into  a  patriarchical  tribe,  would  soon 
find  itself  with  unpleasant  surroundings, 
and  a  cure  for  local  troubles  might  be 
sought  and  found  in  a  further  migration 
into  the  freer  west.  Hence  the  Abra- 
hamic  exodus  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 

Another  proof  of  the  race  diversity 
already  existing  between  the  Old  Chal- 
daeans and  the  people  of  As-   Differences  in 

shur  is  found  in  the  monu-  rat^LlAsf^- 
mental  remains  of  the  two  Syrians, 
countries.  There  is  already  a  clear  de- 
parture in  the  typical  physiognomy  of 
the  Chaldaeans  and  the  Assyrians.  The 
former  are  like  the  Elamites  in  personal 
characteristics,  while  the  latter  are  of 
the  well-known  Semitic  type,  with  hints 
of  Medo-Persian  modifications.  It  is 
easy  for  the  ethnographer  to  see  in  the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— NOACHITE  DISPERSION.      445 


features  and  person  of  the  ancient  Chal- 
daean  the  antitype  of  the  Cushite,  the 
Old  Arabians,  the  Hamitic  Canaanites, 
and  even  the  Ethiopians  and  Egyptians. 
It  will  be  readily  agreed  that  the  Semitic 
peoples  became,  in  the  course  of  time, 
predominant  throughout  Mesopotamia. 
It  is  likely  that  the  Hamitic  race,  by  pres- 
sure from  the  north,  became  attenuated 
even  to  actual  separation  around  the  head 
of  the  Persian  gulf,  and  that  the  Elamite 
dominion  on  the  east  preserved  the  prin- 
cipal, if  not  the  only,  remnants  of  that 
race  beyond  the  meridian  of  Chaldasa 
and  Assyria. 

Several  facts  of  some  interest  come  to 

light  on  an  examination  of  the  ethnic 

names  of  the  three  branches  of  the  No- 

achite   family.     The  word 

Significance  of 

theNoacMte        Shcm  means  a  "  name,    or 

patronymics.  i        <  <  c 

more  properly,  "  sons  or  a 
name."  The  sense  is,  that  this  division 
of  the  Noachites  was  an  aristocracy 
having  a  name,  that  is,  a  lineal  descent 
from  reputable  fathers,  as  distinguished 
from  the  no-name,  or  base-born,  descend- 
ants of  other  stocks.  The  early  Sem- 
ites evidently  regarded  themselves  as 
peculiarly  the  representatives  of  the 
Noachite  race,  and  perpetuated  the  be- 
lief in  the  nameless,  that  is,  the  gentile, 
character  of  the  cognate  families  of  their 
own  descent.  The  innuendo  was  direct- 
ed against  both  the  Japhethites  and  the 
Hamites,  particularly  against  the  de- 
scendants of  Canaan  in  the  west,  whom 
the  sons  of"  Shem  afterwards  overcame 
and  expelled  from  their  territories. 

The  evidence  of  this  race  contention 
and  feud  is  plentifully  scattered  in  the 
Contention  for      Hebrew  writings.    The  old 

precedence  ^ 

among  Shem,        prejudice   lies  at  the    bot- 

Ham,  and  Ja-  ,  j.  . ,  ,    ,.  ... 

pheth.  tom  of  the  relative  priority 

of  the  sons  of  Noah.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  Japhethites  were  the  eldest, 
the   Hamites  second,   and    the   Semites 


the  youngest  division  of  the  Noachite 
family.  But  there  was  a  constant  effort, 
extending  through  many  centuries,  on 
the  part  of  the  Hebrew  scribes  and 
cbroniclers  to  change  this  order  and  to 
give  to  Shem  the  rank  peculiar  to  the 
eldest  son.  In  the  biblical  ethnography 
the  order  of  the  three  descendants  is 
always  given  thus:  Shem,  Ham,  Ja- 
pheth.  But  it  will  be  observed  that  even 
in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis,  while 
the  first  verse  preserves  this  order,  giv- 
ing priority  to  Shem,  the  analysis  of 
tribes  Avhich  immediately  follows  places 
Japheth  in  his  true  position,  and  assigns 
the  place  of  youngest  son  to  Shem. 
Sucli  primitive  quarrels  as  to  the  senior* 
ity  of  descendants  were  very  common 
among  the  early  families  of  men,  and 
are  of  little  value  to  modern  scholarship 
except  as  illustrative  of  a  striking  and 
persistent  feature  of  organization  and 
belief  existing  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
human  development. 

All  the  ancient  nations  strenuously 
insisted  that  they  were  respectively  the 
most  ancient  of  all.  Pri-  strife  of  th» 
ority  seems  to  have  been  ^^of  prio? 
an  idea  which  sufficed  to  "?• 
establish  right,  and  make  all  things 
legitimate  in  primeval  society.  "We 
were  here  first,  and  therefore  possess 
this  region,  and  are  greater  than  you," 
was  the  language  of  every  primitive 
people  to  its  neighbors.  As  a  result  of 
this  disposition,  claims  to  extravagant 
antiquity  were  advanced  by  all,  and 
were  attested  by  long  lines  of  successive 
monarchs,  in  successive  dynasties,  ex- 
tending through  fabulous  ages.  One  of 
the  principal  devices  to  rnake  good  such 
claims  was  to  extend  the  lives  of  their 
rulers  to  hundreds  and  thousands  of 
A-ears.  The  Berosian  scheme  presented 
above  of  the  Noachite  dynasty  in 
Chaldaea    down    to    the    epoch    of   the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— NOACHITE  DISPERSION.      447 


Deluge  is  a  sample  of  the  plan  which 
the  ancients  adopted  to  make  good  their 
claim  of  primogeniture  and  proscriptive 
right.  The  Egyptians,  not  satisfied 
with  even  the  fanciful  expansion  of  their 
dynasty,  were  wont  to  abandon  terres- 
trial criteria  and  appeal  to  the  planets  for 
their  antiquity.  It  was  a  common  boast 
among'  the  Egyptian  priests  that  their 
people  Avere  Prosclcnoi,  that  is,  pre- 
Moonites,  older  than  the  moon  in  their 
occupancy  and  possession  of  Mizraim. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  Mesopotamian 
development  of  the  different  branches  of 
Chronology  at  the  Noachitc  races,  no  at- 
[re  NoaThTtf=  tempt  has  been  made  toes- 
races.  tablish    the    chronological 

relations  of  the  several  ethnic  divisions 
in  the  dispersion,  or  even  to  date  the 
general  epoch  to  which  they  all  be- 
longed. In  fact,  chronology  is  wholly 
at  fault  in  considering  such  primitive 
movements  of  the  race.  As  to  the  time 
when  the  Noachites  may  be  said  to  have 
been  deflected  to  the  west,  and  to  have 
begun  their  separation  into  dift'erent 
peoples,  nothing  can  be  alleged  with 
even  approximate  certainty.  The  whole 
tendency  of  recent  inquiry  has  been  to 
extend  the  time  relations  of  these  early 
events.  It  is  clearly  perceived  that  the 
notions  formerly  prevalent  about  the 
lime  required  for  the  peopling  of  differ- 
ent and  distant  regions  of  the  earth,  and 
the  development  therein  of  distinct  na- 
tionalities, must  be  abandoned  as  totally 
inadequate  for  the  ethnic  evolutions  to 
which  they  refer.  It  is  known  that  the 
first  progress  of  men  gathering  into  tribes 
and  nations  is  exceeding  slow  as  com- 
pared w'ith  subsequent  stages  of  human 
development.  There  is  an  accelerating 
tendency  in  the  progress  of  mankind, 
and  this  manifest  fact  emphasizes  the 
necessity  of  widening  and  enlarging  the 
whole  scheme  of  ancient  chronology. 


As  it  respects  the  Semitic  and  Hamitic 
peoples  who  created  the  earliest  civil  so- 
cieties in  Elam,  Chaldasa,  and  Assyria,  a 
few  suggestions  may  be  of-  Evidence  of 
fered  as  to  the  time  when  ^Z%\^^^T^ 

of  Egyptian 

the  same  occurred.  If  we  Hamites. 
look  at  the  rise  of  the  Hamitic  race  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  we  discover  the 
most  emphatic  evidence  of  a  very  remote 
antiquity.  It  is  safe  to  affirm  that  almost 
as  early  as  four  thousand  years  before 
the  common  era  the  primitive  Eg^'p- 
tians,  who  themselves  seem  to  have  taken 
possession  of  the  valley  by  conquest, 
were  already  a  strong  and  progressive 
people.  They  had  civil  organizations 
and  many  well-developed  institutions  of 
religion  and  secular  society.  The}-  were 
magnificent  builders  in  stone,  and  appear 
to  have  been,  from  the  earliest  date 
of  their  ddboucJiure  into  Northeastern 
Africa,  in  possession  of  considerable  sci- 
entific knowledge.  These  Egyptians 
were  descendants  of  the  older  Hamites 
in  Asia.  They  came  by  migration  and 
invasion  into  the  country  of  their  sub- 
sequent development.  For  this  move- 
ment out  of  Asia  much  time  must  be 
allowed. 

A  greatly  extended  period  must  have 
elapsed  between  the  founding  of  the  first 
Hamitic  societies  in  Lower  ^lesopotamia 

and    that    subsequent    time   Probable  derira- 

when  the  Hamitic  tribes,  ^j^fromS' 
making  their  way  westward  ^aea. 
through  Syria,  established  themselves  in 
Eg}-pt.  It  is  true  that  the  formal  chro- 
nology, so.  far  as  it  has  been  recovered 
and  reconstructed  for  the  Chaldasan  as- 
cendency, does  not  by  any  means  reach 
a  period  so  remote  as  that  of  Egypt.  But 
the  movement  of  the  race  to  the  west- 
ward points  unmistakably  to  the  fact 
that  the  Chaldasan  ascendency  and  the 
dominion  of  Elam  were  long  anterior  to 
the  creation  of  political  power  in  the  val- 


448 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


ley  of  the  Nile.  This  indicates  for  the 
primitive  peoples  of  Mesopotamia  an  an- 
tiquity far  greater  than  history,  or  even 
ethnology  in  its  current  phases,  has  been 
accustomed  to  assign  or  accept. 

The  country  lying  between  Arme- 
nia and  the  head  of  the  Persian  gulf 
Effects  of  envi-    fumishes  a  good  example 

ronmentonthe  £  ^j-^^  influence  of  phys- 
jnigrant  Noa-  '^    •> 

chites.  ical   environment    on    the 

movements  and  development  of  the 
early  races.     Mesopotamia  constituted  a 


its  way,  while  through  the  gaps  of  the 
Zagros  the  Semites  would  precipitate 
themselves  into  Upper  ]\Iesopotamia. 

Before  the  immigrants  would  spread 
an  open  country,  traversed  by  two  great 
streams  of  living  water,  fertile  in  natu- 
ral products,  and  inviting  to  settlement. 
The  alluvial  plain  in  Lower  jMesopotamia 
would  in  a  special  manner  provoke  to 
permanent  residence  from  the  ease  with 
which  multiplying  tribes  could  here  sup- 
port themselves  by  the  resources  of  the 


PASS  IN  THE  ZAGROS  MOUNTAINS.— Dr.uv 


a  pliol'jgriiph. 


natural,  perhaps  an  inevitable,  stopping- 
place  in  the  westward  movement  of  the 
Noachites.  Such  was  the  situation  as 
to  make  it  necessary  for  them  to  pause, 
and  to  paiise  meant  the  growth  of  fixed 
societies.  On  the  east  of  this  region  the 
country  is  defended  by  the  bulwark  of 
the  Zagros  and  Kebir  Kuh  mountains. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  already  half- 
separated  races,  drifting  from  the  east, 
would  be  impeded  for  a  time  by  the  in- 
terposition of  the  mountain  range.  Pres- 
ently, however,  through  the  southern 
passes,  the  Hamitic  division  would  make 


earth.  Adventure  would  soon  carry  the 
still  half-nomadic  peoples  across  the 
country  to  the  western  borders.  Here, 
however,  there  would  be  a  pause.  Even 
the  civilized  man  hesitates  long,  and  the 
compulsion  must  be  extreme  ere  he 
throws  himself  into  the  desert.  Perhaps 
of  all  the  natural  landscapes  presented 
on  the  surface  of  the  globe  the  most  for- 
bidding and  repellant  is  the  desert. 

West  and  southwest  of  Mesopotamia 
is  a  wide  stretch  of  desert  country.  It 
fatigues  the  eye  and  scorches  the  feet. 
On  the  north  is  the  Assvrian  desert,  and 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— HAMITIC  MIGRATIONS. 


449 


to  the  south  and  west  stretches  aAvay  the 
seemingly  infinite  waste  of  Arabia.  Here 
CJhaidaeaand  are  the  fundamental  con- 
t^l\M:rJ^  ditions  which  made  Chal- 
peoples.  dgea    and    Assyria   a    sort 

of  necessity  in  the  progress  of  the  early 
race.  It  is  not  needed  in  this  connection 
to  enter  elaborately  into  the  geography 
of  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris  and  the  adjacent  upland  coun- 
tries. On  the  north,  from  the  Caspian 
to  the  Black  sea,  stretch  the  Armenian 
mountains ;  on  the  south,  is  the  sea ;  on 
the  east,  the  Zagros  range,  and  beyond, 
the  great  plateau  of  Iran ;  on  the  west, 
the  boundary  line  is  the  long  stretch  of 
the  Syrian  desert. 

At  the  time  of  the  development  of  the 
early  empires  in  these  valleys  and  for 
The  Ruddy  ages  afterwards  the  two 
twstt  m  great  rivers  still  discharged 
Mesopotamia,  their  Waters  by  separate 
channels  into  the  Persian  gulf.  Meso- 
potamia reached  to  the  sea,  and  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers  were  fully  a  hun- 


dred miles  south  of  the  present  shore 
line.  Along  the  banks  of  these  streams, 
high  up  to  the  foothills  out  of  which 
their  upper  waters  are  drawn,  especially 
on  the  east  by  a  multitude  of  smaller 
streams,  the  earliest,  or  at  least  one  of 
the  earliest,  civilizations  was  developed 
in  the  w^orld.  It  was  the  work  of  the 
Ruddy  races  coming  from  the  east. 
Here  they  planted  themselves  at  the 
north  and  the  sotith,  according  to  their 
race  descent,  and  became  in  course  of 
time  much  more  strongly  marked  by 
ethnic  differences  than  they  were  on 
their  first  arrival  in  the  country.  It  is 
from  this  region  that  the  different  races 
belonging  to  the  Hamitic  and  Semitic 
families  of  mankind  made  their  way  at 
length  into  the  western  foreground  of 
history,  where  we  shall  discover  them  in 
a  somew^hat  clearer  light  than  that  in 
which  they  have  thus  far  been  revealed. 
Here,  then,  is  the  end  of  what  may  be 
appropriately  called  the  Noachite  dis- 
persion of  mankind. 


Chapter  XXV.— The  Haviixic  Mioraxions. 


N  the  current  chapter 
the  attempt  will  be 
made  to  trace  out 
geographically  the  va- 
rious lines  by  which 
the  Hamitic  race  was 
distribi:ted,  first  into 
Southwestern  Asia,  and  thence  through 
a  large  part  of  Northern  Africa,  to  the 
borders  of  the  Western  ocean.  The 
Hamitic  races  lie  inquiry  will  begin  with  the 
nearest  the  movements  of  the  Hamitic 

Blacks  m  race 

distribution.  division  of  mankind,  not 
from  any  preference  for  that  race  as  a 
dominant  people  of  antiquity,  not  be- 
cause their  civilization  reached  a  higher 


stage  than  that  of  the  cognate  races,  but 
rather  for  geographical  reasons.  The 
Hamites  were  distributed  to  the  south 
and  west,  and  are  thus  the  southernmost 
branch  of  the  Ruddy  races.  It  will, 
therefore,  be  convenient  to  begin  on  that 
side  of  the  ethnic  distribution  which  lies 
nearest  to  the  lines  marking  the  disper- 
sion of  the  Black  races,  and  thence  to 
pursue  the  inquiry  northward  imtil  the 
Hamitic  movements  have  been  ex- 
hausted. In  the  next  place,  the  various 
branches  of  the  Semitic  family  may  be 
taken  iip  and  considered  in-  like  order, 
leaving  the  Aryan,  or  Indo-European, 
divisions  of  mankind,  most  important  of 


450 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


all,  historically  considered,  for  the  con- 
cluding chapters  on  distribution. 

The  historical  circumstances  which 
gave  rise  to  the  first  departure  of  the 
Historical  rea-  Hamitic  emigrants  from 
sons  for  the  mi-      Lower  Mesopotamia  for  the 

grations  of  the  '^ 

Hamitea.  southwest    are    not    known. 

It  is  not  unlikely,  however,  that  the 
pressure  of  the  stronger  Assyrians  on 
the  north,  who  by  repeated  invasions 
and  conquests  reduced  the  old  Chalda;an 
empire  to  a  condition  first  of  dependency 
and  then  of  actual  subversion,  may  have 
been  the  occasion,  if  not  the  real  cause, 
of  the  first  migratory  movements  of  the 
Hamites  in  the  direction  of  Arabia.  It 
is  not  known  whether  this  primitive 
impulse  was  coincident  with  the  Chal- 
d;ean  ascendency  in  Lower  Mesopotamia 
or  subsequent  thereto,  but  the  former 
supposition  is  more  in  accord  with  right 
reason  and  with  such  other  facts  as  bear 
upon  the  question.  At  any  rate,  the  first 
dispersive  migration  of  the  Hamitic  family 
was  from  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Chal- 
daians  toward  the  south  and  into  the 
maritime  parts  of  Arabia. 

It  is  likely  that  the  first  progressive 
people  in  the  Arabian  peninsula  were 
Primitive  Ara-  the  descendants  of  the  mi- 
bianpopiuation     gratory  movement  here  de- 

of  Hamitio  de-      • »  ^  "- 

scent.  scribed,    and    that    they    be- 

longed to  the  maritime  parts  adjacent 
to  the  Persian  gulf.  The  primitive 
Arabians  of  the  eastern  parts  next  to  the 
sea  were  of  Semito-Hamitic  origin,  and 
that  they  antedated  the  Central  and  West- 
ern Arabians  may  be  safely  inferred  from 
the  ethnic  movements  then  prevailing  in 
the  world,  and  also  from  an  old  prefer- 
ence of  the  early  races  for  the  seashore 
and  the  regions  adjacent.  A  glance  at 
the  geography  of  the  peninsula  will 
show  a  range  of  mountains  between  the 
modern  Arab  state  of  Hasa  and  the  great 
desert.       It     was     through     the     strip     of 


territory  lying  between  these  mountains 
and  the  Persian  gulf  that  the  earliest 
tribes  of  the  Hamitic  family  made  their 
way  to  the  southwest.  In  the  lower  part 
of  the  peninsula  the  migration  divided, 
throwing  off  one  branch  into  the  modern 
province  of  Oman,  while  the  major  di- 
vision was  deflected  somewhat  in  conform- 
ity with  the  coast  line  to  the  southwest, 
toward  the  modern  state  of  Yemen,  adja- 
cent to  the  strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  Such 
in  general  was  the  direction  of  the  oldest 
ethnic  line  in  the  Arabian  peninsula,  and 
it  was  from  this  primitive  migration 
that  the  Old  Arabs,  as  contradistinguished 
from  the  more  recent  Ishmaelites,  were 
derived.  The  former  were,  in  general 
terms,  a  maritime  people,  and  to  the 
present  day  the  distinctions  between  their 
descendants  and  the  Arabians  of  the  re- 
gions bordering  on  the  Red  sea  are  suffi- 
ciently  marked. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  Southern 
Arabia,  especially  toward  the  south- 
western termination  of  the  Himyaritic  writ- 
peninsula,     are     found     lin-     "gsshow  traces 

'■  of  Hamitic  pro- 

guistic  traces  of  this  ancient  auction, 
people.  A  class  of  primitive  writings, 
called  Himyaritic  Inscriptions,  testify  un- 
mistakably of  the  presence  of  a  peculiar 
people  in  th.e  regions  where  they  are 
found.  These  writings,  generally  en- 
graved on  stone,  have  been  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  puzzling  studies  pre- 
sented to  modern  students  of  language, 
and  there  has  been  great  diversity  of 
views  in  regard  to  classifying  the  origi- 
nal speech  to  which  these  writings  belong. 
Man)'  most  eminent  linguists  have  re- 
garded them  as  of  a  Semitic  origin.  An- 
other plausible  view  is  that  of  Renan, 
who  holds  that  the  inscriptions  in  ques- 
tion differ  too  widely  from  Arabic  and 
cognate  varieties  of  Semitic  speech  to  be 
classified  therewith. 

These    facts    open    a    question    of    much 


;i»iUiiiiiiiiNi.i;:iiiJiiiiiitei««.!«u>iii.iiiiiii:iiUjii 


452 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


importance  respecting  the  aflinilies  of 
the  Hamitic  and  Semitic  languages.  It 
appears  that  the  linguistic  separation  of 
Affinities  and       thesc  two  raccs  was  never 

connection  of  ... 

Hamitic  and  SO  complete  as  the  division 
guages.  "  of  either  of  them  from  the 
Aryan  families  of  the  north.  It  is  likely 
that  in  manners,  institutions,  language, 
and  laws  tlic  primitive  Hamitic  tribes 
held  togctlicr  with  their  vSemitic  kins- 
men until  common  linguistic  forms  had 
been  in  a  considerable  measure  fixed  in 
each,  from  which  circumstance  consider- 
able similarity  would  appear  in  the  sub- 
.sequent  development  of  the  respective 
languages.  •  On  the  whole,  it  is  safer  to 
classify  the  Himyaritic  inscriptions  with 
the  other  vSemitic  dialects,  and  to  admit 
the  influence  of  the  Hamitic  Arabs  in 
giving  particular  features  to  tlie  writings 
of  Southern  Arabia. 

Wherever  the  inscriptions  in  question 
may  be  placed  in  linguistic  classification, 
it  is  certain  that  their  origin  is  extremely 
■Wide  distribu-  ancient,  and  that  thcv  were 
^arUicSp"-  deduced  geographically 
*'°"s-  from  Lower  Mesopotamia. 

The  line  of  these  writings  has  been 
traced  from  about  the  junction  of  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  all  the  way 
around  through  Southeastern  and  South- 
ern Arabia  to  Yemen,  and  even  across 
into  Africa.  The  explorer  Loftus  found 
a  sandstone  slab  covered  with  Himyaritic 
inscriptions  in  one  of  the  mounds  of 
Warka,  in  ancient  ChakL-ea.  Two  speci- 
mens of  gems  covered  with  like  charac- 
ters are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 
Coghlan  and  Playfair  made  similar  dis- 
coveries at  Amran,  near  Sana.  In  short, 
the  identity  of  the  writings  along  the 
line  of  the  extreme  southern  dispersion 
of  the  Hamites  is  clearly  esta"bli.shed . 

The  Himyarites,  as  a  people,  occupied 
the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  Ara- 
bian peninsula.     They  are  nearly  iden- 


tified geographically  with  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  modern  Yemen,  though 
the  Himvarites  were  fur-  Geographical 
ther  south  and  more  mar-  '^^:::^^^ 
itinic  than  the  modern  "tes. 
Arabic  state.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that 
the  Hamitic  branch  of  mankind  which 
we  have  been  tracing  was  brought, 
in  its  southwestern  migration,  to  the 
southern  neck  of  the  Red  sea.  It  was 
not  likely  that  .so  narrow  a  strait  of  water 
would  prevent  the  further  dispersion  of 
the  ancient  stock.  The  opposite  African 
shore  is  embraced  in  the  small  maritime 
districts  called  Samara.  More  generally, 
it  is  Abyssinia  to  the  north  and  .Somali- 
land  to  the  south. 

The  fact  has  long  been  recognized  that 
there  was  an   ancient  race  identity  be- 
tween the  peoples  inhabit-  Race  kinship  of 
ing   the    countries   on  the  ^^rEa^^tenr''' 

two    sides    of    the    strait    of   Africans. 

Bab-el-Mandeb.  The  belief  that  the 
Old  Abyssinians  were  of  Semitic  deri- 
vation, and  the  knowledge  that  they 
were  of  the  same  race  with  the  people 
of  the  Himyaritic  district  in  Arabia, 
has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  lat- 
ter were  Semites,  and  this  belief  has 
been  perpetuated  by  the  discovery  of 
strong  Semitic  traces  in  the  Himyaritic 
writings.  The  Abyssinians  and  other 
ancient  Ruddy  races  of  this  region  of 
Africa  were  clearly  in  .some  sort  of  race 
afifinity  with  the  Egyptians,  the  Canaan- 
ites,  and  the  Old  Arabians,  as  well  as 
with  the  Semites  proper.  The  whole 
question  clears  up  on  the  hypothesis  that 
this  most  southerly  division  of  the  Noa- 
chite  descendants  was  Semito-Hamitic, 
and  that  the  Semites  proper  were  dis- 
persed toward  the  south  about  to  the  cen- 
ter of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  It  is  true 
that  some  ethnographers  have  carried  the 
Lshmaelite  migration  southward  along 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Red  sea  to  the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— HAMITIC  MIGRATIONS.       453 


strait,  and  thence  into  Africa,  which 
would  bring  the  Semitic  tribes  into  the 
same  country  with  the  cognate  Ha:nites, 
but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  true 
line  of  Ishmael  was  ever  carried  so  far 
in  that  direction. 

If  we  attempt  to  trace  the  Hamitic  dis- 
persion beyond  the  crossing  into  Africa, 
Distribution  of  we  shall  find  the  migration 
pursuing  the  same  general 
course  to  the  southwest 
which  it  had  taken  while  in  Southern 
Arabia.  It  appears  that  the  peoples  of 
this  stock  were  thinly  distributed  from  the 


Hamitio  blood 
in  Eastern 
Africa. 


bearing  divisions  of  the  Black  races.  The 
ancestors  of  the  Hottentots  and  the  Ne- 
groes made  their  way  from  the  east 
through  this  same  region  of  Gallaland, 
and  their  migratory  intersection  with  the 
south-bearing  progress  of  the  Hamitic 
family  must  have  constituted  one  of  the 
earliest,  if  not,  indeed,  the  very  first, 
contact  of  the  Ruddy  with  the  Black 
races  of  antiquity. 

Meanwhile  Syria,  almost  directly 
west  from  Chaldaea,  had  also  been  pre- 
occupied by  Hamitic  tribes.  While  the 
movement    into  the   maritime  parts  of 


DESERT  COUNTRY  OF  THE  SYRIAN  BORDERS.-The  Plain  of  Tobtose.— Drawn  by  A.  de  Bar,  from  a  photograph  by 

Lockioy. 


strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  in  the  general 
direction  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  and 
that  the  westward  progress  of  the  Ham- 
itic race  was  finally  checked  in  this  re- 
gion. The  Somalian  peoples  of  the 
extreme  eastern  portion  of  Africa  were 
doubtless  derived  from  a  deflected  branch 
of  this  Semito-Hamitic  migration ;  and, 
in  general,  the  Noachite  races  of  Galla- 
land had  the  same  origin. 

One  peculiar  feature  of  this  African 
distribution  of  the   Ruddv 

Crossing  of  the  _  ' 

ethnic  lines  in      peoples  from  Arabia  wasthe 
fact  that  the  lines  of  their 
progress  to  the  southwest  into  the  con- 
tinent must  have  crossed  the  westward- 


Arabia  had  been  going  on,  another  di- 
vision of  the  Hamitic  stock  had  made  its 
way  out  of  Mesopotamia  to  syriaispre- 
the  west.  It  appears  that  '^^^^ 
this  migration  divided  in  grants, 
the  desert  country  on  the  Syrian  borders, 
one  branch  being  deflected  into  Western 
Arabia,  and  the  other  pursuing  its  direct 
course  toward  the  sea  at  Suez.  If  we 
take  up  the  first  division,  we  shall  find 
the  line  of  its  dispersion  drawn  through 
Southeastern  Syria  and  thence  in  the 
direction  of  iledina  and  !Mecca.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  about  the  race  descent 
of  the  original  peoples  of  this  region. 
They  were  prior  to  the  first  Semitic  mi- 


454 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIXD. 


grations  or  invasions  of  the  west ;  and 
the  aboriginal  substratum  of  the  more 
recent  Ishmaelites  and  Joktanians  was 
undoubtedly  of  llamitic  origin. 

It  was  the  peculiarity  of  the  westward 
course  of  the  Ilamites  from  Central 
Divisions  and  re-  Mesopotamia  that  they  di- 
f„"'l''."A^'r^\'      vided  north  and  south  in 

ings  of  the  mi- 
gration, their    progress.       At    first, 

the  volume  of  national  life  which  flowed 
off  toward  Syria  contained  the  potency 
of  the  Western  Arabs,  the  Canaanites, 
and  the  Egyptians.  The  Canaanitish 
deflection  from  the  main  migratory  line 
was  northward,  and  occurred  in  the  re- 
gion of  Central  Syria.  The  northward- 
bearing  branch  from  this  point  entered 
Canaan  Proper  and  Phoenicia ;  and  here 
began  the  development  of  one  of  the 
most  prominent  divisions  of  the  Hamitic 
family. 

Traditional  Canaan  takes  its  name 
from  the  son  of  Ham.  In  the  chronicles 
Ham  founds  ca-  of  the  Hebrew  race  this 
^;Lf:elt7^  division  of  the  Hamites  is 
kinsmen.  most     prominent.       They 

were  greatly  disparaged  by  the  early  an- 
nalists of  the  Hebrew  race,  and  through  all 
subsequent  ages  were  despised  and  con- 
temned by  them  as  gentiles  and  servants 
of  servants.  It  was  against  these  de- 
scendants of  Canaan  in  their  tribes  and 
generations  that  the  wrath  of  invading 
Israel  was  turned,  after  the  Egyptian 
exodus. 

The  progress  of  the  Hamitic  migra- 
tions to  the  northwest,  around  the  east- 
,„         em  extremity  of  the  Med- 

Extent  of  Ham-  / 

itic migrations      itcrraneau,   introduces  the 

Into  Asia  Minor.      ...  -  ,, 

mquirer  to  one  of  the  most 
diSicult  passages  in  the  ethnic  distribu- 
tion of  mankind .  The  problem  is  the  ex- 
tent of  the  migration  in  the  direction  of 
Asia  Minor.  Ethnographers  are  not 
agreed  as  to  how  far  the  Hamitic  move- 
ment in  this  direction  continued.     One 


class  of  writers  are  of  the  opinion  that 
the  traces  of  this  branch  of  the  human 
family  extend  no  further  than  the  south- 
ern regions  of  Asia  Elinor,  or,  at  most, 
the  eastern  borders  of  the  JEgean  sea. 
Some  are  of  opinion  that  the  line  wa» 
deflected  into  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
and  there  terminated  so  far  as  its  west- 
ward progress  was  concerned.  Still  an- 
other class  of  inquirers  hold  that  the 
Hamitic  progress  extended  westward 
through  the  .^-Egean  archipelago  and  into 
Southern  Greece.  This  view  of  the  case 
makes  the  Pelasgians,  to  whom  consid- 
erable space  was  devoted  in  a  chapter  of 
the  preceding  book,  to  be  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Hamitic  stock.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  view  of  a  northern, 
that  is,  a  Thes.salian,  origin  for  the  Pe- 
lasgic  race  was  advanced  in  the  former 
account  of  that  people.  This  view  of 
the  case  is  not  fully  established.  Nor 
can  it  well  be  said  that  the  opposite 
opinion,  namely,  that  the  Pelasgians 
came  from  the  archipelago  into  Argolis, 
and  thence  continued  their  progress  to 
the  West,  is  more  than  tentative. 

Winchell,  in  his  Chart  of  the  Pro- 
gressk'e  Dispersion  of  Mankind,  holds  to 
the  view  that  the  Hamitic  migration  was 
carried  through  the  south-  ^incheU's 

°  views  regarding 

ern  parts  of   Asia   Minor,  the  European 

T  ^,  1       ji       /-I      1     1         dispersion  of  the 

and  thence  by  the  Cyclades  Hamites. 
into  Peloponnesus.  From  Southern 
Hellas  this  distinguished  ethnographer 
extends  the  Hamitic  line  first  into 
Northwestern  Greece,  where,  in  Epirus, 
as  we  have  seen,  one  of  the  principal 
Pelasgie  developments  occurred.  But 
the  main  line  is  carried  across  the 
Southern  Adriatic  into  Italy,  whence 
one  branch  is  turned  to  the  left,  to  fur- 
nish an  aboriginal  stock  for  the  island 
of  Sicily,  while  the  other  line  bifurcates 
on  the  twosidesof  the  Apennines,  giving 
in  Central  Italy  an  origin  for  the  prob- 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— HAMITIC  MIGRATIONS.       455 


lematical  Etruscans  and  their  primitive 
development.  It  may  be  possible,  even 
probable,  that  this  scheme  furnishes  the 
best  solution  as  to  the  race-origin  of  the 
first  peoples  of  the  Ruddy  race  in  South- 
ern Greece  and  Central  Italy.  If  so,  we 
may  regard  the  valley  of  the  Po,  the  in- 
land region  of  Etruria,  and  the  remote 
parts  of  vSicily  as  the  westernmost  limits 


Egypt.  But  a  better  view  of  the  whole 
subject  shows  that  if  any  such  race 
movement  occurred  it  was  of  a  later,  and 
perhaps  a  Semitic,  origin,  from  Arabia 
into  North  Central  Africa. 

The  original  occupancy,  then,  of  the 
Nile  valley  by  the  Ruddy  races  was 
certainly  by  the  incoming  of  the  Ham- 
ites,    first   into   the  eastern    delta,   and 


ROUTE  OF  THE  HAMITE  MIGRATION',  NEAR  SUEZ.— Lake  Timsah.— Drawn  by  Dom  Grenet. 


of  the  European  excursion  of  the  Ham- 
itic  race. 

We  now  turn  to  the  central  progress 

of   the   same   race  to  the  west.     From 

Syria,  the  Hamitic  movement  continued 

directly    through  the    isthmus    of   Suez 

into  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 

The  race  enters  ^  _ 

and  occupies  the  It    has   bccn    believed   by 
ey.  some    historians     that   the 

invasion  by  which  the  aboriginal  Egi'p- 
tians  were  expelled  from  their  country 
was  carried,  in  part  at  least,  across  the 
Red  sea  into  Central,    or   even   Upper 


thence  southward  along  both  banks  of 
the  river  to  Upper  Egypt.  The  progress 
of  Hamitic  civilization  from  the  vicinity 
of  jMemphis  and  Cairo  southward  to  its 
extreme  limit  at  Elephantis  has  been 
traced  by  ethnographers  and  historians 
until  its  course  and  character  are  no 
longer  doubtful.  The  oldest  occupation 
was  in  that  part  of  the  delta  l_ving  next 
to  the  isthmus,  and  from  hence  the  prog- 
ress of  the  race  was  constant  until  the 
whole  valley  was  populated  by  tribes  of 
a  common  descent. 


456 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


The  account  of  the  original  dispersion 
of  mankind  may  well  pause  at  this  point, 
that  the  attention  of  the  reader  may  be 
Extreme  antiq-  once  morc  callcd  to  the  cx- 
movelrntstere  "■^■""■'  antiquity  of  the  move- 
described.  mcntshere  described.     It  is 

worthy  of  special  note  that  the  civiliza- 
tion of  Egypt  tended,  in  virtue  of  its 
own  character,  to  transmit  better  evi- 
dences of  time-relations  and  the  succes- 
sion of  events  than  that  of  any  other 
country.  One  of  the  fundamental  ideas 
of  the  civilization  created  in  the  Nile 
valley  was  architectural  grandeur,  and 
closely  connected  with  this  was  the  no- 
tion of  perpetuating  the  records  of  hu- 
man life  by  means  of  colossal  tombs  and 
imj^erishable  inscriptions.  Fortunate- 
ly the  granite  quarries  of  the  country, 
especially  in  Centi-al  Egypt,  gave  oppor- 
tunity to  gratif}-  this  disposition,  if 
indeed  the  presence  of  such  materials 
did  not  first  provoke  the  habit.  The 
peculiar  priestly  organization  of  the 
race,  in  close  union  as  it  was  with  the 
secular  d3-nast3-,  also  tended  to  the  crea- 
tion and  preservation  of  records. 

From  these  circumstances   the   great 

antiquity  of  Egypt  became  a  marvel  to 

the  earliest  historians  and 

Old  travelers 

marvel  at  the  travelers  of  other  races, 
age  Of  Egypt.       ^^    ^^^^^    ^^^    Egyptian 

scribes  profited  by  the  credulity  of  the 
age  in  which  they  flourished,  and  en- 
larged as  much  as  possible  the  ancient 
records  which  they  possessed.  When 
Herodotus  came  into  the  country,  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C,  he 
was  shown  the  records  of  the  old  dy- 
nasties, from  the  founding  of  the  first  by 
Menes  down  to  the  reign  of  Seti.  From 
this  scheme  he  made  up  his  estimate  of 
the  antiquity  of  the  nation,  producing  as 
a  result  something  over  12000  B.  C. 
as  the  epoch  of  Menes.  Four  centuries 
atterwards,     when    Diodorus     traveled 


in  Egypt,  he  also  studied  the  records 
of  the  countr}',  and  made  out  the  found- 
ing of  the  first  dynasty  to  have  been 
more  than  twelve  thousand  years  before 
the  common  era.  According  to  IManetho, 
a  native  historian,  the  span  between 
Menes  and  our  era  is  reduced  about  one 
half,  the  accession  of  the  first  dynasty 
being  fixed  at  about  5706  B.  C. 

The  mediaeval  historians  did  nothing 
with  the  question,  but  in  recent  times 
many  learned  inquirers  have   taken  up 

the  subject,   and   the  result    Modeminquiry 

has  been  the  almost  concur-  ^^trdTefor 
rent  agreement  of  modern  Menes. 
scholars  that  the  epoch  of  Menes,  founder 
of  the  oldest  dynasty,  goes  back  to  the 
year  3892  B.  C.  This  date  is  now  ac- 
cepted as  approximately  correct.  Indeed, 
it  appears  to  be  rather  within  than  be- 
yond the  true  limits.  Jleanwhile  a  fact 
in  astronomy  has  thrown  perhaps  the 
strongest  light  on  the  true  era  of  the 
founding  of  Egyptian  nationality.  By 
the  rate  of  the  great  movement  called 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  it  is 
now  known  that  the  equator  of  the 
heavens  accomplished  on  the  ecliptic  a 
complete  circuit  in  about  twenty-five 
thousand  years.  It  is  also  known  that  a 
certain  star,  which  was  polar  at  the  time 
of  the  building  of  the  oldest  pyramids  in 
Lower  Egypt,  has  been,  at  the  present 
time,  turned  by  torsion  just  about  one 
fourth  of  the  way  around  the  circuit  of 
the  heavens.  This  would  imply  the 
lapse  of  a  little  over  six  thousand  years 
since  the  construction  of  the  first  pyra- 
mids ;  and  the  date  indicated  would  be 
somewhat  more  than  four  thousand 
years  before  the  common  era. 

It  is  safe  to  fix  upon  this  date  as  a  fair 
approximation  for  the  time  of  the  in- 
coming of  the  tribes  and  the  beginning 
of  the  great  architectural  era  of  the 
Hamitic  race  in  Egypt.     And  it  will  be 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE  RACES.— HAMITIC  MIGRATIONS. 


4.37 


remembered  that  the  ethnic  movements 
which  have  furnished  the  subject-matter 
of  the  preceding  paragraphs  belonged  to 
a  still  earlier  period  in  the  historj-  of  the 
race ;  all  of  which  facts  tend  most 
strongly  to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  a 
great  extension  and  widening  out  of  the 
whole  scheme  of  ancient  chronologj'. 

It  is  difficult  for  one  removed  to  mod- 
em times  and  distant  countries  to  realize 
the    nature    and    method 

True  nature  of 

primitive  tribal  of  the  ethnic  migrations  of 
migrations.  antiquity.      It   is  not   pur- 

posed in  this  connection  to  attempt  to 


hard  to  obtain.  But  ever  and  anon  this 
rapid  volume  of  the  moving  race,  most 
rapid  in  the  vanguard,  would  flow  into 
a  region  which,  from  its  geographical 
situation  and  its  fertility,  would  invite  to 
settlement.  Here  there  would  be  a 
pause.  The  tribe  would  spread  over  the 
surface  of  the  country'  like  a  lake  of 
water  running  into  an  inclosed  lowland. 
For  a  long  time  the  incoming  tribes 
would  pour  along  and  discharge  their 
volume  into  the  reservoir.  If  the  situa- 
tion were  sufficiently  auspicious,  there 
would  be,   in  a  short  time,  the  begin- 


VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  GREAT  PVKAMm  FROM  SOUTH  TO  NORTH. 
A,  debris  ;  B,  vault ;  C,  passage  of  entrj'  ;  U.  abutments  ;  E,  chamber  of  the  queen  ;  F,  chamber  of  the  king  ;  G,  ancient  entrance  ;  H, 

primitive  facing  of  granite  ;  1,  K,  ventilators.  ^ 


depict  the  actual  manner  of  tribal 
removal  from  place  to  place  to  final 
settlement.  One  great  feature,  how- 
ever, of  the  migrator^'  progress  of  ancient 
peoples  was  the  alternate  speed  and 
cessation  of  the  movement.  vSometimes 
the  migrating  horde  would  pour  along 
like  a  swift  stream,  traversing  in  a  short 
time  va.st  stretches  of  country-.  Such 
was  the  rate  of  progress  in  desert  regions 
and  in  mountainous  districts  where  the 
means  of  subsistence  were  scattered  and 

M. — Vol.  I — 30 


nings  of  a  national  development.     The 
more  conservative  elements  of  the  tribes 

would  establish  themselves    in  what  manner 

on  the  soil.  Hunting  would  S:comep;p- 
give  place  to  the  pastoral  elated, 
pursuit,  and  the  pastoral  pursuit  to  agri- 
culture. Permanence  would  assert  it- 
self, and  vacillation  cease.  Institutions 
would  soon  be  planted.  Architecture 
and  the  other  practical  arts  would  arise, 
and  society  would  emerge  from  the  tribal 
chaos  which  had  preceded  it. 


458 


GREAT  RACES   OE  ^r AN  KIND. 


Into  such  situations,  however,  a  rest- 
less element  is  always  poured,  along- 
•with  the  calmer  varieties  of  humanity. 
The  radical  eie-  This  radicalism  would  first 
ment  breaks        flow  to  the  furthest— gen- 

away  irom  the  *^ 

conservative.  erally  the  western — limit 
of  the  locality.  Ere  long,  dissatisfied 
with  the  situation  and  longing  for  the 
old  tribal  freedom,  these  elements  would 
burst  away  from  the  restraints  of  the 
civilizing-  communities  and  resume  the 
migratory  habits  of  antiquity.  They 
would  draw  after  them  all  adventurers, 
all  the  unprosperous  parts  of  the  half- 
formed  societies  behind  them.  They 
would  strike  out  into  new  regions,  driven 
by  an  impulse  which  they  had  no  dis- 
position to  understand  or  check. 

We  may  conceive  that  ancient  Egypt 
furnished  one  of  the  most  striking  ex- 
amples   of    this  di'boiicJmre 

Egypt  a  striking        .  ^  ^    .,     ,  ^  ^^ 

example  of  the     of    tribal    watcrs.       Here 

ethnic  sack.  ,-,  ii  j  j 

they  were  gathered,  and 
here,  out  of  the  fecund  soil,  the  ele- 
ments of  primitive  life  drew  at  first  the 
means  of  subsistence  and  afterwards  of 
development.  How  long  the  general 
progress  of  the  Hamitic  race  to  the  west 
was  checked  and  hindered  by  the  out- 
spread of  the  incoming  volume  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  it  were,  perhaps,  vain 
to  conjecture.  For  many  centuries,  no 
doubt,  the  outline  was  sufficient,  and 
the  auspicious  character  of  the  valley  for 
succeeding  ages  appeased  and  satisfied 
the  cupidity  and  restlessness  of  the  im- 
migrants. 

In  course  of  time,  however,  the  more 
nomadic  elements  of  Egyptian  life 
Migration  at  climbed  the  western  slope 
iSghNonh'  of  the  valley,  and  found 
em  Africa.  the   sand  waste  of  Africa 

before  them.  Iiligration  was  resumed, 
and  the  first  line  of  the  new  movement 
was  stretched  along  the  Mediterranean 
in  the  direction  of  Barca.     It  may  be 


safely  affirmed  that  the  first  tribes  which 
Avere  dropped  into  permanence  in  the 
country  west  of  Lower  Egypt  were  the 
ancient  Marmaricans.  It  is  well  known 
that  in  after  times  Cyrenaica  was  col- 
onized by  the  Greeks,  but  the  primitive 
people  whom  they  expelled  from  the 
coast  and  forced  back  into  the  interior 
were  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Hamitic  exodus  from  Egypt. 

The  main  line  of  migration  continued 
to  the  west,  branching  into  the  interior 

south  of  the  modern  Greek    Branchings  and 

colony,  and  also  turning  re^SSnam! 
into  the  peninsula  toward  itic  dispersion. 
•Ptolemais.  When  we  consider  the  ge- 
ography of  Northern  Africa  we  shall 
find  the  country  well  adapted  to  the 
maintenance  and  perpetuation  of  such  a 
movement.  Throughout  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  the  region,  from  Eg\'pt  to  the  At- 
lantic, a  mountain  range  of  greater  or 
less  elevation  defines  the  coast  region 
from  the  desert  to  the  south.  Toward 
the  eastern  terminus  this  range  is  of 
slight  elevation,  being  in  the  plain  of 
Barca  no  more  than  a  thousand  feet  in 
height.  Toward  the  western  exireme 
the  peaks  of  the  Atlas  rise  to  a  much 
greater  elevation,  reaching  the  line  of 
perpetual  snow.  Throughout  the  whole 
extent  the  range  approximates  the  sea, 
and  the  country  between  the  mountains 
and  the  Mediterranean  slopes  down  rap- 
idly to  the  level  of  the  ocean.  It  was 
through  this  region  that  the  African 
Hamites  made  their  way  to  the  west, 
through  Barca  and  Tripoli,  into  the  an- 
cient state  of  Africa  Proper,  and  thence 
into  ^Mauritania,  and  finally  to  the  ex- 
treme west. 

This  region,  thus  peopled  in  the  pre- 
historic ages,  became  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  subsequent  historical 
countries.  The  ancient  states  along  the 
southern   shores  of   the   Mediterranean 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.—HAMITIC  MIGRATIONS. 


459 


never  attained — with  tlie  exception  of 
Egypt — tlie  power  and  importance  of 
tliose  situated  on  the  nortli- 
ern  coasts,  but  they  reached 
a  considerable  degree  of 
development,  and  were  able  to  compete 
with  the  Mediterranean  peninsular  pow- 
ers for  the  mastery  of  the  west.    Funda- 


Rank  and  char' 
acter  of  North 
African  states 
and  peoples. 


stream  flowed  still  further  to  the  south. 
It  may  also  be  noted  that  the  seafaring 
Semitic  Phoenicians  who  passed  west- 
ward through  the  Southern  ]\Iediterra- 
nean  skirted  the  coast  of  Africa,  and 
touched  the  islands  rather  than  estab- 
lished colonies  or  built  states  on  the 
mainland. 


TUNISIAN  COAST.— GlLF  of  Hammamet.— Drawn  by  Eugene  Girardet,  after  a  sketch  of  Saladin. 


mentally,  the  people  of  the  North  Afri- 
can provinces  were  Hamitic  in  their 
origin.  It  is  true,  as  we  shall  see  here- 
after, that  parallel  streams  of  a  diflferent 
race  descent  were  at  a  subsequent  time 
led  westward  through  the  ,same  region. 
But  the  Brown  race  division  of  mankind 
carried  its  migration  toward  the  Atlantic 
on  the  sout/icni  slope  of  the  North 
African   mountains,  while   the   Semitic 


The  main  stream  of  Hamitic  migration 
may  be  said  to  have  reached  its  terminus 
with    the    Atlantic,    or    at  TheHamites 
least  with  the  islands  west  7^"*"^''?^'    . . 

land,  but  avoid 

of  ^Morocco.  It  is  believed  the  sea. 
that  the  original  tribes  inhabiting  the 
Canary  islands  were  the  westernmost  dis- 
persion of  the  human  race,  so  far  as  the 
Hamitic  migration  from  the  east  was 
concerned.     As  a  rule,  the  Hamites  no- 


460 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


where  took  to  the  sea.  They  were  a 
land  people,  and  while  preferring  the 
coast  regions  of  the  ancient  world,  they 
avoided  the  open  ocean  and  formed  very 
few  insular  settlements.  They  had  far 
less  dread  of  the  perils  of  the  desert  than 
of  those  peculiar  to  the  deep.  An  exam- 
ination of  the  movement  of  the  race  west- 
ward through  Northern  Africa  will  show 
a  much  greater  number  of  tribal  de- 
partures toward  the  south  than  toward 
the  north.  The  inviting  character  of  the 
Mediterranean  islands  seems  to  have 
appealed  less  strongly  to  the  people  of 
this  descent  than  did  even  the  desert 
wastes  of  Sahara. 

It  is  possible  that  the  Hamitic  move- 
ment, considered  as  a  whole,  Avas  some- 
what determined  by  latitude  and   tem- 
perature.  The  race  appears 

Hamitic  prefer- 
ences for  the        to   have   had   a   preference 
equatorial  trend,   r        ,i  ,-,  i-         . 

for  the  southern  climates. 
If  we  consider  the  central  line  of  migra- 
tion from  the  original  seat  of  the  race 
to  its  extreme  Avestern  limit  in  the 
Canaries,  we  shall  find  only  one  or  two 
considerable  developments  toward  the 
north.  The  whole  expansion  of  the 
Hamites  was  in  the  direction  of  the 
equatorial  regions.  If  we  allow  the 
Pelasgians  and  the  Etiniscans  to  have 
been  of  this  descent,  we  shall  find  this 
single  stream  to  have  attained  a  north- 
ern limit  of  a  little  more  than  forty-five 
degrees,  in  the  valley  of  the  Po.  Other- 
wise, the  northernmost  deflections  were 
scarcely  above  thirty-five  degrees  north. 
The  main  line  of  westward  population 
was  about  the  parallel  of  thirty  degrees, 
and  from  this  line  nearly  all  the  depar- 
tures, both  in  Asia  and  Africa,  were  to 
the  south  and  southwest.  From  the 
main  course,  the  various  tribal  migra- 
tions into  the  regions  of  the  equator  and 
their  ramifications  filled  a  considerable 
portion  of   the  old  countries  from   the 


Persian  gulf  to  the  Atlantic  south  of  the 
thirtieth  parallel  and  north  of  the  equa- 
tor. None  of  the  Hamites  crossed  the 
equatorial  line  southward  in  their  origi- 
nal dispersion,  the  nearest  approach 
thereto  being  made  by  the  Galla  tribes 
of  Eastern  Africa. 

Among  these  various  lines  of  southern 
deflection,  the  two  principal  were,  first, 
the  great  Cushite  departure  The  Berber 
into  Southeastern  Arabia  ToT^T^,.^ 
and  Eastern  Africa;  and  movements. 
secondly,  the  West  African  division, 
which  left  the  parent  stem  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Lib3-an  desert,  in  the  modern 
state  of  Algeria.  From  this  point  the 
secondary  current  turned  to  the  south- 
west into  the  Moorish  states  and  again 
divided  in  the  Sahara,  one  stream  con- 
tinuing the  original  course  and  the 
other  bending  back  toward  the  east, 
forming  a  loop  Avhose  southern  line 
reached  nearly  to  the  parallel  of  twenty 
degrees  north.  It  w'as  thus  that  the 
aboriginal  population  of  the  Moorish 
and  Berber  states  was  supplied.  Here 
sprang  the  desert  people  of  the  African 
waste,  and  from  this  source  have  been 
derived  at  least  a  majority  of  all  the 
Berber,  Tuareg,  and  Imoshag  nations. 

In  following  the  course  of  the  Ham- 
itic progress  toward  the  Atlantic,  the 
ethnopfrapher  meets  some 

°      -"^  .  Kthnic  place  of 

peculiar  difficulties.      The  the  carthagin- 

.1      .         1         ■  £1      i^-  c   i.^        ians  considered. 

ethnic  classification  of  the 
Carthaginians  has  been  the  source  of 
much  perplexity ;  and  there  are  even  yet 
unsolved  elements  in  the  problem.  By 
language  and  many  of  their  institutions 
the  ancient  Carthaginians  seem  to  have 
been  closely  allied  with  the  Semitic 
races  of  the  Orient.  Tradition  has  dis- 
tinctly and  emphatically  assigned  to 
them  a  Phoenician  origin.  Many  ripe 
scholars  have  not  hesitated  to  classify 
them  as  Semitic. 


DISTRTBrTIOy  OF   THE   RACES.— HAMITIC  MIGRATIONS. 


461 


In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  institutions  and  languages 
Institutional        of  the    Hamitic  race  were 

and  linguistic 

intimacy  of  by  no  iTieans  clearly  sepa- 

Semites  and  i     i      j-  ^i  /•    ji 

Hamites.  rated    from    those    of  the 

Semites.  Linguistically  and  institution- 
ally, as  well  as  ethnically,  these  two 
branches  of  the  human  family  appear  to 
have  hung  together  until  the  forms  and 
characteristics  of  each  had  to  a  consider- 
able degree  become  fixed  by  develop- 
ment. The  selvages,  so  to  speak,  of 
the  various  Hamitic  and  Semitic  migra- 
tions lay  together  and  overlapped  each 
other  in  a  measure  that  could  not  be  ex- 
pected in  the  case  of  the  Aryan  nations. 
For  these  reasons,  identities  and  analo- 
gies of  language  and  of  institutional 
forms  of  both  public  and  private  life  are 
abundant  between  the  earliest  Hamitic 
and  Semitic  nations.  The  Phoenicians 
were  doubtless  in  the  first  place  Hamitic 
in  their  origin.  With  the  Semitic  con- 
quest of  Canaan,  that  race  became  domi- 
nant to  the  sea.  To  what  extent  they 
were  modified  in  their  Phoenician  de- 
velopment by  Hamitic  Canaanites  it  were 
impossible  to  tell,  but  doubtless  the 
more  recent  Phoenician  character  was  in 
its  ethnic  origin  the  product  of  both 
elements-. 

Moreover,  in  this  region,  the  common 
forms  of  the  two  races  were  especially 
Semitic  influ-  abundant.  So  if  we  con- 
sider the  Phoenicians  in  the 
act  of  colonization  in  the 
west,  as  at  Carthage,  we  shall  find  them 
planting  on  that  shore  a  mixed  race  in 
which  the  oldest  blood  was  Hamitic,  and 
the  more  recent  vSemitic,  in  its  deriva- 
tion. Again,  the  later  commercial 
relations  of  the  Phoenicians  brought 
many  of  their  merchants  and  not  a  few 
Eastern  institutions  into  the  mart  of 
Carthage.  If,  then,  we  look  at  the  Car- 
thaginian state,  particularly  at  the  city, 


ence  prevails 
over  the  Hamit- 
ic at  Carthage. 


in  the  time  of  its  ascendency,  we  shall 
find  a  people  marked  in  all  of  their  civic 
and  private  life  with  the  unmistakable 
traces  of   Shem.     But   it   need   not   be 


HAMITIC  TYPE  OF  THE   UPPER    NIGER — BAMBARRA. 
Drawn  by  Rioii,  after  a  sketch  of  Valliere. 

forgotten,  at  the  same  time,  that  the 
westward  progress  of  the  Hamites  along 
this  coast  must,  almost  of  necessity, 
have  furnished  the  aboriginal  element 
and  germs   of   all  the   states  primarily 


462 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


created  between  Egyj^t  and  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules. 

Continuing  the  course  of  Hamitic 
migration  in  the  west  of  Africa,  we  find 
the  main  line  of  progress  passing  to  the 
south  from  the  Moorish  states  across  the 
Extreme  limits  twentieth  parallel  and  into 
of  Hamitic  dis-     ^-^  habitable   coun- 

tnbution  in  the 

west.  tries  of  the  Upper  Niger. 

Here  there  was  another  bifurcation,  the 
western  branch  reaching  out  to  the  coast 
and  furnishing  the  original  elements  of 
the  Fulah  tribes '  of  Western  Guinea. 
This  was  the  second  extreme  limit  in 
westward  extent  of  the  Hamitic  migra- 
tions, being  almost  as  far  in  that  direc- 
tion as  the  Canary  islands.  The  other 
branch  of  the  race  appears  to  have  turned 
eastward  in  the  lake  region  of  the 
Upper  Niger,  and  to  have  thence  de- 
scended the  valley  of  that  river  into  the 
Sudan  and  as  far  east  as  the  country 
drained  by  the  streams  which  flow  into 
lake  Chad.  It  is  likely  that  the  Baghirmi 
nations,  lying  southeast  of  the  lake  just 
named,  mark  the  remotest  point  to 
which  the  original  impulse  carried  the 
race  of  Ham  into  Central  Africa. 

The  whole  course  of  the  migration, 

considered  from  the  standpoint  of  Lower 

Egj'pt,    resembles   a   fishhook   bending 

southward  around  the  largf- 

Nature  of  the  *^ 

dispersion  in  cr  part  of  the  dcsert  region 
African  interior.        <•     ^i  \  r  •  ,  ■ 

or    the    Airican    continent 

and  presenting  an  interior  and  an  ex- 
terior line,  the  latter  of  which  reaches 
back  toward  the  country  of  the  original 
exodus,  about  one  half  way  from  the 
western  coast  of  the  continent  to  the 
Red  sea.  The  final  distribution  of  tribes, 
by  means  of  this  great  migration  in  the 
prehistoric  ages,  was  in  a  region  of  Africa 
into  which  the  Black  races,  coming  from 
the  east,  had  already  been  poured,  and 
with  which  the  Hamitic  peoples  have  in 
all  subsequent  ages  been  intermingled, 


until  it  were  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
in  modern  times  to  discriminate  the 
diverse  race  elements  in  the  peoples 
of  this  region. 

This,  then,  concludes  the  summary  of 
Hamitic  migrations  in  Southwestern 
Arabia  and  Northern  Africa.  No  doubt 
all  such  movements  are  Ethnic  move- 
more  clearly  drawn,_  more  ^xTcTandrog- 
definitely  indicated,  in  dis-  'cai. 
cussions  of  the  kind  here  presented  than 
they  were  in  fact.  In  the  physical 
world  nature  abhors  a  line,  and  the 
same  may  be  affirmed  with  emphasis  of 
the  movements  and  phenomena  of  the 
world  of  life.  Of  a  certainty,  tribes 
migrate  from  place  to  place.  The}'  flow 
here  and  there  into  favorable  localities, 
and  there  possibly  develop  into  nations. 
But  the  movement  is  not  so  exact  find  log- 
ical as  it  appears  to  be  when  viewed 
through  the  medium  of  description. 
There  is,  on  the  contrary,  much  that  is 
desultory  and  irregular  in  the  course  of 
migration  from  one  country  to  another. 
Much  allowance  must  be  made  for  de- 
lays and  deflections,  and  still  more  for 
the  intermingling  of  one  tribe  with  an- 
other on  the  way.  The  incoming  peo- 
ple frequently  disperse  themselves 
among  the  original  inhabitants,  and  are 
mixed  with  them  in  the  race  develop- 
ment of  the  future. 

In  some  cases  the  migration  is  more 
exact  and  definite,  and  in  such  instances 
the  facts  correspond  more  General  sum- 
nearly  to  the  concept  of  the  ^Z^:^^,. 
movement   as   it  is  trans-  tions. 
mitted  by  description.     In   the  case  of 
the  Hamitic  dispersion   over  the   coun- 
tries to  which  we  have  referred  in   the 
current  chapter,   it  must  be   constantly 
remembered  that  these  people  were  not 
so  different  typically  from  their  Semitic 
kinsmen   as  the    latter  were  from   the 
Indo-European  races.     From  this  source 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE  RACES.— SEMITIC  MIGRATIONS. 


463 


also  much  confiision  has  necessarily 
arisen  in  the  attempted  classification  of 
these  people  by  their  ethnic  affinities. 
But  it  is  believed  that,  on  the  Avhole,  the 
Hamitic  race  took  in  prehistoric  times 
the  general  lines  of  distribution  which 
are  here  indicated ;  that  it  was  distribu-, 
ted  first  into  Southeastern  and  Southern 
Arabia,  then  into  the  western  portions 
of  the  same  peninsula,  and  then  into 
Canaan.  From  this  position  the  lines 
of  migration  part  around  the  ilediter- 
ranean  north  and  south,  the  lower  de- 
parture being  into  Egypt,  and  after- 
wards into  Northern  Africa.  In  the 
course  of  ages  the  movement  continued 
to  the  west,  along  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  to  the  Atlantic,  and 


was  thence  deflected  to  the  south  into 
the  equatorial  regions,  and  finally  turned 
back  into  the  desert  wastes  covering  the 
central  and  north-central  parts  of  the 
continent. 

It  is  not  intended  in  this  connec- 
tion to  trace  further  the  historical  de- 
velopment of  the  various  peoples  who 
sprang  up  on  the  line  of  these  migra- 
tions. That  part  of  the  work  will  be  at- 
tempted in  another  book.  For  the 
present,  we  turn  from  this  cursory  out- 
line of  the  Hamitic  distribution  of  man- 
kind to  consider  another  of  the  great 
primitive  races  in  its  similar  dispersion, 
first  through  a  great  part  of  the  Orient, 
and  afterwards  into  different  parts  of  the 
Western  continents. 


Chapter  XXVI.— aiigrations  ok  the  Semites. 


OUGHLY  considered, 
the  great  monarchies 
in  the  valleys  of  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Ti- 
gris were  planted  and 
developed  by  people 
of  the  Semitic  race. 
It  was  in  Mesopotamia  that  the  first 
striking  evolution  of  this  branch  of  man- 
kind was  manifested.  This  is  said  of 
civil  and  political  expansion,  and  of  the 
establishment  of  social  and  linguistic 
forms.  It  is  here  that  ancient  histor}- 
Mesopotamia  finds  its  first  great  buttress 
against  the  unknown.  If 
we  look  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  valley,  below  the  Armenian 
mountains  on  the  north  and  the  range  of 
the  Zagros  on  the  east,  we  find  a  region 
in  which  Semitic  elements  followed  their 
natural  course  of  evolution  and  were  un- 
adulterated by  foreign  nations.  In  the 
south  of  Mesopotamia,  as  we  have  seen. 


essentially  a 
land  of  the 
Semites. 


there  was  a  mixture  with  the  Hamitic 
stock.  But  in  the  later  Babylonian  as- 
pect of  these  nations  the  influence  of  the 
Hamites  had  waned  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  leave  the  Semitic  races  dominant 
throughout  the  whole  region  drained  by 
the  great  rivers. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  fact  of 
the  prevalence  of  this  division  of  the 
race  in  the  Tigrine  and  Euphratine  val- 
leys. It  remains  in  the  present  chapter 
to  take  up  the  course  of  Semitic  life  and 

follow    it    on    its   migration    central  position 

into  western  lands.  For  a  ^"^^^Td  =  ^^^ 
long  time  after  their  de-  movement, 
parture  from  the  Mesopotamian  regions 
the  different  branches  of  the  traditional 
Noachite  descent  Avere  held  well  together 
by  the  geographical  environment.  On 
the  whole,  the  Semitic  stock  was  cen- 
tral in  its  movement  to  the  west.  The 
Syrian  desert  was  entered  from  about 
the  middle  of  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates, 


464 


GREAT  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


and  was  traversed  by  the  migrating  fam- 
ily directly  into  Canaan. 

It   is   here,  moreover,   that   the   eth- 
nographer, in  his  attempted  delineation 

of  the  prehistoric  move- 
Tradition  of  the  -^  .... 
outgoing  of  the  mcnts  of  mankind,  IS  rem- 
Abrahamites.  forced  by  tradition.  One  of 
the  oldest  and  most  authentic  of  these  is 
the  story  of  the  migration  of  Abraham 


el-Hie.  The  place  is  called  Mugheir, 
meaning  "  supplied  with  bitumen."  The 
outline  of  a  most  ancient 

.  .  .  Place  and  char- 

temple   is  still  discoverable    acterofUrof 
.I  1  1    ii  1  the  Chaldees. 

m  the  place ;  and  the  plan 
of  the  foundations,  and  indeed  of  the 
whole  structure,  has  been  made  out  by 
Rawlinson  and  other  Oriental  scholars. 
It  was  from  this  vicinity  that  the  Abra- 


RUINS  AND  PLAIN  OF  MUGHEIR.— Drawn  by  W.  H.  Boot. 


from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  into  Canaan. 
This,  viewed  from  the  Semitic  stand- 
point, is  one  of  the  most  famous  move- 
ments of  the  early  world.  The  tradition 
of  it  exists  among  all  the  cognate  races 
of  the  Hebrews,  and  with  themselves  it 
is  the  virtual  founding  of  their  race. 

The  position  of  Ur  in  Mesopotamia  is 
well  known.  It  is  identical,  in  site  at 
least,  with  the  extensive  ruins  about  six 
miles  to  the  west  of  the  Euphrates  and 
nearly  opposite  its  junction  with  the  Shat- 


hamic  tribe  took  its  way,  first  ascending 
the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  for  a  consid- 
erable distance,  and  thence  traversing 
the  country  into  Canaan. 

All,  or  nearly  all,  the  names  that  have 
been  preserved  to  us  of  this  period  are 
significant  of  tribal  move-  special  signifi- 
ments.     Eber,  the  ancestor  ~,r/p\tr„. 
from   whom   the   name  of  "ymics. 
Hebrew   is   taken,    means     "from    be- 
yond," that    is,    he    was    an    emigrant 
from  beyond  the  Euphrates,  perhaps  the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— SEMITIC  MIGRATIOXS. 


465 


Tigris.  The  name  of  his  elder  son,  Pe- 
leg,  signifies  "division,"  "because  in 
his  time  the  earth  was  divided."  The 
name  of  Salah,  the  father  of  Eber,  sig- 
nifies "departure,"  and  evidently  refers 
to  a  title  which  that  patriarch  received 
in  departing,  or  setting  out,  with  his 
tribe  for  a  new  home.  Everything  per- 
tains to  migration.  If  the  meaning  of 
the  name  Arphaxad  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained, the  position  of  his  tribe  at  least  is 
known.  Arphaxad  is  a  mountain  district 
of    Southern    Armenia,    between  lakes 


finally  of  his  really  serious  battle  with 
Chedorlaomer,  or  according  to  the  As- 
syrian spelling,  Kudur-Lagamer,  is  suffi- 
ciently striking  and  impressive.  Kudur- 
Lagamer  was  king  of  Elam,  or  rather 
the  Elamite  king  of  Chaldsea,  and  had 
followed  the  Abrahamic  tribe  out  of  the 
East,  with  the  hope  of  falling  upon  it  and 
gathering  great  spoil.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  this  Elamite  dynasty  in  Chal- 
dsea  was  of  Hamitic  origin ;  and  the  de- 
parting Abraham  was  thus  the  object  of 
race  antipathy,  as  well  as  the  possessor  of 


LAKD  OF  THE  ARPHAXAD.— View  op  Kopans  Kale.— Drawn  by  T.  Deyrolle,  from  nature. 


Van  and  Urumiah ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  primitive  clan  of  this  ancient 
Semite  had  its  original  locus  at  this  place. 
Nahor,  the  son  of  Serug,  means  "the 
river,"  that  is,  the  Euphrates — and  so  of 
scores  of  other  proper  names  referring 
to  Mesopotamian  localities  or  to  family 
or  tribal  movements  in  that  region. 

The  pastoral  picture  which  is  drawn 
Contact  of  the  in  Gcnesis  of  Abraham  on 
his  way  to  the  Promised 
Land,  and  of  the  troubles 
which  beset  him  on  his  journey,  of  his 
contention   with  his  kinsman   Lot,  and 


Abrahamites 
with  the  races 
of  Canaan. 


flocks  and  herds.  According  to  the  He- 
brew account  of  this  migration,  which 
was  the  origin  of  Israelitish  greatness  in 
Palestine,  there  Avas  a  division  of  the 
family  which  appears  to  have  been  on 
the  borders  of  Canaan,  about  the  time 
of  the  invasion.  Ishmael,  the  oldest 
son  of  the  patriarch,  had  married  an 
Eg}-ptian  bondwoman  and  had  become 
the  head  of  a  tribe.  The  troubles 
arising  out  of  this  heathen  alliance 
led  to  a  separation  of  the  families,  and 
Ishmael  was  carried  off  into  the  south, 
into  Arabia. 


466 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Several  generations  before  this  time, 
however,  another  branch  of  the  Eberites 
Outgoing  and  had  already  made  a  de- 
piantings  of        parture  into  Arabia.     This 

Joktan  in  ^ 

Arabia.  movement   was    made    by 

laktan,  or  Joktan,  his  elder  brother 
being  that  Peleg  who  was  the  ancestor 
of  the  Abrahamites.  Joktan  was  thus 
five  generations  before  the  patriarch  of 
Israel.  A  large  list  of  twelve  sons  and 
a  daughter  are  assigned  to  Joktan  as  the 
heads  of  the  tribes  which  he  led  off  into 
Northern  and  Western  Arabia. 

The  movement  was  at  a  very  early 
date.  Joktan  w^as  the  great  grandson  of 
Arphaxad,  and  the  latter,  as  is  Avell 
known,  belonged  to  the  extreme  north 
■of  ^Mesopotamia,  in  the  mountainous  re- 
gion of  Armenia.  So  the  Joktanites 
must  have  been  strongly  in  the  migra- 
tory spirit.  Eber,  the  father,  had  come 
"from  beyond."  Salah,  the  grandfather, 
was  the  "departer."  It  is  thus  evident 
that  the  whole  race  of  Arphaxad  was  in 
process  of  removal  and  migration. 

Ethnographers,  ancient  and  modern, 

have  made  out  and  identified  several  of 

the  tribes  having  their  or- 

Modern  traces        ....  . 

of  the  ancient       igiu  in   the  Joktanian  de- 

Joktanians.  .,        ,  t~>^    i 

scendants.  rtolemy  men- 
tions the  Almodoeci  dwelling  in  the  cen- 
tral portions  of  Arabia  Felix,  and  it  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  the  name  is  de- 
rived from  Almodad,  the  oldest  son  or 
tribe  of  Joktan.  Another  people  called 
the  Salapcni  by  the  same  geographer, 
are  thought  to  have  been  derived  from 
Sheleph,  the  second  son  of  the  same 
patriarch.  This  branch  of  the  race  was 
set  down  by  Ptolemy  as  having  its  abode 
near  the  modern  Mecca.  A  third  divi- 
sion called  the  Cathramitse  Avere  pre.sum- 
ably  the  descendants  of  the  third  son  of 
Joktan,  named  Hazarmaveth.  It  is  like- 
ly that  the  modern  provincial  name  of 
Hadramaut  preserves  the  reminiscence 


of  the  original  Semitic  tribe  by  whom 
this  region  was  peopled.  There  is  also 
a  modern  tribe  called  Yarab,  having  its 
territories  on  the  Arabian -gulf  border 
and  thought  to  have  been  descended 
from  Jerah,  the  fourth  division  of  the 
Joktanian  progeny. 

The  Semitic  inhabitants  of  Yemen  are 
believed  to  have  descended  from  Uzal, 
sixth  son  of  Joktan.  The  The  joktanidse 
Himyaritic  tribe,  called  the  ^^^eVn^e's 
Dulkhelitas,  are  believed  and  races, 
to  be  the  descendants  of  Diklah,  the  sev- 
enth branch  of  the  original  family.  The 
tribe  called  Mali  by  Theophrastus,  the 
Malichae  of  Ptolemy,  stand  for  the  de- 
scendants of  Abimael,  the  ninth  Joktan- 
ian. The  name  of  the  modern  town 
Malai,  in  the  vicinity  of  jMedina,  pre- 
serves the  same  word.  The  tenth  issue 
of  Joktan  was  that  Sheba,  wdiich  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Hebrew  writings  and  still 
more  frequently  among  the  local  names 
of  Southwestern  Arabia.  The  eleventh 
Joktanian  branch  was  called  Ophir,  and 
preserves  another  name  famous  in  the 
Hebrew  writings  of  the  time  of  the  king- 
dom of  David  and  Solomon.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  Havilah,  a  name  common 
to  one  of  the  descendants  of  Ham,  is 
represented  by  the  modern  Semitic  peo- 
ple at  Chaulan,  in  Arabia  Felix.  The 
tribe  of  the  lobaritas,  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy,  have  their  ancestral  represent- 
ative in  lobab,  or  Jobab,  the  thirteenth 
member  of  the  Joktanian  tribe. 

We  thus  see,  w-ith  more  than  usual 
certainty,  considering  the  extreme  re- 
moteness of  the  time,  the  ,  , 

Relations  of  the 
outlines     of    a    distribution    Joktamans  and 

of  Eberites  into  Northern 
and  Western  Arabia.  If  we  accept  the- 
extreme  longevity  assigned  by  the  sacred 
writings  to  the  patriarchs  of  this  era,  we 
shall  find  that  the  six  generations  be- 
tween Joktan  and  Ishmael  would  cover  a 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.—SEMITIC  MIGRATIONS. 


467 


period  of  thousands  of  years.  However 
this  may  be,  it  can  not  be  doubted 
that  the  Joktanians  departed  from  the 
parent  stem  at  a  date  much  more  re- 
mote than  the  more  recent  Abraham- 
ites,  and  that  when  Ishmael,  with 
the  descendants  of  the  Egyptian  bond- 
woman, turned  off  into  the  "wilder- 
ness," he  found  already  in  Arabia 
Felix  the  half-nomadic  and  half-set- 
tled descendants  of  the  older  branch  of 
the  Eberite  race.  It  will  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  the  progeny  of  Jok- 
tan,  the  younger  brother  of  Peleg,  would 
be  displaced  in  rights  and  prerogatives 
by  the  descendants  of  the  senior  branch 
of  the  family ;  so  that  the  Ishmaelites 
would  have  precedence  in  these  regions 
as  the  representatives  of  the  common 
father  Arphaxad.  The  accompanying 
diagram  will  illustrate  the  tribal  rela- 
tionships of  the  descendants  of  the  Joktan 
and  the  Ishmaelites : 


Ishmaelitic  migration  was  from  the  bor- 
ders of  Syria  to  the  .southwest  and  thence 
to  the  south,  until  the  coast  of  the  Red 
sea  was  reached,  and  skirted  southward 
to  the  extreme  limit  of  that  body  of 
water.  If,  as  some  ethnographers  main- 
tain, the  Semitic  race  crossed  at  Bab-el- 
Mandeb  into  Africa,  it  was  an  Ishmael- 
ite  removal,  and  whatever  elements  there 
may  be  of  Semitic  descent  among  the 
Galla  races  of  Eastern  Africa,  the  same 
must  be  traced  to  Ishmael  rather  than 
to  the  Joktanian  branch  of  the  original 
Semitic  family. 

In  the  course  of  their  progress  through 
the  peninsula,  the  Ishmaelites  appear  to 
have  divided  east  and  west  The  western 
about    the   eastern  border  ^^ilshagu 
of    Hejaz,     and    to    have  Africa, 
thrown  off  one  branch   toward  the  cen- 
tral desert  and  another  across  the  Red 
sea  into  Africa.     This  latter  movement 
of  the  race  must  not  be  confounded  with 


Aram 
I 


Hul 


Elam 


Gether 


Asshur 


Mash 


Arphaxad 
Salah 

Eber 


Lud 


Joktan 
I 


Peleg 

Reu  

Serug    Almodad    Sheleph    Hazarmaveth      Jcrah    Hadoram   Uzal  Diklah    Obal      Abimael     Sheba     Ophir 

Nahor 

Terah 

I  


Havilab  Jobab 


5—Abraham=Hagar 
Isaac  Ishmael 


Nahor 


Ha  ran 

I 

Lot 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  TRIBAL  RELATIONSHIPS  OF  JOKTAN  AND  ISHMAEL. 


The    career    of    the    Ishmaelites    in 

Arabia   was   one  of  aggression.     They 

encroached,    especially    in 

Spread  of  the  ^  ■' 

Ishmaehtes  the    northern    part    of   the 

through  Arabia.  .  ,  ^111 

peninsula,  upon  the  older 
Joktanians  and  also  upon  the  original 
Hamitie  Arabians,  who  were  anterior  to 
both  branches  of  the  Semitic  immigrants. 
In   general    terms,    the    course   of    the 


the  supposed  one  at  the  southwest  angle 
of  the  peninsula.  The  real  Semitic  line 
was  carried  into  the  continent  about  the 
parallel  of  twenty-four  degrees  north, 
across  Middle  Egypt,  and  almost  directly 
west  into  the  Great  Desert.  The  migra- 
tion of  the  Ishmaelites  in  this  direction 
appears  to  have  extended  as  far  as  the 
Imoshag    races,    to    the    southwest    of 


468 


GREAT  RACES   OF  3TANKIND. 


Fezzan  ;  and  this  point  may  be  regarded 
as  the  extreme  landward  progress  of  the 
Semitic  race  south  of  the  I\Iediterra- 
nean. 

In  general,  the  modern  Arabs  are 
regarded  as  the  lineal  descendants  of  the 
Ishmaelitic  branch  of  the  Semitic  family. 
In  the  main,  this  opinion  is  verified  by 


extent  the  Joktanian  influence  of  latei 
ages.  Finally,  in  the  north  and  west  of 
Arabia,  the  immigrant  Ishmaelites  over- 
came and  subordinated  all  the  peoples 
that  had  previously  occupied  the  country. 
The  antipath}''  between  Shem  and  Ham, 
however,  was  never  great — except  in 
matters   of   religious   dogma  and  cere- 


ARAFAT  DUklNT,  A  riLc.iUMAGE  (LAXD  OF  OPHIR).— Drawn  by  D.  Lancelot,  frnm  a  i.hntn^r.n.li. 


character  of  the 
modern  Ara- 
bians. 


the  facts  in  possession  of  the  ethnogra- 
pher and  historian.  But  the  Arab  char- 
Composite  race  acter  is,  to  a  Considerable 
extent,  composite.  Several 
ethnic  elements  have  con- 
tributed to  its  formation.  The  Ham- 
itic  race,  especially  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula,  underlay  the  national 
development  of  subsequent  times.  With 
this  oldest  stock  was  blended   to  some 


monial.  For  this  reason  the  original  in- 
habitants, already  a  composite  people  in 
Arabia  Felix,  may  be  supposed  to  have 
contributed  not  a  little  to  the  ultimate 
formation  of  that  type  known  in  modern 
times  as  Arabian.  But  the  dominant 
stock,  at  least  in  the  important  regions 
bordering  the  Red  sea  from  Suez  to 
Yemen,  was  Ishmaelitic  in  its  origin  and 
development. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— SEMITIC  MIGRATIONS. 


469 


We  have  thus  considered  the  south- 
ernmost   migratory   movements    of   the 

Vicissitudes  of    Semitic   race.     The  Abra- 
theAbrahamites  j^      -^^    ^^.-^^g   entered    and 

m  possessing 

Canaan.  posscsscd    Canaan.      This 

movement  of  the  principal  stock,  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  of 
Eber,  is  better  understood 
in  its  character  and  re- 
sults than  any  other  sin- 
gle migration  at  a  time 
equally  remote  from  the 
present.  The  story  is 
elaborately  expanded  in 
the  Book  of  Genesis.  All 
the  principal  episodes  in 
the  career  of  the  Abra- 
hamic  tribe  are  narrated, 
even  to  details.  The  pa- 
triarch became  the  pro- 
genitor of  a  famous  race 
which  he  planted  in  Ca- 
naan. The  extent  and 
variety  of  his  tribe  are 
indicated  by  the  conduct 
toward  him  of  Melchize- 
dek,  King  of  Salem,  and 
by  many  other  incidents 
and  events.  A  great  de- 
velopment of  the  immi- 
grant race  took  place  in 
the  time  of  Israel,  grand- 
son of  Abraham,  whose 
twelve  sons  became  the 
progenitors  of  the  twelve 
tribes  and  the  origin  of 
the  twelve  geographical 
divisions  of  the  rising 
race.  It  is  not  needed  to  recount  the  epi- 
sode of  the  sojourn  in  Egj'pt  and  of  the 
rapid  multiplication  of  the  foreigners 
about  Pelusium.  The  return  out  of 
bondage  and  the  repossession  of  Canaan 
by  conquest  furnished  the  material  for 
the  heroic  aspect  and  story  of  the  Israel- 
itish    nation,    which    became    dominant 


from  the  borders  of  the  Syrian  desert  to 
the  Mediterranean. 

It  is  worthy  to  be  noted  in  this  connec- 
tion that  the  Hebrews  were  never  a  seafar- 
ing people.  It  was  against  the  economy 
of  the  state,  and  regarded  perhaps  as  in- 


"^  ■*■ . 


LIFE  OF  THE   ABRAHAMITES — SHEPHERD   WITH    LAMBS. 
Drawn  by  Paul  Hardy. 


jurious  to  the  theocratic  principle  upon 
which  the  government  was  founded,  to 

make     commercial      excur-    Noncommercial 

sionsand  contract  relations  pSi'v^He^* 
with    foreign    powers.     A  brews, 
student   of  history  will  not  forget  that 
the  narrow  strip  of  coast  called  Phoeni- 
cia, with  its  great  seaports,  lay  between 


470 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JLLYA'/XD. 


bre'w  influence 
on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 


Israel  and  the  Western  ocean.  This 
fact  has  an  ethnic  signification  also ;  for 
the  Tyrians  and  Sidonians  and  other  old 
stocks  of  mankind,  hanging  in  their 
rookeries  along  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Mediterranean,  represented  races  long 
anterior  in  their  western  distribution 
and  development  to  the  immigration  and 
conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Eberites. 

In  course  of  time  the  Semitic  stock 
became  dominant  to  the  sea.  But  the 
spirit  of  navigation  which  prevailed  in 
Extent  of  He-  the  ports  of  Tvre  and  Sidon 
must  be  attributed  to  a 
race  impulse  other  than 
that  of  the  Hebrews.  To  the  extent 
that  the  Phoenicians  had  accepted  the  in- 
stitutions and  blood  of  the  invaders  who 
conquered  Canaan,  we  may  regard  the 
outgoing  fleets  from  these  shores  as  car- 
rying Semitic  influences  through  the 
Mediterranean.  But  it  is  doubtful  if 
these  fleets  of  outbound  merchants  car- 
ried to  the  western  parts  anything  dis- 
tiiiciivcly  Hebrew.  All  the  traces  of  the 
Semitic  race  which  have  been  found  in 
the  Mediterranean  islands,  on  the  shores 
of  Spain,  and  beyond  the  straits  of  Gib- 
raltar, in  Wales,  and  in  the  littoral 
islands  of  Western  Africa,  must  be  at- 
tributed to  that  community  of  language 
and  institutions  which  the  Phoenicians, 
particularly  the  Sidonians,  possessed  in 
common  with  the  race  of  Abraham. 

Time  and  again  we  have  shown  that  the 
Hamites  had  common  forms  of  laneuaee 
The  Azores         and  a  common  institutional 

mark  the  Atlan- 
tic limit  of  He-  development  with  the  cog- 
brew  depar-  .  ,.  r^, 
ture.  nate  nations  of  Shem,  and 

the  original  Canaanites  could  thus  carry 

into  western  waters  evidences  of  a  race 

affinity  with  the  dominant  Semitic  .stock. 

However   this   may  be,    ethnographers 

have  agreed  in  extending  the   Semitic 

line  of  dispersion  through  the  Phoenician 

coast  and  around  the  northern  shores  of 


Africa  by  water.  As  just  indicated, 
this  line  extends  beyond  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules,  and  is  deflected  northward  to 
Britain  and  southward  to  the  twentieth 
degree  of  latitude.  The  western  limit 
of  this  maritime  migration  is  thought  to 
have  been  in  the  Azores ;  and  this  group 
of  islands  may  be  said  to  mark  the  ex- 
treme Atlantic  progress  in  the  natural 
dispersion  of  the  Semitic  famih-. 

It  must  be  noted  in  connection  with 
the  foregoing  schemes  of  dispersion  that 
most  of  the  names  employed  appear  as 
the  names  of  individuals —  use  and  signif- 
as  the  sons  of  a  household.  ^^TtHbfr 
This  fact  gives  to  the  dis-  names, 
cussion  a  ?>\x\QWy  family  aspect  which  is  too 
exact  and  too  narrow  for  the  facts  which  it 
represents.  Many  of  the  names  in  the 
above  classifications  are  known  to  be  the 
names  of  tribes  and  of  whole  divisions, 
or  even  of  whole  peoples.  It  is  impos- 
sible from  a  study  of  primitive  Semitic 
records  to  make  out  precisely  which  of 
the  ancestral  names  employed  in  geneo- 
logical  tables  are  intended  to  represent 
single  ancestors,  and  which  are  designed 
to  specify  households,  tribes,  andpeojjles. 
It  is  the  custom  in  the  Semitic  languages 
to  prefix  to  many  personal  names,  espe- 
cially such  as  have  a  descriptive  significa- 
tion, the  definite  article,  thereby  giving 
to  the  word  an  ethnic  turn  of  sense  dif- 
ferent from  what  would  be  expressed  in 
the  Aryan  languages.  Such  names, 
moreover,  are  frequently  in  tlic  plural ; 
and  the  Hebrew  vScriptures,  taken  as  an 
example  of  all  such  records,  have,  in 
many  instances,  intermixed  these  tribal 
or  ethnic  epithets  with  individual  names 
until  even  the  closest  criticism  is  put  at 
fault  in  determining  precisely  what  is 
meant.  On  the  whole,  it  is  safe  to 
make  considerable  allowance  for  this 
circumstance  in  estimating  the  value  of 
the  names,  apparently  individual,  given 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— SEMITIC  MIGRATIONS. 


471 


to  the  ancestors  of  the  Semitic  and  Ham- 
itic  races.  This  fact  must  always  be 
taken  into  account  in  attempting  to  esti- 
mate the  time  and  the  extent  of  a  given 
migratory  movement. 

If  we  look  to  the  north  of  the  central 
line  of  the   Semitic  dispersion  into  Ca- 


and  it  has  already  been  suggested  that 
in  Cyprus  itself  the  aboriginal  develop, 
ment  was  of  Hamitic  origin.  The  primi- 
tive history  of  the  island  is  exceedingly 
obscure,  but  all  that  is  known  with 
reference  thereto  points  to  an  early 
colonization  by  the  Phoenicians  from  the 


'  LAND  OF  THE  SCORCHED  FACES." 


-Abu  Senoum,  on  Frontier  of  Kordofan,  toward  Darfur. — Drawn  by  Karl 
Oirardet,  after  a  sketch  of  Lejean. 


naan  and  the  west,  we  shall  find  only  a 
single  significant  departure.  This  leaves 
The  Hebrew  the  main  stem  on  the  north 
^rttnr-^^  in  the  Syrian  desert,  and 
itio  in  Cyprus,  bears  off  in  the  direction  of 
the  northeastern  extremity  of  the  ]\Iedi- 
terranean,  where  it  touches  the  coast, 
and  is  thence  carried  over  to  the  island 
of  Cypriis.  It  is  hardly  to  be  doubted 
that  along  the  line  of  this  migration 
other  peoples  had  preceded  the  Semites, 


neighboring  coast.  The  ancient  wor- 
ship of  Ashtaroth  in  Cyprus  seems  to  be 
identical  with  the  corresponding  cult  in 
Phoenicia,  and  it  may  be  concluded  that 
the  first  race,  by  which  is  meant  the  first 
progressive  race,  in  the  island  was  of 
the  old  Canaanitish  stock  which  fixed 
itself  in  the  earliest  ages  along  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Such,    then,    is   the   general  view  of 
the  dispersion  of  the    Semitic   nations- 


472 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Geographically  considered,  the  race 
was  narrow  and  intense.  Its  migra- 
Summaryand  tory  excursions  did  not 
HebrakTdil'!^  Tcach  out  SO  extensivcly 
tribution.  as     tliose    of     other    peo- 

ples. The  extreme  western  continental 
limit  was,  as  we  have  seen,  in  North 
Central  Africa.  The  southern  departure 
dropped  down  as  far  as  the  limits  of 
Arabia.  The  northern  limit  was  the 
island  of  Cypn:s;  and  the  maritime 
expeditions — if  we  regard  the  Phoeni- 
cians as  representatives  of  this  race — 
extended  through  the  Mediterranean  and 
to  a  certain  distance  around  the  western 
coasts  of  Europe  and  Africa.  Taken 
altogether,  the  dispersion  is  the  smallest, 
that  is,  the  most  limited  in  geographical 
extent,  of  all  the  great  ethnic  departures. 
The  dispersion  of  Japlieth  in  compari- 
son with  that  of  vShem  was,  as  we  shall 
presently  sec,  world-wide  in  its  extent. 
But  within  the  limited  territories  oc- 
cupied by  the  Semitic  race  a  very  intense 
form  of  religious  and  civil  develoj^ment 
ensued,  making  the  Semites  conspicuous 
among  ancient  peoples  for  their  pecul- 
iarities and  persistence  and  force  of 
character. 

In  the  course  of  the  current  chapter 
little  has  been  intimated  relative  to  the 
Question  of  the  primitive  populations  of 
rrTheEtWopi"  Ethiopia.  This  name  was 
*"*•  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the 

region  lying  immediately  south  of 
Egypt.  The  word  means  "  the  land  of 
the  scorched  faces,"  and  was  doubtless 
applied  by  the  Hellenic  ethnographers 
to  the  Ethiopians  on  account  of  their 
swarthy  hue.  This,  however,  by  no 
means  implies  tliat  they  were  a  branch 
of  the  Black  races  of  mankind.  It  is 
well  known,  on  the  contrary,  that  this 
people  were  allied  with  the  Hamitic  and 
Semitic  families  of  men,  and  not  with 
the  Negroes  or  Hottentots. 


The  early  history  of  Egypt  indicates 
close  relationship  between  that  couniry 
and  Ethiopia.  At  one  epoch  an  Ethi- 
opian dynasty  is  found  in  western  ish- 
the  ascendant  in  the  Nile  ^:^^l^ 
valley.  There  was  mitch  Hamites. 
community  of  religions  and  of  civil  in- 
stitutions between  the  two  peoples,  who, 
however,  frequently  went  to  war.  To 
what  extent,  in  the  prehistoric  ages,  the 
Hamitic  race  had  made  its  way  up  the 
valley  beyond  the  falls  of  the  Nile  and 
contributed  a  first  population  to  Ethi- 
opia can  not  be  well  ascertained.  But 
that  the  original  race  of  this  region  was 
at  least  to  some  extent  Hamitic  in  its 
origin  can  hardly  be  doubted.  We  may, 
nevertheless,  accept  the  current  view  of 
ethnographers  that  the  western  division 
of  the  Ishmaelites  crossed  tlie  Red  sea 
and  gave  a  Semitic  character  to  the  first 
Ethiopian  tribes.  It  is  possible,  more- 
over, that  the  same  race,  after  making 
its  way  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Red  sea  and  passing  thence  into  Africa, 
doubled  back  into  Ethiopia  and  dis- 
seminated certain  tribal  elements  in  this 
obscure  but  important  region  of  the 
earth . 

We  thus  note  three  great  divisions  of 
the  Semitic  stock.  The  primary  depar- 
ture .sent  off  the  Aramaic  Aram  the  seat 
branch  of  the  race.  In  gen-  remmfrfr 
eral  terms  the  people  of  opment. 
Aram,  known  ethnically  as  Aramaeans, 
were  distributed  from  the  Zagros  and 
Kcbir  Kuh  on  the  east,  to  the  borders  of 
Canaan  on  the  west.  Aram  embraced 
all  of  Mesopotamia  except  Chaldsea, 
sul)sequently  known  as  Babylonia,  and 
all  of  Syria  in  the  west  except  Palestine 
and  Phoenicia.  The  .seat  of  Aramaic  cul- 
ture was  Mesopotamia.  Here  was  ex- 
hibited the  strongest  development  of  the 
race.  Geographically,  Aram  was  the 
northern  division  of  the  Semitic  family, 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— EAST  ARYAN  DEPARTURE.  473 


as  the  Hebraic  stock  was  the  central  and 
the  Arabic  division  the  southern  evolu- 
tion of  Shem. 

In  considering  the  race  characteristics 
and  historical  progress  of  these  peoples, 
we  shall  have  occasion  to  revert  to  this 
division  of  the  Semitic  family,  and  to 
make  the  same  the  basis  of  a  discussion  of 


the  national  life  of  the  Mesopotamian 
nations,  the  Hebrews  and  the  Arabs. 
We  turn,  then,  in  the  next  place,  to  a 
discussion  of  the  far  wider,  and  in  many 
senses  more  important,  development  of 
the  oldest  branch  of  the  Noachite 
family  of  mankind — the  Aryans,  or 
Japhethites. 


CHAPTER  XXVII,— The  East  Aryan  Departure. 


Determination 
of  the  origin  of 

the  Aryan  mi- 
grations. 


HE  dispersion  of  the 
Japhetic,  Aryan,  or 
Indo-European  race — 
for  the  three  ethnic 
names  are  virtually 
synonymous —  consti- 
tutes the  most  pictur- 
esque chapter  in  the  prehistoric  annals 
of  the  world.  We  are  brought  in  the 
investigation  to  what  appears  to  have 
been  an  inexhaustible  fountain  of  hu- 
man life,  and  are  led  to  view  the  issu- 
ance from  this  common  .source  of  at 
least  six  of  the  great  races 
which  became  in  their  de- 
velopment the  principal  his- 
torical forces  in  the  ancient  world.  It 
will  be  of  primar}'-  interest  in  this  in- 
quiry to  note,  first  of  all,  the  geograph- 
ical location  of  this  common  fountain 
wherefrom  issued  the  best,  or  at  least 
the  strongest,  peoples  who  have,  by 
their  energy  and  genius,  transformed 
the  primeval  world  into  its  present  civil- 
ized and  auspicious  condition. 

With  the  map  of  Asia  before  him  the 
student  need  not  be  long  in  fixinof  the 
great  ethnic  center  which  we  are  about 
to  consider.  Regarding  the  ancient 
countr}-  of  Carmania  as  the  seat  of  the 
Noachite  division  of  peoples,  and  fixing 
the  line  of  Japheth  on  the  north,  it  may 

be   easily  perceived   that   its  westward- 
M. — Vol.  I — 3t 


bearing  course  would  come  against  the 
Hyrcanian  mountains  and  the  Lower 
Caspian,  and  be  deflected  or  doubled 
back  toward  the  Upper  Oxus  into  Mar- 
giana  and  Bactria.  It  was  in  this  region 
that  the  great  ethnic  whirl  was  estab- 
lished, where  the  Aryan  race  seems  to 
have  found  itself  turned  by  torsion  for  a 
.season  under  the  dominion  of  cosmic 
forces,  which  it  were,  perhaps,  vain  to 
attempt  to  analyze  and  define. 

Ethnographers  have  differed  some- 
what as  to  the  true  seat  of  the  great 
races  which  we  are  now  to  Region  of  the 
con.sider.  The  better  opin-  ,^,7;;,^'^- 
ion  places  the  center  of  parture. 
the  distribution  about  the  Lower  Cas- 
pian, or  eastward  toward  the  borders  of 
Bactria.  It  is  likely  that  the  rapidlv 
multiplying  race  covered  geographically 
the  larger  part  of  the  country  between 
the  Bactrian  borders  and  the  Lower  Cas- 
pian. At  least  this  is  the  general  local- 
ity from  which  the  most  powerful  ethnic 
forces  have  ever  proceeded.  In  viewing 
the  situation,  we  may  discover  once  more 
how  the  laws  of  physical  environnient 
cooperated  with  the  laws  of  instinct  in 
producing  such  marvelous  results. 
There  is  little  doubt,  in  the  first  place, 
that  evenness  of  surface  and  approxima- 
tion to  sea  level  have  a  marked  influence 
in  preserving  the  aggregationor  compact- 


474 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JfANKLYD. 


ness  of  tribes  in  the  formative  state,  and 
in  conducing  to  certain  religious  and  po- 
litical types  of  development. 

In   the  next  place   latitude,   with  its 

invariable  concomitant  of  temperature, 

contributes  much  to  modify  the  peoples 

who  are  subject  to  given 

Bamites  are  eth- 
nically modified    degrees   of  heat  and  cold. 

by  environment,    ^j^.^  .^  ^^^^ -^  particular  of 

tribes  who  are  still  in  the  plastic  state. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  is  a 
childhood  and  a  vouth  to  mankind — an 


men.  They  also  grew  sedate  and  aus- 
tere, less  disposed  to  highly  developed 
forms  of  society,  and,  in  brief,  more 
like  the  de.sert  and  rainless  countries  in- 
to which  they  penetrated  than  were  the 
races  which  distributed  themselves  fur- 
ther northward. 

Among  the  oldest  monuments  of  the 
Egyptians  there  are  pictorial  repre.ser\- 
tations  of  the  differences  w-hich  had  al- 
ready been  produced  among  the  Noa- 
chite    descendants  by  the  influences  of 


LANDSCAPE  OF  OLD  AKVA.— Ruins  of  Tous.— Drawn  by  A.  de  Bar,  from  a  photograph. 


impressionable  stage  of  evolution  in 
which  the  influences  of  the  external 
world  are  more  potent  in  their  reaction 
upon  the  mental  and  phy.sical  constitu- 
tion than  they  are  in  later  .stages  of  de- 
velopment. In  these  early  stages  of  so- 
ciety there  are  infantine  susceptibilities 
and  diseases  from  which  the  race  re- 
covers at  a  stage  of  fuller  maturity.  For 
this  reason  the  early  peoples  in  their 
migratory  epochs  have  developed  a  con- 
stitution peculiarly  significant  of  the 
climate  and  region  of  their  tribal  so- 
journ. The  races  of  Ham  became  much 
darker  in  color  than  their  Semitic  kins- 


environment.      The  sculptors,  in  these 
representations,  have  unwittingly  borne 

evidence  of  the  tendency  of    Egyptian  sculp- 
tures evidence 
races  in  the  plastic  stage  of   the  early  dlffer- 
,i_    ■  1     ,•  .  entiationof 

their  evolution  to  con-  races, 
form  to  climatic  conditions.  The 
Egyptians  defined  themselves  as  Roth, 
meaning  red,  or  ruddy,  as  to  complexion. 
They  pictured  the  cognate  Semites  as 
Nainahii,  meaning  yellow;  and  the 
Japhethites,  or  North  Mediterranean 
peoples,  as  Tamaliu,  or  white.  Yet  it  is 
now  well  knowm  that  these  three  types 
of  color  and  the  associated  form,  feature, 
and    stature   of    the   three    peoples   to 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— EAST  ARYAN  DEPARTURE.  475 


which  they  belong,  were  all   of  a  com- 
mon ethnic  descent. 

The  race  of  Japheth  on  the  north  and 
east  of  ^Mesopotamia  was,  in  its  earliest 
stages  of  development,  thrown  into  a 
Primitive  ja-        region    where    nature    had 

phethites  affect-         '^ 

ed  by  climate       greater  variety  than  in   any 

and  surround-  i-    .1  .    •  1.  ^.-u 

ings  of  the  countries  where  the 

Semitic  and  Hamitic  families  were  dis- 
persed.     It  was  a  region  of  uplands,  ris- 


mer,  the  quick  oncoming  of  the  storm, 
the  biting  frost  of  a  comparatively  early 
autumn,  the  high  winds,  the  blasts  of 
snow  and  sleet  peculiar  to  the  winter 
months.  It  is  in  .some  sense  a  climatic 
maelstrom,  and  the  Japhetic  race  was 
whirled  and  beaten  in  its  childhood  by 
the  wild  elements  that  dashed  and 
turned  from  alternate  calm  to  tempest, 
and  from  warm  airs  to  biting  blasts  and 


hM^^^W^^^^'^''  ^^"' 


PASS  OF  THE  ARAXES. 


ing  easily  into  mountain  ranges  of  con- 
.siderable  elevation.  It  was  a  country  of 
snows,  and  particularly  of  storms  in 
winter.  There  are  few  parts  of  the 
earth  in  which  vicissitude  in  temperature 
and  the  whole  external  mood  of  nature 
are  more  pronounced  than  in  the  region 
.south  and  east  of  the  Caspian. 

The  primitive  Japhethites  were  ex- 
posed from  the  beginning  to  the  full 
force  of  these  climatic  changes — to  the 
flush  of  early  spring,  the  heat  of  sum- 


freezing  sleets.  For  the.se  reasons  the 
early  Japhethites  would,  by  the  turbu- 
lence of  nature,  be  impres.sed  with  great- 
er restlessness,  hardihood,  and  adven- 
ture than  might  be  expected  in  the  case 
of  any  other  primitive  people. 

How  great  must  have  been  the  influ- 
ence of  such  an  environment  upon  sen- 
sitive peoples  recently  liberated  from  a 
parent  stock  in  a  more  genial  latitude! 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  Adamite 
seems  to  have  come  up  from   the  low- 


476 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


lying  seashore,  where  the  Ichthyoi^hagi 
afterwards  roamed,  half-naked  in  the 
seashore  sunshine,  gathering  shellfish 
from  the  brine.  Many  of  these  moder- 
ating influences  had  been  carried  by  the 
Noachites  into  the  Carmanian  uplands ; 
and  it  was  from  thence  that  the  Japheth- 
ites  were  deflected  to  the  northwest  into 
the  region  of  snow  and  mountains. 

Before  beginning  a  review  of  the 
wider  aspects  of  the  Japhetic  dispersion 
Indefiniteness      jn^o  remote  Continents,  it 

of  biblical  refer- 
ences to  the         can  but  prove  of  interest  to 

Japhetic  disper-  .  i  i         j 

Bion.  note,   as  we  have   already 

done  in  the  case  of  the  Joktanian  migra- 
tions, the  narrower  biblical  plan  of  dis- 
tribution presented  in  the  tenth  chapter 
of  Genesis.  Japheth  signifies,  etymo- 
logically,  "  widespreading,"  from  which 
meaning  of  the  word  the  inference  is 
drawn  that  the  name  was  applied  to  the 
Northern  Aryans  afdr  they  had  shown 
the  migrator}'  disposition.  Far  back  in 
the  Noachitic  era  there  was  a  prophecy 
that  Japheth  should  be  odargcd.  Every- 
thing from  the  biblical  point  of  view 
points  to  the  expansion  of  this  branch 
of  the  Noachite  family.  The  close 
relation  of  the  western  division  of  the 
face  with  European  tribes  is  shown  in 
the  fact  that  the  Greeks  had  a  myth  of 
their  own  ancestor  under  the  name  of 
lapetus,  which  is  clearly  the  same  as 
Japheth.  In  general  terms,  the  countries 
assigned  to  the  descendants  of  this 
branch  of  mankind  are  called  the  "isles 
of  the  gentiles."  Doubtless  the  expres- 
sion is  poetical.  The  Oriental  imagi- 
nation substituted  "  isles  "  for  countries 
in  general,  no  doubt  from  the  remote 
and  seagirt  meaning  suggested  by  the 
word. 

If  we  scrutinize  carefully  the  Japhetic 
family  as  recorded  in  Genesis,  we  shall 
find  seven  sons,  or  founders  of  tribes, 
assigned  to  the  head  of  the  race.     These 


are,  first  of  all,  Gomer.  Among  the  de- 
scendants of  this  ancestor  many  names 
are  found,  even  in  Europe,  seven  tribes  of 
which  preserve  the  ety-  i^:^,^^:!^"^^^ 
mology  of  the  ancestral  Gomer. 
title.  Rawlinson  has  noted  the  presence 
of  the  Gimirians  among  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  belonging  to  the  age  of 
Darius  Hystaspes.  The  Cimmerians, 
dwelling  on  the  northern  shores  of  the 
Black  sea,  are  believed  to  have  their  name 
fi'om  Gomer.  The  word  Cymri  (Kymri), 
one  of  the  Celtic  names  of  Western  Eu- 
rope, is  thought  to  have  the  same  origin  ; 
and  the  words  Cambria,  in  England,  and 
Cambrai,  in  France,  preserve,  perhaps, 
an  etymological  tradition  of  the  oldest 
branch  of  the  Japhethites. 

The  first  son  of  Gomer  was  Ashkenez, 
from  whom,  no  doubt,  the  ancient  tribe 
of  Ascanians,  dwelling  to  the  south  of  the 
Black  sea,  were  descended.  These  are 
believed  to  have  been  the  ancestors  of 
the  Phrygians,  and  were  therefore  closely 
related  with  the  Hellenic  emigrants 
who  subsequently  peopled  Greece.  The 
cotmtry  of  Ascania  extended  over  the 
land  of  Troy,  from  which  circumstance 
we  may  deduce  something  of  the  ethnic 
relations  existing  between  the  Trojans 
and  the  Hellenes.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  "the  boy  Ascanius,"  the  son  of 
.(Eneas,  founder  of  mythical  Rome,  per- 
petuated the  ancestral  name  of  Ashkenez. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  the  classical 
name  Euxine,  formerly  spelled  Axenus, 
is  also  derived  from  the  ethnic  designa- 
tion of  the  early  race  dwelling  on  the 
southern  borders  of  this  sea. 

The  second  branch  of  the  Gomerites 
was,  according  to  Genesis,  deduced  from 
the  tribal  ancestor  Riphath. 

^  Place  of  the  Ri- 

From     him     are     thought  phacesinthe 

,1  J  J     J        ii        ethnic  scheme. 

to     have     descended     the 

ancient  Paphlagonians,  whom  Josephus 

designates  as    Riphaces.     This   people, 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— EAST  ARYAN  DEPARTURE.     477 


like  the  Ashkenites,  dwelt  on  the  south- 
ern borders  of  the  Black  sea,  though  the 
location  has  not  been  so  definitely  deter- 
mined as  that  of  the  first  Gomeritic 
division.  On  the  whole,  it  is  likely  that 
the  Riphaces  had  their  dwelling  place 
somewhat  toward  the  east,  in  a  district 
which  was  properly  included  in  Arme- 
nia. The  third  son 
of  Gomer  was  To- 
garmah,  who  is  be- 
lie  V  e  d  to  have 
founded  an  Arme- 
nian tribe  which 
may  be  identified 
with  the  modem 
Thorgonites  inhab- 
iting the  same  re- 
gion. 

The  next  branch 
of  the  Japhethites 
was  deduced  from 
the  second  son, 
called  Magog.  But 
it  is  difiScult  to  de- 
termine into  which 


nation  spread  southward  over  the  Irani- 
an plateau,  and  passed  by  conquest  into 
Assyria,  and  even  to  Babylonia.  But 
the  prehistoric  tribes  descended  from 
Madai  were  limited  to  the  northern  prov- 
inces east  of  the  mountains. 

The  fourth  son  of  Japheth  was  Javan, 
easily  identified  with  the  Greek  ancestral 


A^yy^/S^^ 


of    the    Black 
provinces    this 


sea 
di- 
vision was  led  and  distributed.      There 
is  general  consent  that  the  famous  savage 
race  of  vScythians  were  the 

Distribution  of  .  „ 

the  Magog  and      oiispring  oi  Magog.    bome 
the  Madai.  ethnographers      have      re- 


Ol.n    MEDIAN   TYPES — THE  SASSANIAN    PRINCES   (oF   THE   SCULPTURES). 
Drawn  by  H.  Chapuis.  from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieiilafoy. 


ferred  the  Turanians  in  general  to  this 
origin,  and  others  have  derived  the 
Circassians,  inhabiting  the  mountainous 
district  between  the  Caspian  and  the 
Black  sea,  from  the  Magogian  stock. 

Concerning  the  Madai,  who  are  record- 
ed as  the  third  tribe  of  Japheth,  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  these  were  the  ances- 
tors of  the  great  race  of  Medes,  whose 
country  spread  from  the  Upper  Zagros 
toward  the  east,  as  far  as  Hyrcania  and 
the  desert  of  Aria.  Subsequently,  in  the 
development  of   the    Median    race,    the 


name  laones,  from  whom,  according  to 
the  Hellenic  tradition,  the  lonians  of 
Asia  Minor  and  the  .<^gean  _ 

°  Traces  of  the 

islands     were     descended,   dispersion  of  the 

Traces  of  the  Javanites  ^^^"  ^^' 
have  been  discovered  among  the  inscrip- 
tions of  Egypt ;  and  the  Greeks  as  a  race 
were  called  Javanas  among  the  ancient 
Hindus.  The  Arabic  word  for  Greeks 
is  Yunan,  which  is  evidently  of  the  same 
etymology  with  Javan.  In  later  times 
the  Hellenic  ethnographers  were  dis- 
posed to  accept  laones  as  the  ancestor  of 
their  whole  race,  and  to  make  Ionian 
and  Greek  equivalent  terms. 

From  the  J^'^'^n,  several  ancestral 
stocks  are  said  to  have  been  derived.  The 
first  son  bore  the  name  of  Elishah,  and  it  is 


478 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKTND. 


possible  that  the  Greek  state  of  Elis,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Peloponnesus,  perpet- 
uated this  name.  Some  have  suggested 
that  Hellas  itself  is  a  derivative  from 
Elishah.  Tarsus,  on  the  Cilician  coast, 
has  been  derived  from  the  word  Tarshish, 
assigned  as  tlie  name  of  a  second  son  of 
Javan.  A  third  tribe  was  called  Kittim, 
which  is  believed  to  have  been  distrib- 
uted near  Paphlj-gonia,  or  possibly  into 
the  island  of  Cyprus.  A  fourth  division 
of  Javanites  were  the  Dodanim,  which 
we  may  possibly  identify  with  the  Do- 
donians  of  Macedonia.     The  tribal  name 


GALEWAV    OK     1  HE    KAST    ARYANS    INK)    INIJIA — IHE    UOLAN 


is  sometimes  spelled  Rodaniin,  which 
would  point  to  the  island  of  Rhodes  as 
the  locality  of  this  branch  of  Javan. 

The  race  of  Tibareni,  mentioned  by 
the  Greek  historians,  have  generally 
Probable  identi-  been  referred  to  the  Tubal, 
G?orgranswrth  ^^th  tribe  of  Japheth. 
the  Tubaiites.  They  have  been  identified 
with  the  original  Georgians,  but  the 
name  in  itself  does  not  indicate  the 
descent.  In  the  Iberians  we  may  dis- 
cover traces  of  the  original  name.  The 
latter  had  their  habitation  bordering  on 
the  Black  sea  and  reaching  out  on  the 
southern  .slope  of  the  Caucasus. 


The  sixth  .son  of  Japheth  is  called 
Meshech,  whose  descendants  were  doubt- 
less the  ancient  Mosclii.  The  territory 
of  this  tribe  lay  next  to  that  of  the 
Tibareni.  The  Moschian  range  of 
mountains  preserves  the  word  in  the 
north  of  Armenia  to  the  present  time. 
According  to  a  conjecture  of  Rawlinson, 
the  modern  national  name  of  Muscovite 
is  derived,  through  Moschi,  from  the 
Japhetic  Meshech. 

It  is  believed  that  the  great  Thracian 
stock  of  mankind  ma}^  be  traced  up  to 
Tiras,  the  seventh  and  last  of  the  Japhetic 

progeny.  It  is 
thought  that  the 
country  into 
which  this 
branch  of  tlie 
race  was  distrib- 
uted was  on  the 
north  of  the 
Black  .sea,  on 
the  banks  of  the 
Dniester,  the 
name  of  which 
river  is  believed 
to  preserve  the 
etymology  of 
Tiras.  After- 
wards  the  same 
geographical  name  was  carried  into  Eu- 
rope. The  Thracians  were  Possible  deriva- 
originally  distributed  over  %Z^'£lfr... 
a  wide  range  of  country,  Tiras. 
extending  from  the  Black  sea  as  far  as 
the  borders  of  the  Cimmerians. 

It  will  be  .seen  that  according  to  this 
genealogical  scheme,  deduced  from  the 
Book  of  Genesis,  the   dis-  Bibiicai  scheme 

represents  the 

persion  of  the  Japhethites  Japhethites  as 

,      ,,  ,  ,  developed  west- 

was  wholly  to  the  xvcstivard  ward. 

from  the  point  of  departure.  This  in- 
dicates that  the  ea.stward  migrations  of 
the  race,  .so  important  in  the  subsequent 
development   of   the  Medo-Persian  up- 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— EAST  ARYAN  DEPARTURE.  479 


lands  and  India,  were  unknown  to  the 
Hebrews,  or  at  least  omitted  from  the 
ethnic  tables  which  they  preserved.  As 
a  general  fact,  the  Hebrew  accounts  of 
peoples  other  than  themselves  were  lim- 
ited to  the  necessity  of  the  case,  while 
the  movements  of  the  Abrahamites  were 
expanded  and  developed  in  full  propor- 
tions. 

A  second  observation  relative  to  the 
Japhetic  dispersion  is  that  according-  to 
this  sevenfold  tribal  scheme  all,  or  near- 
ly all,  the  races  of  Indo-European  origin 
How  far  the  He-  are  located  in  Armenia  and 
brew  outline  of    ^round  the   shores  of   the 

Japheth  ex- 
tended. Black   sea.      The   territory 

contemplated  by  the  Hebrew  author  ex- 
tended westward  into  Phrygia  and  at 
least  as  far  as  the  ^gean  islands.  It  is 
safe  to  mark  out  the  wilds  of  Thrace  and 
the  island  of  Rhodes  as  the  western- 
most boundaries  of  the  Japhetic  disper- 
sion as  deduced  from  the  tribal  refer- 
ences in  Genesis.  But  if  we  examine 
the  geographical  knowledge  which  was 
possessed  in  the  times  of  the  composi- 
tion of  the  earlier  Hebrew  books,  and 
join  to  this  the  comparative  indifference 
of  the  race  to  the  movements  and  distri- 
bution of  the  Japhethites,  we  can  dis- 
cover sufficient  reasons  for  the  imperfec- 
tion or  inadequacy  of  the  ethnic  scheme. 
It  now  remains  to  look  at  the  question 
in  the  broader  light  of  historical  and 
linguistic  indications. 

It  has  already  been  indicated  in  the 
first  chapter  of  the  preceding  book  that 
Great  contribu-  the  study  of  language  has 
^ci^ntt'et-"''  led  to  many  rectifications 
nography.  in  the   general   scheme  of 

knowledge.  In  no  other  department  of 
science  has  this  correction  and  emenda- 
tion of  previous  opinion  been  more 
manifest  than  in  ethnography.  One  of 
the  most  striking  examples  of  the  im- 
provement of  the  old  scheme  of  learning 


by  the  new  linguistic  contribution  is 
found  in  the  discovery  that  the  Indie 
peoples  of  Hindustan  have  certainly 
been  derived  from  the  same  origin  with 
the  great  nations  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. The  bringing  to  light  of  the  iden- 
tity of  Sanskrit  in  its  elements  as  a  lan- 
guage with  the  Greek  and  Latin  opened 
up  a  totally  different  view  of  the  move- 
ments and  distribution  of  the  Indo-Eu- 
ropean family  of  men.  The  slightly 
subsequent  demonstration  of  the  iden- 
tity of  the  language  in  which  are  re- 
corded the  sacred  writings  of  the  Iranic 
or  Persic  race,  added  proof  to  proof  of 
the  great  community  of  the  six  or  seven 
branches  which  are  now  known  to  com- 
pose the  Aryan  family  of  nations. 

Ethnographers  were  quick  to  seize 
upon  these  additions  to  their  previous 
knowledge ;  and  one  of  their  first  works 
was  to  trace  backward  the  Discovery  of 
Indie  streams  of  mankind  ^iTe'sTymttns 
through  the  passes  of  the  of  Sanskrit. 
Hindu-Kush  to  its  confluence  with  the 
Iranic  stream,  and  then  to  follow  up  the 
Old  Indo-Persic  family  in  its  descent 
from  an  ancestral  home  common  to 
themselves  and  the  Grseco- Italic  stock  in 
Europe.  These  ancient  and  shadowy 
movements,  most  important  in  the  dis- 
semination of  the  strongest  peoples  in 
the  world,  have  now  been  sufficiently 
delineated,  and  the  scholar  of  to-day 
may  trace  with  comparative  certainty 
the  ethnic  lines  which  mark  the  course 
of  primitive  peoples  from  the  great  cen- 
ter which  they  had  in  common,  east- 
ward of  the  Lower  Caspian,  to  their  sev- 
eral destinations  in  distant  continents. 

The  primary  movement  of  the  Old  Ar- 
yans  in    the   geographical  First  move- 
vortex  just  referred  to  ap-  ZTx^l'j^'L 
pears  to  have  been  a  sort  of  nidus, 
spiral,   throwing    off   streams  east  and 
west  from  its  circumference.    The  oldest 


480 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIXD. 


of  these  departures  was  that  toward  the 
southeast.  It  contained  the  potency  of 
two  principal  developments,  an  older 
and  a  younger;  the  former  finding  its 
geographical  area  of  expansion  on  the 
table-lands  of  Iran,  and  the  latter  con- 
tinuing in  migratory  movements  to  the 
east,  until  it  descended  from  the  moun- 
tain gaps  into  the  Punjab,  and  thence 
down  the  Indian  valleys  to  the  sea. 

The  first  peculiarity  of  this  remarka- 
ble departure  is  the  fact  that  it  stands 
alone  of  all  the  Aryan  migrations  in 
having  a  general  direction  /otonrd  the 
cast.  All  the  other  dispersive  move- 
ments of  this  race  were  to  tlic  west,  the 
tendency  being  in  common  with  that 
of  the  vSemitic  and  Hamitic  families  on 
the  south.  The  Eastern  Aryans,  how- 
ever, made  their  departure  against  the 
course  of  nature,  and  followed  it  per- 
sistently across  nearly  a  third  of  Asia  to 
their  final  lodgment  and  distribution  in 
the  East. 

The  reason  for  this  reversal  of  the 
general  migratory  movement  to  the 
Hints  of  physic-  West,  and  of  the  departure 
fnlTh^rvT"  oi  the  Eastern  Aryans 
jnents  of  races,  from  what  appears  to  be  a 
common  ethnic  law,  is  diiificult  to  deter- 
mine. The  earth  is  held  in  equipoise  by 
the  electric  currents  with  which  it  is 
girdled  and  by  which  all  its  magnetic 
elements  are  polarized.  These  encircling 
influences,  which  are  doubtless  deter- 
mined in  their  fundamental  direction  by 
the  diurnal  course  of  the  sun,  extend  into 
and  control  all  the  vegetable  and  animal 
life  on  the  surface  of  the  planet.  Every 
vine  and  tendril  that  springs  from  the 
earth  and  seeks  a  support  twines  around 
the  object  to  which  it  fastens  in  obedi- 
ence to  a  common  law  which  determines 
the  met  hod  and  direction  of  the  growth. 
No  mechanical  means  or  contrivance  can 
prevail  against  this  obvious  and  invinci- 


ble tendency  of  a  vine  to  turn  in  its  own 
direction  about  the  object  on  which  it 
seizes.  In  general,  the  tendrils  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  follow  the  course  of 
the  Sim,  from  left  to  right  in  a  circle.  In 
the  animal  kingdom  the  same  phenom- 
ena recur.  Bees  departing  from  the 
parent  colony  follow,  in  every  country, 
a  given  line  of  migration.  Birds  and 
quadrupeds  also  obey  these  cosmic  in- 
fluences, bi:t  are  somewhat  more  variable 
in  the  directions  of  their  tribal  move- 
ments. As  we  shall  see  further  on,  the 
Brown  races  of  mankind  have  in  general 
carried  the  lines  of  their  migration  to  the 
east  instead  of  the  ziwst ;  and  the  same 
is  true  of  the  Australian  and  Papuan 
streams  of  dispersion  among  the  Blacks. 
But  the  Aryans  have  shown  almost 
a  passion  for  the  westward  course.  All 
the  original  ethnic  move-  possible  reason 
ments  of  this  great  division  ^TA'd^'peT^" 
of  mankind  were  toward  migration, 
the  setting  sun,  with  the  single  except 
tion  of  that  which  we  are  now  consider- 
ing. Why  should  the  Indo-Persian  mi- 
gration have  disobeyed  the  general  law? 
Why  should  the  Ruddy  race  have  con- 
tributed to  populate  the  valleys  of  India 
at  a  distance  so  great  from  the  original 
tribal  departure  ?  It  may  be  said  in 
answer,  that  the  vegetable  kingdom  is 
not  quite  uniform  in  the  directions  of  its 
growth.  There  are  a  few  exceptional 
instances  in  which  vines  and  tendrils  are 
specifically  opposed  in  their  method  of 
growth  to  the  action  of  the  common 
law,  and  when  such  reversal  of  the 
usual  order  is  discovered  in  a  given 
plant,  it  is  found  to  be  as  obsti- 
nate in  its  manifestation  as  are  those 
which  conform  to  the  usual  methods  of 
development.  It  is  possible  that  some- 
thing analogous  to  this  may  have  pre- 
vailed among  the  Eastern  Aryans  to  the 
extent  of  a  prevalent  instinct  contrary 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.— EAST  ARYAN  DEPARTURE.   481 


in  its  action  to  the  usual  desires  and  dis- 
positions of  the  race. 

At  any  rate,  the  first  great  migration 
of  this  family  of  mankind  was  toward 
the   rising  sun.     The  epoch  in  time  in 


Light  derived 
from  Iranio  and 
Vedio  literature, 


which  the  movement  began 


can    not    be     ascertained, 
but    the    condition    of    the 

migrating  nation  has  fortunately  been, 

to     some     extent, 


preserved  in  the 
language.  The  old 
books  of  the  Iranic 
and  Indie  races 
have  been  to  the 
ethnographer  what 
the  stone-leaves  of 
the  earth  are  to  the 
geologist.  There 
are  even  to  "be  dis- 
covered in  these 
works  some  hints 
of  chronology.  It 
is  now  conceded 
that  the  Rig-Ved;i 
is  the  oldest  book 
in  the  possession 
of  the  human  race. 
It  may  be  that  in- 
vestigations here- 
after among  Ori- 
entals, particularly 
the  Chinese,  may 
substitute  some 
other  work  for  the 
Hindu  Bible.  It  is 
now  generally  ad- 
mitted that  the 
earliest  hymns  of  the  Vedic  collection 
go  back  to  wellnigh  three  thousand 
years  before  our  era.  The  sacred 
books  of  Zoroastrianism  were  compiled 
at  a  later  date.  The  evidence  of  lan- 
guage is  sufficient  to  show  that  the 
Iranic  speech  and  religious  institutions 
were  developed  at  a  period  considerably 


subsequent  to  that  from  which  the  Rig- 
Veda  proceeded.  It  is  possible  that  the 
hymns  and  ceremonials  composing  this 
most  ancient  book  were  sung  or  chanted 
by  the  Aryan  tribes  long  before  they 
descended  into  the  valleys  of  India.  It 
is  certain  at  least  that  the  language  was 
well  forward  in  evolution  of  structure 
and  determination  of  vocabulary  while 


IHE    ANCIENT    BRAHM — LEPER    KING   OF  ANGCOR    WAT. 
Drawn  by  E.  Tournois,  after  a  sketch  of  Delapoiti. 


the  Iranians  and  Indicans  still  drifted  in 
a  common  migration  toward  the  south 
and  east. 

The  distribution  of  the  Indie  peoples, 
first  into  the  Punjab  and  afterwards 
into  the  lower  valleys,  thence  into  the 
uplands,  and  finally  eastward  to  the 
foothills  of  the  Himalayas,  has  already 


482 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIXD. 


been  described.     It  was  here  that   the 

great  race  of  Brahm  expanded  through 

centuries  of  progress  into 

Expansion  of  ,-         t  .  ■  ^     c 

the  race  of  that    hxed    national    lorm 

Brahm  in  India,     ^^.j^j^^j^    ^^.^    disCOVCr    in    the 

earlier  epochs  of  authentic  history. 
Here  the  Brahmanic  form  of  worship 
prevailed.  Here  the  Indian  castes  were 
established  in  society.  Here  those 
peculiar  philosophical  theories  of  life 
and  duty  and  destiny  wei-e  evolved 
which  seemed  to  be  an  exact  reversal  of 
the  beliefs  and  dogmas  of  the  Western 
nations.  It  will  be  the  work  of  a  sub- 
sequent chapter  to  trace  out  this  eastei'n- 
most  development  of  the  Aryan  peoples, 
to  note  its  peculiarities  and  tendencies, 
and  to  contrast  the  life  of  the  Hindu 
peoples  with  the  more  aggressive  and 
active  social  phenomena  exhibited  by  the 
primitive  races  of  Europe. 

In  the  case  of  this  migration  we  have 
another  example  of  the  disposition  of 
Primitive  tribes  primitive  tribes  to  hang 
the"LlSry  "  together  and  maintain  their 
movement.  .Solidarity   for   a   consider- 

able distance  toward  their  unknown 
destination,  and  then  to  depart  into  two 
or  more  courses  of  independent  develop- 
ment.    While  the  Indie  branch  of  the 


eastward-bearing  Aryans  had  been  mak- 
ing its  way  farther  and  farther  toward 
the  Indian  valleys,  the  Iranic  division 
gradually  spread  from  the  common 
movement  and  turned  into  the  half- 
desert  plateaus  on  the  south.  The  move- 
ment was  first  into  Media  Proper,  and 
then  into  Persia.  The  course  of  this 
branch  of  the  race,  which  may  be  defined 
as  Indo-Iranian,  appears  to  have  been 
almost  exactly  the  reverse  of  that  of  the 
original  Ruddy  stock  making  its  way 
north  and  westward  from  the  shores  of 
the  Indian  ocean. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  at  the  present 
time  to  note  in  extenso  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Median  tribes  The  Medes  pre- 
and      their      organization  ^ratin'^MsYJric- 

first    into    a    political    com-    al  development. 

munity  and  then  into  a  kingdom.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  Medes  preceded  the 
Persians  in  the  formation  of  a  body  pol- 
itic and  in  the  development  of  the  arts. 
We  are  here,  however,  on  the  borders 
of  history,  and  pass,  for  the  present, 
from  the  eastward  dispersion  of  the 
Aryans,  to  note  the  still  wider  and  more 
significant  distribution  of  the  race  into 
the  westernmost  parts  of  Asia  and  thence 
into  Europe. 


Chapter  XXVIII.— The  west  Aryan    Migrations, 


T  is  clear  from  the  evi- 
dence in  possession  of 
modern  scholars  that 
there  was  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the 
original  Aryans  to 
make  their  way  around 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Caspian  and 
thence  westward  across  the  Ural  river ; 
and  it  is  also  clear  that  this  movement 
did    not  succeed.       The  migrations  in 


this  direction  reached  no  further  to  the 
north  than  the  sea  of  Aral,  where  the 
course  of  the  tribes  was  permanently 
checked.  It  is  more  than  likely  that 
the  climate  in  this  region  was  so  severe 
as  to  i^revent  further  progress  in  that 
direction.  The  country  between  the 
Lower  Ural  and  the  Aral  sea  is  one  of 
the  bleakest  and  most  forbidding  in  the 
world,  and  Arj-an  adventure  was  stayed 
in  this  direction. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— WEST  ARYAN  MIGRATIONS.    483 


In  these  facts  we  discover  another  ex- 
ample of  the  peculiarities  of  migratory 
Sense  in  which  tribal  movements.  Eth- 
" migration"  is     ^    profifress  is  bv  no  means 

to  be  under-  r      &  J 

stood.  so  rapid  and  exact  as  the 

word  migration  would  imply.  These 
north-bound  Aryans,  if  they  had  been 
"  emigrants  "  in  the  modern  sense  of  that 
word ,  would  have 
continued  their 
course  around  the 
Caspian  to  the  north, 
and  would  have  found 
an  ample  vent  for 
westward  expansion 
afterwards.  But  the 
movement  of  primi- 
tive tribes  is  a  prog- 
ress rather  than  a  mi- 
gration. The  removal 
from  place  to  place  is 
slow.  It  involves 
camping,  temporary 
settlement,  and  a  test 
of  the  locality  as  to 
its  resources  and  suit- 
ableness for  perma- 
nent abode.  The 
ethnic  movement  is 
thus  tentative  in  its 
whole  course.  It  puts 
out  in  this  direction 
and  in  that,  testing 
the  climate  and  the 
resources  of  the  re- 
gion, and  spreading 
into  different  tracts  adjacent  until  the 
course  of  further  migration  is  determined 
by  the  inviting  or  uninviting  character  of 
the  borders  beyond.  There  is  a  sense  in 
which  the  migrating  tribe  is  always 
tempted  to  proceed  on  its  way  in  a  given 
direction.  The  imagination  is  allured 
to  the  extent  of  inciting  a  new  depar- 
ture. While  the  natural  instinct  of  the 
race,    in   the  form  of    cupidity    or   the 


spirit  of  adventure,  furnishes  the  bottom 
impulse  of  the  progress,  the  suggestions 
of  the  natural  world  determine  its  course 
and  the  rapidity  and  oscillations  of  the 
forward  movement. 

The  north-bound  migration  which  we 
have  here  described,  and  which  ended 
with  the  Aral  sea,  contributed  an  abo- 


KARAKAI.PACK   TYPES— TWO  USBEKS. 
Drawn  by  A.  Ferdinandus. 


of  Aryan  disper- 
sion in  Asia. 


riginal  race  between  the  Oxus  and  the 
Caspian.  Here  a  single  Indo-European 
family  is  represented  which  ^^     ^ 

^  '^  Northern  hmits 

its  origin 

primitive 

described.  The  Kara- 
kalpacks,  whose  territory  lies  immedi- 
ately north  of  the  Atrek  river,  which 
empties  into  the  Lower  Caspian  from 
the  east,  are  probably  of  Aryan  descent, 


doubtless   owes 
to      the      very 
movement    just 


484 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXk'LYD. 


as  are  also  a  second  tribe,  called  the  Us- 
beks,  who  have  their  habitat  further  to 
the  north ;  also  the  Tadshiks,  holding  the 
country  immediately  south  of  the  sea  of 
Aral,  at  the  dcboiuliurc  of  the  Oxus,  are 
Indo-Europeans,  and  are  the  ni)rthern- 
most  of  the  Aryan  peoples  of  Asia  east- 
ward of  the  Caspian  sea. 


the  Caucasi:s.  Defined  in  terms  of  an- 
cient geography,  the  course  was  across 
!Media,  through  Atropatene  and  Ar- 
menia Major.  In  all  this  region — such 
was  its  geographical  constitution — the 
migratory  race  appears  to  have  held  to- 
gether. Indeed,  it  was  not  possible  that 
there  should  be  dispersion  in  a  country 


CAUCASIAN  TYPES.— Georgian  Women. — Drawn  by  Eugene  Burnand,  from  a  photograph. 


In  the  meantime  a  still  .stronger  mi- 
gratory movement  of   the   Aryans  had 

Sources  of  the      taken  place  directly  to  the 

race  movement     wcst.      The   Stream  of   de- 
into  Europe.  .  ... 

parture  m  this  case  carried 
in  its  current  the  potency  of  all  the  Eu- 
ropean nations.  It  extended  primarily 
south  of  the  Caspian  along  the  upper 
parts  of  Mesopotamia,  and  was  held 
from  northern  deflection  by  the  spurs  of 


.so  confined.  All  of  the  ancient  states 
which  we  have  just  mentioned  were 
strongly  Aryan  in  their  original  popula- 
tion, from  which  circumstance  it  is  easy 
to  discern  how  Aryan  influences  would 
press  upon  ancient  Assyria  from  the 
east  and  modify  that  nationality  by  the 
,  infusion  of  manj^  foreign  elements.  The 
I  modern  countries  of  Mazanderan,  Arda- 
lan,  and  Adarbijan   hold  a  .similar  rela- 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— WEST  ARYAN  MIGRATIONS.    485 


planted  on  the 
lines  of  the  out- 
going. 


tion  to  the  Mesopotamian  regions,  and 
the  pressure  of  the  Kurds  upon  the  peo- 
ples between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphra- 
tes has  in  progress  of  ages  amounted  to 
a  conquest. 

After  reaching  the  more  open  region 
midway  between  the  Caspian  and  the 
Black  sea,  the  Ar3-ans  divided  into  two 
major  streams,  one  continuing  the  west- 
ward course,  and  the  other  passing 
through  the  Caucasus  mountains  into 
Armenia.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the 
line  of  departure  to  the  right  enters  the 
Russian  empire  of  modern  times. 

The  first  peoples  of  Aryan  stock  de- 
posited in  the  region  of  this  divergence 
First  races  Were    the   Armenians    and 

Georgians.  Here  is  the 
seat  of  that  great  division 
of  mankind  to  which  the  ethnographers 
of  the  last  century  gave  the  name  of 
Caucasian.  Until  the  more  compre- 
hensive scholarship  of  recent  times 
had  thrown  a  stronger  light  on  the 
question,  it  was  supposed  that  the 
White,  or  Ruddy,  races  had  all  issued 
from  this  source,  the  southern  branch 
passing  into  Asia  Minor,  and  the  north- 
ern being  carried  around  the  Black  sea 
into  Europe.  It  is  now  seen,  however, 
that  the  real  origin  of  the  Aryans  lay 
further  to  the  east,  and  that  the  starting 
point  of  dispersion  in  the  Caucasian  re- 
gion was  only  secondary  to  an  older  de- 
parture beyond  the  Caspian. 

It  will  be  desirable  in  following  out 
the  great  migrations  which  we  are  now 
Origin  of  the  to  Consider  to  take  up  first 
the  western  branch  of  de- 
parture and  follow  the  same 
into  Asia  Minor,  and  thence  into  penin- 
sular Europe.  If  from  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Black  sea  to  the  north- 
eastern limit  of  the  Mediterranean  a  line 
be  drawn,  we  shall  find  that  all  of  the 
original  peoples  of  peninsular  Asia  lying 


Minor  Asians ; 
Hamitic  influ- 
ences. 


west  of  the  line  and  east  of  the  Black 
sea  were  contributed  by  the  principal 
stream  of  Aryan  migration  to  the  west. 
This  movement  entered  the  peninsula 
centrally  from  the  east  and  was  distrib- 
uted into  all  parts,  especially  around  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Black  sea.  The 
only  exception  to  the  ethnic  distribution 
here  stated  is  the  possible  Pelasgic  line 
of  the  Hamites,  carried  around  from 
Syria  into  the  archipelago.  Otherwise, 
all  of  the  prominent  nations  who,  out  of 
prehistoric  shadows,  came  into  view 
with  the  beginning  of  authentic  history 
in  Asia  Elinor  were  of  a  common  Arj-an 
descent,  and  this  descent  was  immedi- 
ately from  the  point  in  the  Caucasus 
where  the  primitive  races  of  Northern 
Europe  took  their  departure  into  Great 
Russia  and  the  West. 

The  Aryans,  once  in  Asia  Minor, 
found  themselves  in  a  region  inviting  to 
development.  The  result  MadtipUcity of 
was  that  in  the  earliest  t^^^^^tlf^' 
ages  of  histor}-  many  states  -^sia. 
were  created  within  a  comparatively 
limited  territory.  Kingdoms  and  em- 
pires that  even  contended  with  the  great 
powers  of  ^Mesopotamia  arose  in  several 
parts  of  this  Lesser  Asia ;  and  if  the 
countrj-  had  been  as  fortunate  in  the 
preservation,  by  literature  and  monu- 
ments, of  the  story  of  its  past  as  were 
the  states  of  Assyria,  Egypt,  and  Greece, 
we  might  expect  some  of  the  most  strik- 
ing contributions  to  the  ethnography 
and  annals  of  primitive  times.  It  will 
be  fitting  in  this  connection  to  notice  a 
few  of  the  leading  peoples  who  were 
developed  from  the  Aryan  stem  in  the 
countrj-  between  the  Black  sea  and  the 
Mediterranean. 

If  any  of  the  nations  within  the  limits 
here  defined  belonged,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  to  other  than  an  Aryan  stock,  it 
was  the  Cilicians,  lying  at  the  extreme 


486 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


east   of   the    peninsula   and   along    the 

Mediterranean    border.      The    physical 

features  of  this  country  are 

Place  and  race  .  , 

composition  of     the  Taurus  mountains  and 

theCilicians.  ^,^^      ^.j^.^^.     CydnUS,      both 

famous  from  the  remotest  ages  for  their 
historical  associations.  The  belief  is 
prevalent  that  the  Phoenicians  were  first 
to  colonize  these  regions,  and  it  is  quite 
likely  that  their  adventurers  and  seamen 
passed  around  the  coast  and  established 
settlements  as  far  west  as  Lycia.  To 
the  extent  that  the  Phoenicians  had  as 
the  basal  element  in  their  race  character 
an  element  of  Hamitic  descent,  it  will  be 
proper  to  regard  the  Cilician  race,  espe- 
cially of  the  seacoast  provinces,  as  de- 
scended from  the  southern  branch  of  the 
Noachites.  But  subsequently  the  in- 
coming Aryans  gave  another  complexion 
to  the  people.  Cilicia  was  Aryanized, 
and  remained  ever  afterwards  virtually 
an  Indo-European  state.  In  the  times 
of  Hellenic  colonization  the  Greeks  sent 
around  maritime  bands,  who  settled 
along  the  Cilician  coasts,  and  thus  com- 
pleted the  race  revolution  which  their 
ancestors  had  begun  in  prehistoric  ages. 
North  of  Cilicia  lay  the  still  greater 
country  of  Cappadocia.  The  primitive 
Beginnings  of  racc  inhabiting  this  region 
^'IpapMlTo-  ^^-^s  contributed  directly 
nian  races.  from  the  Aryan  migration 

westward.  Indeed,  the  region  lay  im- 
mediately in  the  path  of  the  great  move- 
ment, and  the  people  sprang  up  from 
the  elements  which  were  dropped  by  the 
race  on  its  progress  toward  the  Black  sea. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  Paphlagonia, 
Ij-ing  in  the  inner  curve  of  that  sea 
on  the  south.  We  have  already  seen 
that  these  countries  were  assigned  by 
the  Hebrew  account  to  the  sons  of 
Japheth.  Paphlagonia  is  believed  to 
have  belonged  to  the  Kittim  of  the 
Japhetic    dispersion,    while    the    same 


country  is  by  other  writers  assigned  to 
the  Riphaces,  descendants  of  Riphath, 
the  second  tribal  head  of  the  Gomerites. 

Immediately  west  of  Cappadocia  lay 
the  still  more  important  country  of  Phryg- 
ia,  with  its  northern  penin-  Kiseof  the 
sula  next  to  the  Propontis.  ^Sp  wilh^h^ 
This  region  also  lay  imme-  Armenians, 
diately  under  the  center  of  the  migratory 
line,  and  the  primitive  population  was 
distributed  in  the  manner  already  de- 
scribed for  Cappadocia.  The  political 
power  subsequently  developed  in  this 
part  of  Asia  Minor  was  of  great  impor- 
tance in  the  earlier  historical  times.  The 
state  was  touched  on  its  various  borders 
by  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  Cappadocia, 
L3-conia,  Pisidia,  Lycia,  Caria,  Lydia, 
and  Mysia.  It  was  the  center  of  the 
Lesser  Asia.  The  country  of  which  we 
here  speak  was  called  Greater  Phrygia, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  extension  of 
the  same  region  along  the  Propontis, 
which  was  known  as  Lesser  Phrygia. 

According  to  the  traditions  of  the 
various  races  of  the  peninsula,  the  Phryg- 
ians were  the  most  ancient  nation  of 
Asia  Minor.  They  were  thought  by  the 
Greeks  to  be  in  close  race  affinity  with  the 
Thraciaus.  There  are  also  hints  of  their 
relationship  with  the  Armenians  on  the 
east.  Both  of  these  conjectures  of  the 
ancients  were  correct.  The  Phrvafians 
were  the  result  of  a  migratory  move- 
ment out  of  Armenia  into  the  countries 
of  the  West,  and  the  people  were  accord- 
ingly allied,  by  race  descent,  on  the  east 
with  the  Armenians,  and  on  the  west 
with  the  Thracians.  It  is  not  the  place 
to  review  the  important  historical  bear- 
ings of  Phrygia  in  the  earlier  ages  of 
Grecian  history,  or  to  repeat  the  tradi- 
tions and  legends  which  have  been  pre- 
serv'ed  of  the  nation. 

South  of  Phrygia  lay  the  smaller  states 
of  Caria,  Lycia,  and  Pisidia ;  and  to  the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— WEST  ARYAN  MIGRATIONS.    487 


north,  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  sea  and 
reaching  to  the  Bosphorus,  was  the  coun- 
other  Minor  try  of  Bithynia.  All  of  these 
Asians ;  Lydi-      districts    were   peopled  by 

aus  in  particular.    ^    .,  ,  ,7 

tribes  who  were  dispersed 
right  and  left  from  the  original  Aryan 
migration  which  brought  the  ancestors 


the  ^gean  were  from  the  earliest  ages 
intimate.  The  Lydians  were  to  the 
^gean  sea  what  the  Phoenicians  were  to 
the  Eastern  Mediterranean.  In  the  arts 
and  sciences  they  antedated  the  Greeks, 
and  their  history  is  only  second  in  im- 
portance to  that  of  the  Hellenic  states. 


ROUTE  OF  \VE>1    ARYANS  THRDUGH  ASIA  .M  1N(  jR.-Pass 
Drawn  by  Grandsire.  afler  Langlois. 


OK    HaDJIN.    in    CAPrADOCIA. 


of  the  Europeans  to  the  eastern  bor- 
ders of  the  .'Egean  sea.  Immediately 
west  of  Phrygia,  next  the  archipelago, 
was  the  important  state  of  Lydia.  The 
history  of  the  people  who  were  here  de- 
veloped is  better  known  than  those  who 
grew  into  importance  further  east.  The 
Lydians  were  nearly  allied  to  the  Greeks. 
The  Ionian  cities  were  on  the  Lydian 
coast,  and  the  commercial  relations  be- 
tween the  peoples  on   the  two  sides  of 


We  have  thus  noted  the  westward 
progress  of  the  Aryans  through  the 
whole  country  from  Upper  ^Mesopotamia 

to    the    ^gean    sea.       This    Minor  Asians 

region  of  Lesser  Asia  pre-  ^"th'SfiraS- 
sented  one  of  the  earliest  ansandindicans. 
fields  of  Aryan  development.  While 
the  ;Medes  and  Persians  on  the  east  of 
the  Zagros,  and  the  Indie  Aryans  in 
the  Punjab,  were  laying  the  foundations 
of    their    respective    nationalities,    the 


488 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


various  peoples  of  Asia  Minor,  all 
closely  allied  by  race  descent  and  com- 
mon institutions,  Avere  settling  from  the 
nomadic  stale  into  permanent  residence, 
discovering  the  native  resources  which 
were  richl)-  distributed  in  their  country, 
and  creating  those  institutional  forms 
out  of  which  great  monarchies,  rivaling 
those  of  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Nile,  were  to  spring  and  flourish. 

It  is  probable  that  the  westward  prog- 
ress of  the  Aryan  race  was  considerably 
Reasons  for  the  dclavcd  bv  its  course 
stf^rs'ofHei-  through  Asia  Minor.  The 
lenic  migration,  richness  of  the  Country  in 
resources,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the 
abundance  of  the  forests  which  prevailed 
in  prehistoric  times,  the  acceptability  of 
the  climate,  and  the  general  beauty  of 
the  landscape  invited  to  residence;  and 
here  the  migratory  and  adventurous 
spirit  would  be  checked.  It  was  only 
after  the  penin.sula  began  to  be  well 
filled  with  the  immigrant  race,  when  the 
nations  began  to  contend  and  displace 
each  other  by  conquest,  that  the  old 
migratory  impulse  revived  and  progress 
toward  the  west  was  continued.  These 
circumstances  may  accoimt  for  the  fact 
of  t/w  different  streams  of  migration  which 
appear  to  have  discharged  their  volume 
into  the  Hellenic  peninsula. 

With  the  resumption  of  the  movement 
to  the  west  from  the  shores  of  Lydia  we 
Race  progress  have  the  picturcsque  epi- 
c^Tiades*toto  sode  of  a  race  crossing  the 
HeUas.  M^&^xi   by  means  of   the 

archipelago.  The  Cyclades  are  gener- 
ally within  easy  sail  the  one  of  the 
other,  and  the  pas.sage  of  a  primitive 
people  would  be  easy.  The  gradual 
spread  of  Phrygian  and  Lydian  adven- 
turers into  these  waters  presents  an 
aspect  of  dispersion  quite  as  unique  as  it 
is  poetical.  Some  ethnographers  main- 
tain that  the  incoming  of  the  Hellenic 


race  into  Hellas  Proper  was  by  means  of 
this  island  progress  across  the  .^gean, 
while  others  hold  that  the  true  Hellenes 
dropped  into  Greece  from  the  north,  out 
of  Thrace,  whither  they  had  drifted  out 
of  Lesser  Phrygia,  across  the  Helles- 
pont. 

Perhaps  the  truer  view  would  be  to 
ascribe  the  Hellenic  peoples  to  both  of 
these  origins.  Several  principal  migra- 
kinds  of  evidence  V^^^^  "ZYyT^^l. 
unmistakably  to  the  con-  and  Thessaiy. 
elusion  that  the  Hellenes  were  out  of 
Phrygia.  The  Greeks  themselves, 
though  many  of  them  held  to  the  m3-th- 
ological  opinion  of  an  earth-born,  or 
autochthonic,  origin,  recited  the  legend 
of  a  northern  descent,  and  it  is  almost 
certain  that  a  majority  of  the  incoming 
tribes  descended  out  of  Thrace  through 
Thessaiy,  where  they  had  found  a  foot- 
ing and  partial  development,  after  their 
migration  from  Asia.  But  that  the 
general  progress  of  the  Aryan  peoples 
was  continued  out  of  Asia  Minor  acro.ss 
the  iEgean  archipelago  into  the  main- 
land, thus  making  the  two  streams  con- 
fluent in  the  Hellenic  peninsula,  can 
hardly  be  doubted. 

Great  was  the  restlessness  of  the  early 
races  in  Greece.  They  were,  perhaps, 
the  mo.st  turbulent  tribes  of  Ethnic  restless- 
whom  history  has  made  ^^X^^^an- 
a  record.  Ages  elapsed  ing  of  the  name, 
before  permanence  of  settlement  was  at- 
tained. They  were  ages  of  myth  and 
adventure.  The  gods  were  mixed  with 
the  men,  and  the  Titans  stood  between. 
It  now  appears  that  the  older  name  of 
the  i^eople  was  in  their  own  language 
Graikoi,  a  term  which  the  immigrants 
had  evidently  applied  to  themselves 
with  a  view  to  distinction  from  more 
barbarous  peoples.  The  word  Graikoi, 
which  subsequently,  in  the  Latin  form  of 
Graeci,  became  the  designative  of   the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— WEST  ARYAN  MIGRATIONS.    489 


Hellenic  race  among  all  peoples,  signi- 
fied old,  or  honorable.  It  was  thus  very 
nearly  equivalent  to  the  Latin  senator. 
Aristotle  declares  that  ancient  Hellas 
was  the  country  about  Dodona  and 
Achelous.  "Here,"  he  adds,  "lived 
the  Selloi  and  the  people  then  called  the 
Graikoi,  afterwards  the  Hellenes."   Thus 


itself  the  elements  which  were  after- 
wards to  be  distributed  in  Italy  and  to 
become  the  germs  of    the  The  Greek  mu 

gration  con- 

Italic,  or  Latin,  race.     The  tainedthepo- 

.         ,  r      ii  •      tencyofthe 

exact    shape    oi    the    mi-  naiican. 
gration  in  this  respect  is,  of  course,  un- 
known.     It  is  sufficient  to  allege   that 
the  migratory  wave  out  of  Asia  carried 


m^W"""^ 


ROUTE  OF  THE  GREEK  ARYANS  INTO  HELLAS.— Pass  of  Kalabaka,  Thessaly. -Drawn  by  Taylor,  from  a  photograph. 


m^^^pa^«ii^iiiffi 


it  appears  that  the  Greeks,  in  course  of 
time,  rejected  the  older  national  name 
and  substituted  Hellenes  as  the  title  by 
which  they  would  be  known  among  the 
nations. 

We  may  here  pause  to  anticipate  what 
will  appear  in  a  subsequent  part  of  the 
present  chapter ;  that  is,  that  this  Greek, 
or  Hellenic,  volume  of  tribal  life  flow- 
ing  into  Hellas   contained    along   with 

M.— Vol.  1—32 


the  potency  of  both  the  Greek  and 
Latin  peoples.  The  uncertaint}^  is  as  to 
which  foreran  the  other.  It  is  possible 
that  tho.se  tribes  which  were  destined  to 
plant  themselves  in  Italy  were  the  van- 
guard of  the  whole  movement.  Again, 
it  is  possible  that  the  Celts  of  the  ex- 
treme west  went  before  the  Latins,  but 
the  likelihood  is  that  the  Celtic  stem 
was  bent  ai'ound  from  the  north  of  Eu- 


490 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


rope  and  did  not  cross  by  way  of  the 
peninsulas.  It  is  possible  also  that  the 
prehistoric  Greek  and  Latin  stocks  held 
together  as  far  west  as  the  Hellenic 
peninsula,  from  which  point  the  Latin 
branch  continued  its  course  to  the 
west.  It  is  sufficient  to  know  that  the 
name  Graeco-Italic,  designating  the  whole 
stock,  is  appropriate  as  descriptive  of  its 
ethnic  character,  until  the  two  peoples 
were  differentiated  and  distributed  into 
their  respective  countries. 

Students  of  language  have  been  curi- 
ous to  inquire  into  the  relative  antiquity 
of  the  two  races  as  determined  by  their 
Linguistic  hints  respective  dialects.  It  is 
Grleks'orRo"*^  »  remarkable  fact  that  the 
mans.  evidence  points  both  zcaj's. 

There  are  parts  of  the  Greek  grammar 
and  vocabulary  which  are  manifestly 
older  than  the  corresponding  parts  in 
Latin,  and*,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are 
Latin  constructions  and  words  which  are 
just  as  clearly  of  a  higher  antiquity  than 
those  of  Greek.  Thus  the  preservation 
of  the  ablative  case  in  Latin  points  to 
the  retention  of  a  form  of  grammar 
which  had  died  out  of  the  more  recent 
grammar  of  the  Greeks.  Siimiis,  the 
first  person,  plural,  of  the  verb  to  be,  is 
much  more  nearly  identical  with  the 
Sanskrit  asamas  than  is  the  correspond- 
ing csinbn  of  Greek ;  that  is,  csiitbn  is  the 
more  recent  grammatical  inflection.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  retention  in  Greek 
of  the  dual  number  in  nouns  and  of  the 
middle  voice  in  verbs  indicates  an  older 
grammatical  structure  than  that  exhib- 
ited in  Latin  grammar,  where  no  such 
nominal  and  verbal  inflections  exist. 
Likewise,  the  much  more  complete  evo- 
lution of  the  Greek  verb,  considered  in 
its  entirety,  and  of  the  adjective,  with 
its  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  inflec- 
tional blossoms,  shows  a  closer  alliance 
with  the  full  tables  of  the  older  Sanskrit 


than  the  narrower  and  later  forms  of 
Latin.  There  is,  however,  nothing 
really  paradoxical  in  thisseeminglj'  con- 
tradictory testimony  of  language  as  to 
the  relative  age  of  the  two  races ;  for  it  is 
easy  to  perceive  that  in  some  respects  the 
Greek  tongue  might  preserve  the  older 
forms,  while  in  other  peculiarities 
Latin  would  retain  the  ancient  stntcture 
and  vocabulary  less  impaired  by  time 
and  migration  than  in  the  corresponding 
linguistic  development  of  the  Hellenes. 

Early  in  the  mythical  age,  the  incom- 
ing tribes  superimposing  themselves 
upon  the  Pelasgian  peoples 
already  in  the  peninsula,  tem  of  ancestral 
ceased  to  designate  their  ^^  °  °^^' 
race  as  Graik,  and  took  up  a  sort  of 
ancestral  mythology,  which  they  ever 
afterwards  zealously  disseminated.  The 
story  ran  thus:  The  ancestor  of  their 
race  was  the  immigrant  hero  Hellen. 
He  was  the  son  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha. 
He  led  his  tribe  into  Hellas  after  the 
Deluge.  Hellen  had  three  sons,  Dorus, 
^olus,  and  Xuthus.  Dorus  became  the 
founder  of  one  race  and  xEolus  of 
another,  while  the  two  sons  of  Xuthus, 
Ion  and  Achaeus — like  Ephraim  and 
Manassah,  sons  of  Joseph,  in  the  Hebrew 
scheme — rose  to  equal  rank  with  their 
uncles,  Dorus  and  ^olus,  and  became 
the  heads  of  the  lonians  and  Achseans. 
It  will  be  noticed  in  this  table  of  family 
dispersion  that  the  name  Ion  reappears, 
recalling  the  Hebrew  Javan  and  also  the 
Hindu  name  Javanas,  which  occurs  in 
the  Lazvs  of  Menu,  and  is  thought  to 
designate  the  lonians.  This  legendary 
account  of  the  origin  of  the  principal 
Greek  races  was  accepted  by  the  credulous 
Hellenes  as  an  ample  and  final  ex- 
planation of  their  origin  and  diversities 
of  national  development. 

Historically  considered,  the  Hellenes 
present    two    great    branches    of    race 


DISTRIBUTIOX  OF  THE  RACES.— WEST  ARYAN  MIGRATIONS.    491 


evolution  :  the  one  Dorian,  and  tlie  other 

Ionian.     These  two  are  separated  from 

each  other  b}'  such  marked 

Place  and  char- 
acteristics of        characteristics  as  to  distm- 

the  Cohans.  •    i       ii.  •  n  i 

guish  them  m  all  epochs 
of  Greek  history.  The  -i^olian  tribes 
do  not  appear  to  have  diverged  greatly 
from  the  common  ancestral  type.  The 
term  ^^solian  may  well  be  regarded 
as  discriminative  of  a  number  of  partly 
developed  Greek  peoples  dwelling  in 
the  northern  part  of  Hellas,  particularly 
in  the  plains  of  Thessaly.  With  the 
jostling  of  the  other  races  from  their 
original  seats,  however,  the  ^^^^olians 
became  more  distinct  as  a  people.  When 
the  Dorians  possessed  themselves  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  the  >45olians  passed  over 
to  the  northwest  coast  of  Asia  Elinor  and 
established  there  a  confederation  of 
cities  under  the  name  of  ^^olis.  They 
also  populated  the  Lslands  of  Lesbos  and 
Tenedos,  from  which  insular  .seats  the 
^olic  dialect  of  Greek  spread  into  other 
regions,  and  left  beh,ind  some  scanty 
specimens  in  Hellenic  literature. 

The  ^olian  was  the  least  important 
development  of  the  Hellenic  race.  The 
Dorians    were    far   more    powerful    and 

famous.    Their  native  seats 

Evolution  and 

race  character      in    the    peninsula    appear 

of  the  Dorians.       .      ,  ,  ,      ,  . , 

to  have  been  between  the 
ranges  of  Olympus  and  Ossa.  At  one 
period  they  invaded  ilacedonia  and 
took  possession  of  a  part  of  the  country, 
but  were  afterwards  expelled.  They 
established  themselves  in  the  island  of 
Crete,  and  made  the  little  state  of  Doris 
the  .seat  of  their  power  until  the  so- 
called  "  return  of  the  Heraclidae  "  carried 
them  into  Peloponnesus.  Here  thev 
became  predominant,  and  were  the 
virtuaJt  founders  of  the  powerful  states 
of  Sparta,  Argos,  and  Messenia. 

It  was  from  this  epoch  in  their  de- 
velopment that   the  Dorians  became  so 


strongly  discriminated  in  their  character 
from  the  other  Hellenes.  They  became 
austere,  rough  in  manners,  and  laconic 
in  speech,  to  the  extent  of  transmitting 
their  name  to  all  after  times  as  a  synonym 
for  the  peculiarly  selfish,  stoical,  and  in- 
different character  which  they  presented 
in  their  own  age.  Even  the  architecture 
which  they  cultivated   retained   unmis- 


\0t^jA 


MODERN'   ACH.IiAN   TYPE — ODYSSE. 
Drawn  by  E.  Ronjat,  from  a  photograph, 

takable  traces  of  the  simplicity  and 
severity  of  the  Doric  race,  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  that  variety  of  Greek 
which  they  spoke,  and  out  of  which  the 
dramatists,  especially  the  tragedians,  of 
the  literary  age  were  prone  to  draw 
those  archaic  and  rude  forms  of  versi- 
fication peculiar  to  the  Greek  tragical 
chorus. 

Ancient  Ionia  was  on  the  coa-st  of  Asia 
Minor,  between  the  rivers  Hermus  and 


492 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Mseander. 
Chios  and 

Situation  of 
Ionia;  the  Do- 
decapolis. 


The  adjacent  islands  of 
Samos  were  inckidod  with 
this  dependency,  llow  far 
the  lonians,  or  Javanites, 
had  been  distributed  along 
this  shore  before  their  migration  into 
European  Greece  can  not  be  stated  with 
certainty.  The  country  above  defined 
was  determined  in  its  limit  after  the 
return  of  the  lonians,  in  later  times,  and 
their  resettlement  in  the  region  of  their 
ancient  home.  Here  it  was  that  they 
founded  the  Ionian  confederacy  of  twelve 
states  or  cities  called  the   Dodecapolis. 


tions  of  the 
Achaeans  among 
the  Greeks. 


It  remains  to  note  the  geographical 
situation  of  the  Achseans.  It  is  believed 
that  in  the  heroic  age  ^MyceUcX',  Argos, 
and  Sparta  were  peopled  Rank  and  reia- 
by  tribes  of  Achaean  de- 
scent. This  race  also  ex- 
tended into  Thessaly.  Indeed,  the 
latter  country  is  thought  by  ethnog- 
raphers to  have  been  their  original 
seat,  whence  they  migrated  into  Pelo- 
ponnesus. The  importance  of  this 
branch  of  the  Greek  race  was  greatly 
lessened  in  the  time  of  the  Hellenic 
ascendency.     In  the    Homeric   age  the 


UOUTE  OF  THE  GR.KCO-ITALICANS.— Sebemco,  ox  the  Dalmatian  CoAsr.-Drawn  by  Charles  W.  Wyllic 


Many  of  the  most  important  maritime 
towns  of  the  fifth,  fourth,  and  third 
centuries  B.  C.  were  included  in  the  list. 
Here  were  Miletus  and  Ephesus,  Clazom- 
enae  and  Phocsea.  The  city  of  Smyrna 
was  transplanted,  about  700  B.  C.,  from 
the  ^olic  to  the  Ionian  confederation. 
In  course  of  time  this  assemblage  of 
important  communities  became  subject 
to  Lydia,  and  after  the  overthrow  of 
Croesus  they  were  annexed  to  the  Per- 
sian empire  by  Cyrus.  Ionia  furnished 
the  field  of  broken  faith  and  conflicting 
interests  from  which  began  the  great 
struggle  for  the  subjugation  of  Greece 
by  the  Persian  kings. 


leadership  of  the  Achaean s  was  con- 
stantly recognized,  and  in  the  Iliad  their 
name  is  many  times  employed  as  a 
synonym  for  the  whole  Greek  host 
engaged  in  the  Trojan  War.  They 
appear,  however,  to  have  been  lacking 
in  the  elements  of  intellectual  greatness. 
In  the  later  epochs  of  Greek  history  the 
term  Achaean  sank  from  its  old  heroic 
sense  into  a  name  of  contempt.  But  it 
is  of  interest  to  note  that,  geographically 
at  least,  the  relative  importance  of  the 
race  was  acknowledged  by  the  Romans, 
who,  on  their  conquest  of  Greece,  gave 
the  name  of  Acliaia  to  the  whole  prov- 
ince. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— WEST  ARYAN  MIGRATIONS.    493 


Such  is  the  outline  of  the  distribution 

of  the  early  Aryan  tribes  in  Hellas.    The 

eeopfraphical  relations  be- 
Easy  ethnic  re-      '^      °      -^  . 

lations  of  Greece  tween  that  peninsula  and 
and  Italy.  j^.^^^    ^^^^^^    always    easy. 

The  Adriatic  is,  even  in  its  widest  part, 
a  narrow  body,  easily  crossed  from  shore 
to  shore.  The  course  out  of  Epirus 
around  the  coast  into  Upper  Italy  is 
crossed  with  no  barriers  and  attended 
with  no  dififictilty.  It  can  not  be  known 
bv  which  of  these  routes  the  primitive 
peoples  of  Italy  were  distributed  to  their 
several  tribal  localities  in  the  West,  prob- 
ably by  both.  It  is  safe  to  assume 
that  a  race  which  had  made  its  way  from 
beyond  the  Caspian,  passing  centuries 
en  route  in  a  contest  with  the  forces  of 
nature  and  crossing  from  island  to  island 
in  more  remote  ages,  would  easily  navi- 
gate the  Adriatic.  And  this  is  the  more 
likely  highway  of  the  prehistoric  Ital- 
icans. 

According  to  our  best  information 
there  were  four  principal  groups  of  peo- 
ples in  primitive  Italy.  On  the  south  w^e 
find  the  lapygians,  or  Q^notrians,  with 
their  several  branching  tribes,  occupying 
first  the  peninsular  projection  next  to 
Greece,  and  afterwards  the 

Place  of  the 

lapygians ;  races    whole  COUntty  acroSS  tO  the 

of  the  north.  ,^         ,         .  r^ 

iyrrhenian  sea.  home 
ethnographers  have  concluded  that  these 
southern  peoples  were  not  of  Aryan  de- 
scent, and  it  is  possible  that  the  Hamitic 
lines  which  we  have  agreed  to  carry  into 
Italy  distributed  .some  branches  in  the 
southern  parts  as  well  as  in  Etruria. 
Upper  Italy  was  occupied  on  the  east  by 
Gaulish,  that  is,  Celtic,  tribes,  of  which 
the  Lingones  and  Insubres  constituted 
the  chief.  On  the  west,  as  we  have  al- 
ready seen,  were  the  Etruscans,  who 
were  clearly  a  foreign'  race,  differing 
radically  in  language  and  development 
from  the  other  Italic  peoples. 


The  greatest  group  of  primitive  tribes 
belonged  to  Central  Italy  and  were  nearly 
allied    in   ethnic    descent. 

Distribution  of 

Of     these     peoples     there  the  umtro-sa- 

c  J  ■    .  •       .        ^1         belliau  tribes. 

were  five  distinct  stocks, 
namely,  the  Umbrians,  the  Sabines,  the 
Latins,  the  Volscians,  and  the  Sabellians, 
commonly  called  Oscans,  with  their  two 
branches 'of  Samnites  and  Campanians. 
This  scheme  covers  in  general  the  popu- 
lations which  were  distributed  in  the 
country  stretching  across  from  the  Cen- 
tral Adriatic  to  the  western  shores  of 
Italy. 

The  first  of  these  nations,  called  Um- 
brians, had  their  original  seats  on  the 
Adriatic,  between  the  Rubicon  and  the 
^sis.  The  western  boundary  was  the 
Apennine  range  and  the  Tiber.  It  is 
likely  that  in  early  times  their  territories 
were  still  more  extensive.  But  before 
the  rise  of  the  Roman  gens  the  Umbri- 
ans had  already  declined,  and  were  easily 
subordinated  by  the  dominant  people. 
The  territory  of  the  Sabines  lay  close  to 
Latium,  and  they  and  the  Latins  had  in- 
timate relations  from  the  earliest  times. 
The  Sabine  district  was  rugged  in  physi- 
cal features  and  inclement  in  climate, 
and  the  opportunities  of  development 
w^ere  much  less  favorable  than  those  of 
the  people  on  the  west. 

The  origin  of  the  Latins  is  involved  in 
inextricable  myths.  Poets  and  fable- 
makers  of   republican  and  ,     ,      ,      ,, 

^  Myth  and  tradi- 

imperial  Rome  elaborated  tion  of  the  prim- 
and  inflected  the  legendary 
lore  which  they  had  received  from  antiq- 
uity until  it  resembled  the  Greek  fables 
in  complexity  and  contradiction.  One 
myth  assigned  to  the  Latins  a  Pela.sgic 
origin,  in  common  with  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  Greeks  and  the  Etruscans.  More 
famous  was  the  tradition  of  a  descent 
from  the  heroic  families  of  Troy.  A 
more  obscure  legend  assigned  the  moun- 


I-AND  OF  THE  ANCIENT  LIGURIANS -Massa.  near  Carrara  -Drawn  by  J.  Fulleylove 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.—IVEST  ARYAN  MIGRA  TIONS.     495 


tainous  parts  of  Central  Italy  as  the  native 
seat  from  which  the  founders  of  Latium 
had  descended  into  the  low  countries  of 
the  west.  There  was  an  attempt  in  all 
this  to  bring  in,  after  the  Greek  fashion, 
the  agency  of  the  gods,  and  to  make  it 
appear  that  the  Latins  were  of  divine 
origin  and  fatherhood.  It  is  sufficient 
to  recognize  the  kinship  of  these  peoples 
with  the  other  races  associated  with 
them  in  historical  development  in  Cen- 
tral Italy. 

The  Volscians  were  prominent  among 
the  prehistoric  peoples  of  the  peninsula. 
They  had  for  their  neighbors  the  Sabel- 
Scantyknowi-      lians,    or   Oscans.      Their 

tZfX^°''  ^o«^«  ^^-^s  i°  the  forbid- 
situation.  ding  mountain  district  with 

which  their  name  is  geographically  asso- 
ciated. At  the  beginning  of  authentic 
history  they  had  ceased  to  be  a  separate 
people,  and  the  remains  of  the  race  are 
scanty  and  imperfect.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  their  isolated  situation  in 
the  mountains  tended  to  preserve  their 
dialect  from  the  mutations  to  which  the 
languages  of  the  neighboring  tribes  were 
subjected. 

In  the  earliest  times  the  Oscans  pos- 
sessed the  largest  territory  in  Central 
Predominance  Italy.  Their  couutry  ex- 
tended well  to  the  south, 
and  this  wide  region  they 
continued  to  dominate  until  Rome  be- 
gan by  conquest  to  become  mistress  of 
Italy.  Of  the  various  Oscan  peoples, 
the  Samnites  were  the  most  powerful 
tribe,  though  the  Campanians,  Luca- 
nians,  and  Bruttians  were  all  impor- 
tant peoples  before  the'  ascendency  of 
Rome. 

If  we  glance  to  Northern  Italy,  we 
find  three  peoples  of  different  ethnic  de- 
scent in  that  region.  The  Gauls  proper 
occupied  the  great  plains  in  the  valley  of 
^he  Po  and  its  tributaries.     Their  coun- 


of  the  Oscans ; 
the  Italian 
Gauls. 


try  extended  from  the  Alps  to  the  Apen- 
nines and  the  Adriatic.  It  was  com- 
monly conceded  that  their  immigration 
into  Italy  had  been  of  a  later  date  than 
that  which  must  be  assigned  for  the 
coming  of  the  central  nations.  The 
principal  divisions  of  the  Gaulish  race 
were  the  Insubres  and  the  Senomani 
on  the  north  of  the  Po,  and  the  Boii  and 
the  Lingones  on  the  south  of  that  river. 

The  second  general  division  of  the 
peoples  of  Upper  Italy  were  the  Veneti, 
whose  countr}'  covered  the 
whole  head  of  the  Adriatic  vationof  the 
from  Istria  on  the  east 
to  the  valley  of  the  Po  in  the  west.  Cor- 
responding with  what  is  now  the  south- 
em  part  of  Piedmont  lay  the  territory 
of  the  Ligurians,  of  whose  origin  not 
much  is  known.  They  came  into  the 
country,  however,  before  the  Gauls, 
and  were  doiibtlcss  allied  in  their 
race  descent  with  the  peoples  of  Cen- 
tral Italy.  Such  in  general  was  the 
tribal  distribution  of  those  primitive  races 
which  in  process  of  time  were  consoli- 
dated under  the  leadership  of  the  Latins, 
and  ultimately  forged  into  the  most  pow- 
erful nationality  of  the  ancient  world. 

It  appears  tolerably  conclusive  that  the 
Graeco-Italic  migration  reached  its  limit 
with  the  Alps  on  the  north 

Limits  of  the 

and  Liguria  on  the  west.  Graeco-itauo 
Other  Aryan  tribes  in  ™'^'"^  '°'^' 
course  of  time  found  their  way  through 
the  Alpine  passes,  and  penetrated  the 
civilizations  established  by  their  kins- 
men in  the  south  of  Europe.  But  the 
Italic  race  proper  was  stayed  with  Italy. 
We  therefore  return  to  the  East  and 
again  take  our  stand  in  the  region  of  the 
transcaucasus.  Here,  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Armenian  mountains,  we 
find  the  Aryan  dispersion  pressing  bold- 
ly to  the  north. 

In  the  country  between  the  Caspian 


496 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


and  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Black  sea 
at  least  two  ethnic  departures  were  made 
from  the  main  branch  of  migration.  The 
Origin  and  first  of  these  was  to  the  right 

North  Aryan  "^  '^^^^  ^'"^  o^  progress,  and 
distribution.  contributed  thfe  Ossetes  and 
perhaps  one  or  two  other  stocks  of  Indo- 
Europeans  on  the  western  borders  of  the 
Caspian.  The  other  division  seems  to 
have  been  maritime  in  its  plan,  to  have 
entered  the  Black  sea,  and  to  have  car- 
ried itself  in  the  direction  of  the  Bos- 
phorus.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  the 
ancient  Phrj-gians,  especially  that  part  of 
the  race  inhabiting  the  Black  sea  coast, 
were  contributed  by  this  deflected  move- 
ment out  of  Upper  Armenia. 

By  the  course  of  the  line  we  are  now 
pursuing  we  are  unexpectedly  bi'ought 
into  proximity  with  that  country  in  Asia 
Ethnic  move-  Minor  which  received  the 
rS""'''  final  migratory  impulse  of 
reached  Gaiatia.  the  Celtic  race.  Though  we 
have  not  yet  reached  the  point  in  ethnic 
dispersion  from  which  that  race  took  its 
departure  from  the  main  northwestern 
stem  of  Aryan  progression,  we  may  well 
anticipate  sufficiently  to  account  for  the 
presence  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  southern 
borders  of  Bithynia  and  Paphlygonia,  of 
a  country  peopled  by  Celts.  This  is  the 
province  of  Gaiatia.  The  population  of 
this  country  was  contributed  by  the  bend- 
ing back  of  the  Celtic  race  from  its  Avest- 
ern  limits  of  migration  in  the  remote 
parts  of  Europe.  The  movement  in 
question  presents  one  of  the  strangest 
aspects  of  race  progress.  It  is  that  of 
an  ethnic  line  carried  backward  from  the 
lower  parts  of  Spain,  in  the  old  country  of 
the  Iberians,  around  the  northern  coasts 
of  the  Mediterranean,  across  Upper  Italy, 
and  down  through  the  valley  of  the  Dan- 
ube to  the  Bosphorus.  The  latter  part 
of  this  movement  took  place  in  the  his- 
torical era.     In  the  third  century  B.  C. 


the  Gallic  people  crossed  over  into  Asia 
Minor  and  conquered  the  province  to 
which  they  gave  their  own  name.  This 
invading  migration  was  carried  forward 
by  three  principal  tribes  and  twelve 
tetrarchies,  each  directed  by  a  chief, 
after  the  Celtic  manner  of  warfare.  It 
is  instructive  to  reflect,  while  we  here 
have  our  stand  on  the  highlands  of 
Phrygia  or  Pontus,  that  we  are  able  to 
observe,  as  with  a  field  glass,  the  north- 
ward movement  of  the  old  Aryan  stock 
on  the  eastern  borders  of  the  Black  sea, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  we  can  look 
down  into  Gaiatia,  which  was  the  ter- 
minus, after  perhaps  two  thousand 
years,  of  one  branch  of  the  great  migra- 
tion. 

If  then,  for  a  moment,  we  anticipate 
the  departure  of  the  Celts  from  the  main 
Aryan  stem,  which  we  are  now  tracing,  to 
the  north,  we  shall  find  the  point  of  depar- 
same  to  have  occurred  about  ^"eitiStrsion 
the  valley  of  the  Upper  in  Europe. 
Dnieper.  From  this  point  the  migra- 
tory impulse  bore  off  alinost  due  west, 
across  the  larger  part  of  Europe.  It 
traversed  Germany,  and  crossed  the 
Rhine  in  general  conformity  with  the 
coast  line  of  the  Baltic.  It  is  probable 
that  by  this  first  movement  to  the  west 
no  races  were  deposited  in  anything  like 
permanence  until  the  stream  was  dis- 
persed in  Gaul.  If  we  seek  for  time  rela- 
tions in  this  great  movement  we  are  at 
fault,  but  the  period  of  the  Celtic  migra- 
tion could  hardly  have  been  less  than 
two  thousand  years  B.  C. 

It  would  appear  from  the  invasion  of 
Gaul  and  Britain  by  the  Romans,  in  the 
first  century  B.  C,  that  the  complete  derei- 
Celtic  race  had  already  °P---ltnd 
been  long  established  in  Britain, 
those  regions,  and  that  it  had  matured 
its  institutional  forms  without  disturb- 
ance.    This   is   especially   true    of   the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— WEST  ARYAN  MIGRATIONS.    497 


western    parts  of  Gaul   and  of   Britain, 
where  the  completeness  of  the  druidical 
ceremonial    and    perfect     condition    of 
tribal  government  indicated  a  long-  oc- 
cupation of  the  country.    Ethnographers 
have  not  attempted  to  decide  with  cer- 
tainty the  priority 
of    the    respective 
movements  by  %_ 
which   the   British 
Isles  received  their 
primitive   Celtic 
population  and 
Central  Italy 
passed   under 
the     dominion     of 
Grasco  -  Italic     im- 
migrants. 

In  the  begin- 
nings of  authentic 
history  the  Celts 
had  already  trav- 
ersed Northern 
Europe,  and  had 
left  traces  of  their 
progress  in  the 
east  and  actual 
tribes  in  the  west. 
It  was  from  this 
source  that  the 
Gauls  (C  e  1 1  ae) , 
whom  Caesar  de- 
clares to  have  been 
divided  into  three 
races  of  Galli, 
Aqiritani,  and 
Belgas,  were  dis- 
tributed. In  all  of 
Europe  west  of  the  Rhine  the  Celtic 
Wide  distribu-  race  became  predominant, 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of 
other  people.  If  we  ex- 
cept the  Basques  and  Iberians,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  whole  country  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  Atlantic  was  Celtic 
as  to  its  primitive  population. 


In  the  preceding  book  we  have  already 
pointed   out   the    fact   that    prehistoric 

races  occupied  this   part    of    The  Celtic  races 

Europe  before  the   Aryan  on^aborigi°n^'^ 
migration.     What  the  con-  barbarians, 
dition  of  the  aborigines  was  at  the  time 


tion  of  the  Celts 
throughout  the 
West. 


THE    CELTIC    VANGUARD,    OF   THE   AGE   OF   BRONZE. 
Drawn  by  Emile  Hayard. 


of  the  incoming  of  the  Celts  we  are  left  to 
determine  by  conjecture.  We  have  seen 
the  extreme  barbarity  which  character- 
ized the  aboriginal  life  of  the  cave 
dwellers  and  other  savages  to  whom 
primeval  Europe  seems  to  have  belonged. 
Upon  these  rude  races  the  Celtic  tribes 
were  superimposed,  and  the  foundations 


498 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


were  laid  of  that  condition  which  we 
perceive  when  the  expanding  power  of 
Rome  brought  her  legions  into  Gaulish 
territory. 

As  the  Celtic  race  continued  its  way  to 
the  south,  several  streams  of  migration 
put  off  laterally  to  the  coast.  The  most 
Ramifications  of  important  of  these  crossed 
the  Celtic  stock    ^j       channel  into   Britain, 

in  the  British  ' 

Isles.  where  it  again  divided,  one 

branch  being  carried  over  into  Ireland, 
and  the  other  penetrating  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland.  An  examination  of  the 
Celtic  languages  has  enabled  the  modern 
ethnographer    to  determine  with  toler- 


OI.nF.ST   CELTIC  TYPES. 
From  the  Gaulish  bas-reliefs  found  at  Entremont,  ne.ir  Aix. 

able  certainty  the  original  distribution 
of  the  race  in  the  British  islands.  There 
were  two  general  Celtic  stocks.  The 
first  of  these  was  the  Gadhelic,  or  Gaelic, 
branch,  which  was  divided  into  three 
departures :  the  Irish  stem  proper,  called 
the  Erse,  the  Scottish  Gael,  and  the 
Manx.  These  linguistic  divisions  point 
unmistakably  to  the  tribal  separation  of 
the  Gael  of  the  Highlands,  the  Irish  folk, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  Isle  of  Man. 
The  second  stem  presents  the  British 
division  proper  of  Celtic.  This  also 
parted  into  three :  the  first  of  which  was 
the  Kymrasg,  softened  into  Cymric, 
meaning    the    original    speech   of    the 


Welsh ;  the  second  was  the  Cornish ; 
and  the  third  the  Armorican,  being  the 
language  of  Bretagne. 

We  thus  note  the  dispersion  of  the 
Celts  in  our  ancestral  islands,  and  dis- 
cover the  parts  of  the  COUn-    Bending  back  of 

try  appropriated  by  the  ^^ifeXc^lr 
several  tribes.  Meanwhile,  beginning. 
far  down  in  Spain  the  main  continental 
stream  of  Celtic  migration  was  bent 
backwards,  as  we  have  seen  above, 
through  the  greater  part  of  Southern 
Europe,  making  its  way  finally  to  the 
valley  of  the  Danube  and  thence  to  the 
Bosphorus.  From  this  point  migration 
and  warfare  carried  the  race,  as  has  been 
said,  into  Galatia,  thus  bringing  it  in 
its  final  distribution  to  a  point  so  near  to 
the  original  Aryan  movement  east  of  the 
Black  sea  that  the  old  departure  of  the 
race  to  the  northwest  and  its  last  distribu- 
tion in  Galatia  after  thousands  of  years  of 
wandering  might  almost  be  seen  with  a 
field  glass  in  the  hands  of  the  observer 
from  the  highlands  of  Eastern  Pontus! 

In  resuming  the  consideration  of  the 
movement  of  the  great  northwestern 
branch  of  the  Aryan  race,   Question  of  the 

•'  race  connection 

making  its  way  between  of  Teutons  and 
the  Black  .sea  and  the  Cas-  ered. 
pian,  from  the  tran.scaucasus  toward 
the  Don,  we  are  confronted  by  another 
of  the  disputed  questions  in  ethnogra- 
phy. This  relates  to  the  independent 
or  dependent  origin  of  the  Slavic  peo- 
ples in  their  relations  with  the  great 
Teutonic  family.  Were  the  Slavs  and 
Germans  involved  originally  in  a  com- 
mon movement  out  of  Asia?  Were 
they  still  a  common  people  in  their 
progress  from  their  Asiatic  origin  to 
their  European  dominions  ?  If  so, 
where  and  when  did  they  part  com- 
pany in  linguistic  and  institutional  de- 
velopment ?  Which  is  the  older  of  the 
two  races  ?     Which,  if  either,  is  derived 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.—  WEST  ARYAN  MIGRA  TIONS.     499 


from  the  other  ?  Was  the  migration 
common  to  both,  or  were  there  iivo  mi- 
grations, one  Slavonic  and  the  other 
Teutonic  ?  These  problems  have  been 
variously  solved  by  different  ethnogra- 
phers, and  the  whole  ground  has  been 
hotly  contested  since  the  question  of 
race  distribution  assumed  its  present 
scientific  aspect. 

On   the   whole,  it   appears    that    the 
movement  was  common   which  carried 

Branches  and         these       twO      raCCS      OUt      of 

rlT^^lfol"  Asia  into  Europe.  It  may 
stem.  be  safely  alleged  that  the 

Teutonic  and  Slavonic  peoples  held  to- 
gether on  their  way  to  the  north  and  far 
into  the  heart  of  Great  Russia.  It  would 
be  proper  to  call  the  whole  line  of  prog- 
ress from  the  Caucasus  to  the  north,  well 
itp  to  the  northern  borders  of  the  Russian 
empire,  thence  westward  and  southward 
to  the  borders  of  Poland,  the  Slavo- 
Teutonic  stem.  It  certainly  carried  the 
volume  of  both  races,  both  languages, 
both  varieties  of  institutional  forms. 
Above  the  sea  of  Azof,  on  the  left  as 
the  migratory  progress  continued,  a 
branch  was  thrown  off  into  Sarmatia, 
from  which  that  division  of  the  modern 
Slavs,  called  Little  Russians,  have 
sprung.  But  the  main  line  continued 
northward  in  the  direction  of  the  sub- 
sequent site  of  Moscow,  and  afterwards 
toward  the  gulf  of  Riga,  on  the  Baltic. 
It  was,  however,  to  the  south  of  the 
gulf  of  Finland,  and  perhaps  nearly 
midway  between  that  water  and  the 
northern  bend  of  the  Black  sea  that  the 
final  separation  took  place  between  the 
Germanic  and  the  Slavonic  races.  In 
the  meantime,  a  branch  had  been  thrown 
off  northward  toward  that  collection  of 
inland  waters  extending  from  the  White 
sea  to  lake  Ladoga,  and  another  divi- 
sion to  the  west,  into  the  country  of  the 
Letts. 


If,  then,  we  take  our  stand  on  the 
head -waters  of  the  Dnieper,  we  shall 
not  be  far  from  the  ethnic  division  on 
which  was  based  the  subse-  point  of  division 
quent    separation    of    the  ofthf  two  races; 

T-  -^  the  Russian 

Slavonic  and  Teutonic  peo-  family. 
pies.  The  two  stocks  were  both  char- 
acterized for  extreme  fecunditj'  and' 
power  of  development.  There  are  at 
the  present  time  within  the  limits  of 
European  Russia  and  Poland  about  sev- 
enty-five million  of  people  of  Aryan 
descent.  These  may  be  divided  into 
Russians  proper,  Poles,  Bulgarians, 
Czechs,  and  Serbs,  all  of  which  are 
Slavonic  in  their  ethnic  origin. 

The  Russians  are  subdivided  into 
Great  Russians,  Little  Russians,  and 
White  Russians.  The  Letto-Lithua- 
nian  peoples  are  divided  into  Lithua- 
nians proper,  Zhmuds,  and  Letts,  with  a 
total  of  over  three  million.  This  is  the 
summary  of  populations  which  have 
sprung  in  modern  times  from  the  sin- 
gle ethnic  stem  called  Letto-Slavonic. 
The  Great  Russians  themselves  number 
forty-two  million,  and  the  Little  Rus- 
sians more  than  seventeen  million. 
Besides  the  above  peoples,  the  Grseco- 
Roman  population  in  Russia  numbers 
considerably  over  a  million,  Avhile  the 
Germans,  in  admixture  with  the  Arme- 
nians, Georgians,  and  Tsigans  are  repre- 
sented by  considerable  communities. 

Geographically,   the    Great    Russians 
are  grouped  in  the  states  and  provinces 
around  Moscow,  extending  Distribution  of 
northward  to  Novgorod  and  "^l  f^fwhite 

Vologda,         southward        to   Russians. 

Kiev,  eastward  to  Penza  and  ^'yatka, 
westward  to  the  Baltic  provinces  and 
the  borders  of  Poland.  The  Little  Rus- 
sians are  distributed  chiefly  in  Galicia 
and  Bukovina.  In  general,  they  belong 
to  the  southern  parts  of  Russia,  next  to 
the  Caucasus.     The  White  Russians  are 


500 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKLYD. 


distributed  throughout  the  western  gov- 
ernments of  the  empire.  The  Bulgari- 
ans inhabit  Bulgaria  Proper,  Eastern 
Roumelia,  and  Roumania,  and  are  scat- 
tered into  Austria,  Russia,  and  Mace- 
donia. The  other  ethnic  divisions  are 
dispersed  into  the  countries  to  which 
they  have  given  their  respective  names 
— Servia,  Lithuania,  Croatia,  etc. 

Second  only  in  importance  as  to  num- 
bers and  first  in  importance  in  civiliz- 
Dispersion  of  ing  energy  are  the  Teutonic 
the  Germans;       races  which  issued  in  com- 

three  branches 

of  the  race.  mon  with  the  peoples  de- 

scribed above  from  the  Slavo-Germanic 
stem.  A  glance  at  the  map  will  .show 
that  Europe  is  divided  from  southeast  to 
northwest  by  the  two  great  rivers  Dan- 
ube and  Rhine,  whose  waters  issue  from 
the  same  upland  region,  in  the  central 
part  of  the  continent.  It  was  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  extending 
down  to  the  Baltic  from  the  great  cen- 
tral region,  that  the  Germanic  nations 
were  first  distributed.  As  the  left  bank 
of  that  river  and  hitherward  to  the  Avest- 
ern  parts  of  Europe  belonged  roughly 
to  the  Celtic  race,  so  the  right  bank  east- 
ward to  the  Vistula  was  Germania. 

Into  this  great  region  was  extended 
and  dispersed  the  Teutonic  stream  of 
immigration.  Roughly  speaking,  the 
whole  Teutonic  stock  was  parted  into 
three  divisions,  which  correspond  rough- 
ly with  the  modern  linguistic  distinc- 
tions of  High  German,  Lo\v  German,  and 
Scandinavian.  In  prehistoric  times, 
however,  one  of  the  fir.st  distinct  de- 
partures of  the  primitive  stock  was  that 
which  carried  down  the  great  race  of  the 
Goths  into  the  valley  of  the  Danube. 
They  issued  from  the  southern  portion 
of  the  Baltic  region,  and  appeared  on 
the  scene  of  their  sub.sequent  activities 
during  the  fourth  centurj^  B.  C. 

The  family  known  as  Gothic  has  been 


somewhat  unscientifically  divided  into 
the  Vandals,  the  Heruli,  the  Rugii,  the 
Gepidse,     the    Alani,    the 

'■     .  Analysis  and 

Suevi,  the  Longobards,  the  distribution  of 

T-,  f  1  ii        the  Goths. 

Burgundians,  and  the 
Franks.  On  their  arrival  on  the  Lower 
Danube  the  Gothic  race  began  to  di- 
vide into  the  two  major  families  of  Os- 
trogoths and  Visigoths,  meaning  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Goths.  The  for- 
mer had  a  habitation  originally  in  South- 
ern Russia,  between  the  Dniester  and  the 
Don,  while  the  latter  held  their  terri- 
tories from  the  Lower  Danube  to  the 
Carpathian  mountains.  In  course  of 
time  the  Goths  were  pressed  on  their 
eastern  frontiers  by  various  invasions, 
until  they  were  aggregated  and  heaped 
up  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube, 
whence  they  ultimately  burst  into  the 
Roman  empire.  After  this  event,  as  is 
well  known,  the  Ostrogoths  found  an  ul- 
timate lodgment  in  Italy,  while  the  Vis- 
igoths continued  their  progress  into  the 
vSpanish  peninsula  and  became  a  sub- 
stratum of  population  in  the  modem 
ethnic  development  of  that  peninsula. 

The  Franks  appeared  as  an  aggrega- 
tion of  Teutonic  tribes  on  the  Lower 
Rhine  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  third 

centurv  B.  C.       At  the  first   Franks  people 

they  were  confined  to  the  '^;^:r^^,, 
right  bank  of  the  river,  distribution, 
but  in  course  of  time  passed  over  and 
began  their  settlements  in  the  northern 
part  of  Gaul.  They  were  ultimately 
divided  into  two  families,  known  as  the 
Salian  Franks  and  the  Ripuarians.  It 
was  the  former  division  of  the  race  that 
was  thrown  by  impact  on  Gaul,  and  that 
was  established  within  the  limits  of  that 
country  as  a  barbarian  empire  under 
Clovis  and  his  successors.  The  Ripua- 
rians spread  southward  and  occupied  first 
the  right  and  afterwards  the  left  bank  of 
the   Rhine,  whence  they   carried   their 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— WEST  ARYAX  MIGRATIONS.     501 


incursions  on  the  west  to  the  Meuse  and 
on  the  east  to  the  Main.  It  was  from  the 
Ripuarian  Franks  that  the  Teutonic 
state  called  Franconia  took  its  name. 
The  Salians  constituted  one  of  the  ethnic 

elements     in     the         -^^- ^^  -ir"       "~ 

formation    of     the 
French  people. 

It  will  prove  of 
interest  to  note 
only  the  ultimate 
distribution  of  the 
other  branches  of 
the  Teutonic  stock. 
The  Vandals  were 
essentially  of  this 
race,  but  had  taken 
into  their  constitu- 
tion Slavonic  and 
Celtic  elements. 
They  belonged  to 
the  general  divi- 
sion of  Goths.  One 
of  their  oldest  seats 
was  in  the  Riesen- 
Gebirge.  After- 
wards they  occu- 
pied Pannonia  and 
Dacia.  In  the  fifth 
century  of  our  era 
they  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the 
overthrow  of  the 
Roman  empire.  In 
the  Spanish  penin- 
sula they  founded 
the  state  of  x\nda- 
lusia.  Under  Gen- 
seric  they  crossed 
into  Africa,  and 
there  developed 
their  gi-eatest  .strength  and  nationalit}'. 

The  Heruli  were  the  earliest  of  the 
German  races  to  make  their  way  into 
Italy.  There  they  established  themselves 
under   their  great  leader  Odoacer,   and 


the  Herulian  kingdom  was  the  first  bar- 
barian empire  created  within  the  limits 
of  the  home  government  of  Rome.  The 
Gepidas  were  likewise  of  Gothic  extrac- 
tion.    Historically,  they  are  first  known 


THE   PRANKISH  VANGVARD. 

Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 

to  US  in  the  third  century  B.  C,  in  their 
territories  on  the  Baltic.  They  also 
came  into  Pannonia,  and  were  interposed 
for  a  while  between  the  O.strogothic  and 
Visigothic  divisions  of  the  race.     They 


502 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


were  joined  to  the  armies  of  Attila,  and 

were  subsequently  successful  in  gaining 

a  province  for  themselves, 

Movements  of  .  , 

theHeruiiand  on  the  Lower  1  hciss  ana 
theGepid».  Danube.  Here  they  were 
finally  overrun  by  the  Longobards  and 
the  Avars,  with  whom  the  remnants  of 
the  race  were  amalgamated. 

One  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Ger- 
man  migratory   tribes   was    the    Siicvi. 
Their  territories  lay  between  the  Rhine 
and  the  Weser.      In  their 

Progress  of  the 

Suevi ;  the  Lon-   progress  and  development 

gobards  in  Italy.    ^^^^^   ^^^^^^    southward    aS 

far  as  the  Upper  Danube.  On  the  north 
they  reached  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic.  It 
was  with  the  Suevians  that  Ctesar  had 
one  of  his  hardest  contests  in  his 
struggle  for  dominion  north  of  the  Alps. 
The  Longobards,  commonly  called  Lom- 
bards, were  nearly  related  to  the  Suevic 
branch  of  the  German  race.  From  their 
seats  in  the  valley  of  the  Elbe  they 
made  their  way  into  Italy,  within  the 
historical  period,  overthrew  the  Heru- 
lian  monarchy,  and  established  one  of 
their  own  on  the  ruins  of  the  empire. 
In  later  times  they  contributed  their 
name  to  the  modern  state  of  Lombardy 
in  Italy,  and  it  is  likely  that  their  ethnic 
influence  entered  more  largely  into  the 
formation  of  the  northern  Italian  race 
than  did  the  qualities  of  any  other  bar- 
barian people. 

The  Burgundians  were  a  branch  of  the 
Gothic  family,  and  first  established 
Ethnic  place  and  themselves  in  Europe,    in 

vicissitudes  of       .1 ,  -i.  .1 

theBurgun-  ^hc  couutry  between  the 
dians.  •      Oder  and  the  Vistula.    The 

Gepidse  drove  them  from  their  seats,  and 
they  sought  refuge  in  the  territory  lying 
between  the  Main  and  Neckar.  Here 
they  were  combined  in  common  enter- 
prises with  the  .Suevi  and  Alani  and  the 
yandals  in  their  wars  with  the  remain- 
ing powers  of  Rome.     Afterwards  they 


struggled  with  the  Franks,  by  whom 
they  were  restricted  to  the  province 
bearing  their  name.  Such,  in  brief,  was 
the  European  distribution  of  the  prin- 
cipal barbarian  nations  of  the  Gothic 
stock. 

Meanwhile,   another   division  of    the 
Teutonic  race  had  made  its  way  along 
the   shores  of   the    Baltic,  outspread  of 
and  in  Jutland,  Friesland,  ^^^^^^.^he 
Angleland,  and  in  Hollow-  Norse. 
land    had   possessed   themselves  of  the 
country  and  begun  the  formation  of  in- 
stitutions.    This   is   the   so-called    Low 
Germanic  branch  of  the  Aryan  family. 
The  tribal  ramiiication  in  these  lowlands 
was  extraordinary.     It  Avas  from  this  re- 
gion that    the  Angles  and   Saxons  and 
Jutes  took  their  rise,  and,  in  the  fifth 
century,   carried    their  battle-axes    and 
spears  into  the  forests  of  Britain. 

From  the  southern  coast  line  of  the 
North  sea  the  race  next  made  its  way 
into  Scandinavia.  Two  branches  of  mi- 
gration  sprang  from  this  region,  one 
penetrating  the  great  peninsula  of  Nor- 
way  and  Sweden,  and  the  other  making 
its  way  by  water  to  Iceland.  It  was  in 
the  latter  island  that  the  Norse,  or  Scan- 
dinavian, race  presented,  and  does  until 
the  present  exhibit,  the  purest  aspect  of 
Scandinavian  life  and  manners.  There 
have  always  been  such  intimate  race  re- 
lations between  the  southern  and  north- 
ern shores  of  the  Baltic  that  the  Low 
Germans  inhabiting  the  two  countries 
have  intermingled  almost  to  the  extinc- 
tion of  ethnic  differences.  But  in  Ice- 
land the  old  Norse,  or  Scandinavian, 
stock  has  been  allowed  to  develop  accord- 
ing to  its  own  laws  into  an  independent 
race  character. 

Such,  then,  was  the  distribution  of  the 
great  Teutonic  and  .Slavonic  races  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe.  It  will  be  of 
interest  to  note  the  extent  of  the  complete 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— WEST  ARYAN  MIGRATIONS.     503 


dispersion  of  the  Aryan   family  of  men. 

On  the  east  the  Indie  branch  of  the  race 

reached    the    meridian    of 

Extent  of  the 

dispersion  of  the  nmety  degrees  east  from 
Aryan famny.       Q^eenwich.      On  the  west 

the  extreme  limit  of  the  primary  Indo- 
European  development  was  in  Iceland 
and  Ireland,  under  the  meridian  of  ten 


tively.  In  the  latter  country  the  race  was 
dispersed  as  far  south  as  Beluchistan, 
and  in  the  former  to  the  bay  of  Bengal, 
in  latitude  twenty  degrees  north.  But 
turning  to  the  westward  branches  of  the 
Indo-Europeans,  we  find  them  invaria- 
bly bending  to  the  north.  Perhaps  the 
only  exception   to  this  general  law  was 


NORTHERN'  LIMIT  OF  THE  ARYAN'  UlSrERSION.— View  in  Uiper  NoRWAV.-Drawn  by  .Mirbach,  from  .1  photograph. 


degrees  west,  making  a  complete  diver- 
gence east  and  west  of  one  hundred  de- 
grees of  longitude. 

It  was  a  peculiarity  of  the  Aryan  race 
General  and  ex-    never  to  be  deflected  to  the 

ceptional  move-  ^j^        ^|^^  j^.     -j^   -^j.  ^.gg^. 

ments  01  the  '  ' 

Aryans.  ward  movements.    The  In- 

dican  and  Iranian  branches  of  the  famil}- 
dropped  into  India  and    Per.sia  re.spec- 


in  the  ca.se  of  the  Celts,  who,  from  their 
somewhat  northern  range  in  Germany, 
turned  to  the  southwest  across  the  Rhine 
into  Gaul,  and  thence  continued  their 
course  in  the  same  direction  as  far  as  the 
country  of  the  Basques  and  Iberians  in 
Spain. 

The  northernmost  limit  of  the  whole 
movement  was  reached  in  the  upper  parts 


504 


GREAT  RACES   OF  ^fAXKlXn. 


of  Norway  and  Sweden,  about  the  parallel 
of  seventy  degrees  north.     The  migra- 
tion   thus,   in  its  entirety, 

Extent  and  ,  ,  , 

boundaries  of  presents  a  band  very  nearly 
the  Aryan  belt,  ^.^j^cident  with  the  north 
temperate  zone.  The  belt  is  forty-five 
degrees  in  width,  reaching  a  little  above 
and  extending  a  little  below  the  limits  of 
the  zone  referred  to.  The  next  conspicu- 
ous feature  of  this  great  distribution  is 
the  fact  that  it  is  essentially  European. 
The  exceptions  within  the  borders  of 
that  continent  of  peoples  derived  from 
any  other  than  x\ryan  stock  are  so  few 
and  insignificant  as  to  be  neglected  with- 
out hurt  to  the  general  scheme.  Europe 
is  An,-an,  and  the  Western  Aryans  are 
Europeans. 

It  is,  of  course,  not  the  purpose  to 
extend  the  lines  of  race  movement  by 
Only  conscious  tracing  out  the  continental 
be^LTstdlredin  colonization  and  develop- 
migration.  meut  of  the  two  Americas 

by  people  of  Indo-European  blood,  or  to 
note  the  world-wide  colonization  which 
has  been  effected  within  the  last  two  or 
three  centuries  by  people  of  the  same 
race.  These  secondary  movements,  if 
developed  in  this  connection,  would  con- 
fuse the  concept  of  the  original  or 
natural  distribution  of  mankind  in  the 
prehistoric  ages.  There  is  a  sense  in 
which  men  have  moved  from  place  to 
place  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  uncon- 
sciously. That  is,  the  movement  has 
been  accomplished  while  the  race  was 
still  in  the  unconsciousness  of  childhood. 
There  is  another  sense  in  which  civiliza- 
tion has  consciously  carried  forward  the 
.work  of  peopling  the  earth.  All  the 
latter  movements  are  of  record  in  the  open 
annals  of  authentic  history,  and  with 
such  development  and  expansion  the 
ethnographer  has  not  much  to  do.  His 
work  is  primarily  with  those  prehistoric 
movements  in  which   the  races  of  men 


were  distributed,  under  the  influence  of 
in.stinct  and  environment,  to  their 
destination  in  different  quarters  of  the 
earth. 

At  this  point,  then,  we  touch  the 
limit  of  the  primeval  excursions  and 
settlements  of  the  Ruddy  races  of  man- 
kind.      To    these    races    we    General  view  of 

have  given  the  general  eth-  J^^  ^y '-  °* 
nic  name  of  Noachites,  but  races. 
have  chosen  to  define  them  more  scien- 
tifically by  the  term  Ruddy,  as  indica- 
tive of  their  color.  We  have  now  traced 
out  the  dispersion  of  the  three  families 
to  which  ethnography  has  assigned  the 
popular  and  traditional  names  of  Ham- 
ites,  Semites,  and  Japhethites.  We 
have  seen  the  first  dropping  southward 
into  a  form  of  geographical  development 
very  similar  to  that  which  the  Japheth- 
ites, or  Aryans,  have  exhibited  in  the 
north.  The  whole  scheme  of  migratory 
dispersion  resembles  the  two  sides  of  a 
leaf,  having  its  stem  between  the  Cas- 
pian and  the  Persian  gulf,  its  point  in 
the  Atlantic  west  of  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules,  its  left-hand  side  in  Arabia 
and  Africa,  and  its  right  division  in 
Europe.  The  central  lines  of  this  leaf 
correspond  in  general  with  the  move- 
ments of  the  Semitic  races  to  the  west. 
The  right-hand  lines  are  those  of  the 
Aryans,  and  the  left-hand  departures 
those  of  the  Hamites. 

The  limits  of  the  present  chapter  are 
reached  when  we  have  marked  out 
the  migratory  movements  by  which 
they  were  distributed  into  their  re- 
spective countries.  It  now  remains 
to  take  up  another  general  division  of 
mankind,  and  to  note  in  like  manner 
the  course  which  the  Brown  races  have 
pursued  on  their  way  to  their  destina- 
tion in  the  great  arena  of  Asia,  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  ultimately  in 
the  two  Americas. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— THE  BROWN  DISPERSION.      505 


Chapter  XXIX.— Dispersion  oe  the  Brown  Races. 


F  it  were  not  for  the 
Black  races  of  man- 
kind distributed  in 
Equatorial  and  South- 
ern Africa,  in  Aus- 
tralia, and  Melanesia, 
the  primitive  seat  of 
the  human  family  might  perhaps  be  dis- 
covered. If  the  observer  should  take 
his  stand  upon  the  mountains  of  West- 
ern Afghanistan,  he  would  not  be  far 
from  such  a  crossing  and  divergence  of 
ethnic  lines  as  might  indicate  the  original 
center  from  which  the  human  race  was 
Common  source    distributed  into  all  quarters 

of  Ruddy  and  f    ^j^       jrlobc.       This    is    tO 

Brown  races  & 

may  be  found.  gay  that  in  the  country  be- 
tween the  Afghan  borders  and  Beluchis- 
tan  the  Brown  races  of  men,  as  well  as 
the  Ruddy  races,  seem  to  take  their 
rise.  All  the  Mongoloid  varieties  of 
mankind  can  be  traced  back  to  this 
geographical  center,  and  we  have  already 
seen  that  the  Noachite,  or  Ruddy,  race 
had  its  origin  somewhere  in  the  same 
region. 

It  will  not  do,  however,  to  press  these 
indications  too  far.  The  Dravidian  peo- 
Dravidians  ap.  ples,  also  brown  as  to  their 
rs^ara^runr  color,  had  a  departure 
of  departure.  somewhat  further  south,  on 
the  coast,  between  the  mouth  of  the 
Indus  and  the  Persian  gulf.  In  fact,  the 
origin  of  this  branch  of  the  human  fam- 
ily appears  to  have  been  nearly  coinci- 
dent with  what  may  be  supposed  to  have 
been  the  seat  of  the  pre-Noachites.  But 
a  greater  obstacle  in  the  way  of  deter- 
mining an  ethnic  center  for  all  the  divi- 
sions of  mankind  is  encountered  in  the 
case  of  the  Black  races,  who  seem  not  to 
have  originated  from  this  region  at  all. 

M. — Vol.  I — 33 


Some  ethnographers,  going  beyond 
the  limits  of  determined  fact,  have  at- 
tempted to  find  the  origin  Hypothesis  of 
of  the  Brown  races  in  the  tT^iZ^e^'"" 
Indian  ocean ;  that  is,  in  a  mu"a. 
submerged  continent  formerly  occupying 
the  bottom  of  that  sea.  This  theory  has, 
no  doubt,  been  put  forth  with  a  view  to 
reconciling  existing  facts  with  the  hy- 
pothesis of  a  single  origin  for  the  whole 
human  race,  and  it  maybe  admitted  that 
such  a  hypothesis  would  fairly  explain 
the  facts  to  which  it  is  applied.  In  the 
present  state  of  knowledge,  however,  the 
line  of  demarkation  between  ascertained 
truth  and  hypothetical  explanation  must 
be  strictly  observed ;  not  with  a  view  to 
the  denial  of  the  possible  truth  in  the 
supposition  of  a  submarine  continent  un- 
der the  Indian  ocean,  with  its  Lemuria, 
a  thing  indeed  probable;  not  with  a 
view  to  the  positive  assertion  of  such  an 
opinion  as  the  truth,  but  simply  to  main- 
tain a  definite  boundary  between  knowl- 
edge and  conjecture. 

We  must,  therefore,  content  ourselves 
to  note  the  issuance  of  the  Brown  races 
from  Beluchistan,  and  to  trace  from  that 
origin  the  course  of  the  tribal  migrations 
which  ensued.  It  maybe  criteria  for  de- 
inquired  by  what  right  or  *^™on'o?' 
for  what  reason  the  eth-  migrations, 
nographer  fixes  upon  such  a  locality  as 
the  point  of  departure  for  great  races  in- 
habiting distant  quarters  of  the  earth, 
particularly  since  the  movement  which 
has  distributed  those  races  to  their  re- 
spective countries  was  prehistoric,  and 
therefore  not  to  be  ascertained  by  the 
usual  methods  of  proof.  It  may  be  well, 
at  this  point,  to  satisfy  the  reader  as  to 
the  validity  of  that  course  of  reasoning 


506 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAA'A'/Nn. 


which  leads  inevitably  to  the  conclusion 
of  certain  race  origins  and  divergencies 
beyond  the  borders  of  authentic  history. 
In  the  first  place,  the  testimony  of 
language  is  nearly  always  available  in 
In  what  manner    carr\'ing  the  inquirer  back- 

the  language  ,  •     .        i   ■    i      i, 

and  institutions  ward  to  a  point  whicii  he 
?est°r"d.'"'^'''  could  not  Otherwise  reach. 
Suppose,  for  instance,  that  all  authentic 


from  the  minds  of  men.  Would  it  be 
possible,  under  such  circumstances,  to 
revive,  by  means  of  existing  languages, 
a  knowledge  of  the  Latin  race,  of  its  in- 
stitutions, its  practices,  and,  in  general, 
its  history  ? 

Undoubtedly  such  a  revival  could  be 
easily  produced.  Take  the  six  modern 
Roman  languages,  called  Italian,  French, 


ROUTE  OF  THF.  DRAVIDIAN  DISPERSION.— Gorge  and  Fortress  of  ARDEBnEND.— Drawn  by  A.  de  Bar,  after  a  eltetch  f>» 

Blocqueville, 


knowledge  of  the  great  political  power 
called  Rome  was  obliterated  from  the 
annals  of  mankind.  Suppose  that  every 
book  in  which  a  trace  of  the  Latin  lan- 
giaage  and  literature  is  recorded  were 
utterly  destroyed.  Suppose  that  the 
memory  and  tradition  of  the  people 
t-alled  Romans    had    passed  completely 


Spanish,  Portuguese,  Wallachian,  and 
Proven9al,  and  examine  their  structure 
and  peculiarities.  It  is  found  that  they 
have  been  originally  deduced  /ro7U  sonic 
coinmon  speech  having  a  grammar  and  vo- 
cabulary of  a  determinate  form.  Out  of 
the  study  of  these  six  languages  that  old 
grammar  and  vocabulary  can  be  rccon- 


DISTRIBi'TIOX  OF  THE  RACES.— THE  BROIVX  DISPERSION.      507 


strucicd,  and  when  reconstructed,  they 
are  Latin.  If  Latin,  then  there  was  a 
Latin  race  that  spoke  it.  If  a  Latin  race, 
it  had  its  seat- and  its  institutions.  The 
seat  of  the  race  can  be  discovered  geo- 
graphically by  tracing  back  the  lines  of 
departure  by  which  the  six  nations  re- 
ferred to  have  reached  their  respective 
countries ;  and  the  institutions  of  Rome 
can  be  largely  redeveloped  by  means  of 


tions  of  a  method  which  may  be  univer- 
sally pursued.  Wherever  two  kindred 
tribes  are  found  on  the  earth  an  ex- 
amination of  their  language  and  of 
their  geographical  environment  will 
lead,  if  carefully  carried  out,  to  a  dis- 
covery of  their  common  origin,  or  of  the 
divergence  of  the  one  from  the  other. 
By  this  and  analogous  processes,  strictly 
scientific  in  their  nature  and  peculiarly 


LAMi  OF  THE  1  JRA\  1  Dl ANS.- 


the  etymological  hints  and  inherent  reve- 
lations of  the  descendent  languages. 

In  like  manner  we  may  group  togeth- 
er Latin  and  Greek  and  Old  High  Ger- 
man, Celtic,  Slavic,  Persic,  and  Sanskrit, 
The  whole  Ar-  and,  by  means  of  a  similar 
comparison  of  these  great 
varieties  of  speech,  can 
revive  the  grammar  and  vocabulary  of- 
the  primitive  Aryan  race  lying,  in  all  of 
its  activities,  completely  below  the  day- 
dawn  of  histoiy.     These  are  but  illustra- 


yan  group  may 
be  reconstruct- 
ed likewse. 


interesting  as  methods  for  the  increase 
of  human  knowledge,  the  ethnic  lines 
of  the  prehistoric  nations  may  be  traced 
over  continents  and  across  seas  until,  by 
their  conjunctions,  convergencies,  and 
parallelisms,  we  are  able  to  determine 
with  approximate  accuracy  the  earliest 
movements  of  the  human  race. 

We  will  begin  the  examination  of  the 
migrations  of  the  Brown  races  of  men  by 
tracing  out  the  course  of  the  Dravidians, 
these   being   the    southernmost    of    the 


508 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


ethnic  divisions  which  we  are  to  consider. 
Perhaps  they  were  the  oldest.  At  any 
Direction  and      rate,   their  origin   appears 

character  of  the     ^        ^^  ^^    ^     nearer     tO 

DravidiEin  dis- 
persion, the      Indian     ocean      than 

was  the  line  of  the  Asiatic  Mongoloids. 
As  already  intimated,  the  point  of  de- 
parture between  this  branch  of  the  hu- 
man family  and  the  primary  stem  of  the 
Ruddy  races  may  be  fixed  in  southern 
Beluchistan.  From  this  region  the  Dra- 
vndian  migratory  movement  was  toward 
the  east,  into  the  valley  of  the  Indus.  It 
is  probable  that  the  place  at  which  the 
Brown  tribes  first  entered  the  country 
was  near  the  junction  of  the  several 
.streams  which,  converging  from  the 
north,  inclo.se  the  Punjab.  From  this 
region  the  dispersion  of  the  race  began, 
eastward  across  the  uplands  of  Northern 
Hindustan  and  southward  into  the  penin- 
sula proper. 

It  can  not  be  doubted  that  from  the 
region  here  described  the  great  country 
between  the  bay  of  Bengal  and  the  Ara- 
invading  Aryans  biau  sca  received  its  original 
TorigTeVo;  populations.  It  will  be  re- 
i'"i''^-  membered  that  in  the  pre- 

ceding book  we  had  occasion,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  incoming  of  the  Old  Aryans 
into  the  Punjab  and  their  dispersion 
hence  through  Hindustan,  to  refer  to  the 
preoccupation  of  the  country  by  aborigi- 
nal tribes.  These,  then,  are  the  peoples 
whom  the  Aryans  found  and  overcame 
on  their  entrance  into  India.  It  was, 
perhaps,  the  first  contact  of  the  Ruddy 
races  of  the  northwest  with  the  Brown 
peoples  of  the  southeast,  since  the  orig- 
inal dispersion — if  such  there  were — of 
the  race. 

No  historical  record  has  been  preserved 
of  the  conquests  or  other  measures  by 
which  the  Aryans  became  dominant  in 
India.  But  there  are  the  best  of  reasons 
for  believing  that  the  original  population 


was  spared  by  the  stronger  people,  and 
was  absorbed  or  amalgamated  into  the 
Hindu  races  of  after  times.  Theconquerors 
One    of  the   principal  evi-  ?rerb%'cf' ^ 
deuces  of  such  amalgama-  races, 
tion  is  found  in  the  color  which  people  of 
this  region  of  the  earth  subsequently  as- 
sumed.    The  modern  Hindu  is  a  living 
witness  of  some   prehistoric  change  in 
complexion,  in  all  probability  the  direct 
result  of  the  admixture  of  the  primitive 
Brown   races  of  the  peninsula  with  the 
dominant  Aryan   conquerors  from    the 
north  and  west. 

The  fact  to  which  we  have  just  re- 
ferred of  a  permanent  modification  in 
the  color  of  the  skin  by  the  probability  that 
admixture  of  races,  and  '^^^H^^,^. 
the  establishment  thereby  io'is- 
of  a  typical  complexion  different  some- 
what from  that  of  either  of  the  original 
peoples  from  which  it  is  derived,  are 
general  phenomena  which  recur,  under 
like  circitmstances,  in  different  parts  of 
the  world.  In  all  probability  every 
race  now  existing  on  the  face  of  the 
earth  has  been  somewhat  modified  in  its 
complexion  by  the  absorption  of  foreign 
elements,  and  it  is  only  by  a  recognition 
of  this  fact  and  a  reference  of  it  to  its 
true  causes  that  the  ethnograjDher  has 
been  able  to  discover  that  underlying 
all  the  shades  of  complexion  in  the 
world  are  only  a -few  fundamental  colors 
from  which  every  intermediate  hue  has 
been  obtained  by  admixture  and  amal- 
gamation. 

For  a  long  time  after  the  attempt  was 
first  made  to  classify  the  human  race  on 
some  rational  plan,  the  color  of  the  dif- 
ferent families  of  men  was  coiorof  thehu- 
regarded  as  an  incident  of  ^^^.t ftomcur 
climate.  It  was  believed  mate, 
that  races  transferred  from  one  region 
to  another  suffered  a  change  of  complex- 
ion  under  the  influence  of  sun  and  air. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— THE  BROWN  DISPERSION.       509 


Beginning  with  the  general  fact  that  the 
darker  races  are,  for  the  most  part,  equa- 
torial in  their  distribution,  it  was  con- 
cluded that  the  Black  races  had  become 
so  from  the  high  heat,  the  scorching 
sunlight,  and  the  arid  atmosphere  to 
which  they  were  exposed.  It  was  as- 
sumed that  the  White  races  belonged  to 
the  higher  latitudes  and  that  the  Yellow 
and  Brown  peoples  have  been  made  so 
by  their  respective  geographical,  or 
rather  climatic,  environment.  It  has 
remained  for  more  careful  investiga- 
tions to  show  that  these  opinions  have 
but  little  foundation  in  fact. 

It  appears,  then,  that  instead  of  the 
colors  of  the  different  races  being  de- 
Variations  of  pendent  upon  the  latitude 
?oprrar;tth.  ^ud  Other  Conditions  of 
nic  conditions,  the  couutry  into  which 
the  tribes  were  dispersed,  the  different 
complexions  of  the  primitive  peoples 
were  almost  independent  of  their  posi- 
tion with  respect  to  the  equator.  The 
relation,  or  correlation,  between  color 
and  climate  is  neither  constant  nor  ex- 
act in  any  particular.  It  has  been  found 
that  some  of  the  Indians  of  Upper  Cal- 
ifornia, rmder  the  latitude  of  forty-two 
decrees  north,  are  as  black  as  the  Ne- 
groes  of  Guinea;  and  it  is  also  noted 
that  those  Negroes  who  are  at  a  de- 
parture of  as  much  as  fifteen  degrees 
from  the  equator  are  much  more  nearly 
absolutely  black  than  those  who  dwell 
along  the  equatorial  line ;  that  is,  in 
this  region  the  race  seems  to  grozu  ■whiter 
with  its  approach  to  the  center  of  solar 
influence. 

In  the  southernmost  parts  of  North 
America,  namely,  in  the  extremes  of 
Evidence  of  the  Mexico  lying  between  the 
insufficiency  of     latitudes  of  fifteen  degrees 

climate  to  make  *=> 

complexion.  and  tweuty-three  degrees 
north,  many  of  the  aboriginal  peoples 
■were  of  a  reddish  or  olive  complexion. 


almost  as  light  as  that  of  the  Ruddy 
races.  The  Esquimaux  of  the  extreme 
north  of  Europe  and  America  are  very 
dark  as  to  their  complexion,  Avhile  the 
Finns,  who  are  almost  as  near  the  polar 
reeions  as  it  is  possible  for  men  to  live, 
are  comparatively  white.  The  concom- 
itant facts  of  light  hair  and  blue  eyes, 
along  with  the  lightness  of  skin  color, 
belong  to  many  tribes  that  are  dispersed 
well  toward  the  tropical  regions.  The 
Afghans  of  India  and  the  Taureg  tribes 
of  the  .Sahara  desert  and  the  Amazonian 
nations  of  South  America  are  of  this 
character.  Humboldt  has  pointed  out 
the  fact  that  the  South  American  In- 
dians inhabiting  the  plateau  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras, clearly  within  the  torrid  zone, 
are  identical  in  color  with  others  whom 
he  had  observed  as  far  down  as  the  forty- 
fifth  degree  of  south  latitude.  We  are 
thus  constrained  by  undeniable  facts  to 
refer  the  extremes  of  complexion  in  the 
human  race  to  an  origin  other  than  cli- 
matic environment.  In  fact,  the  races 
of  men  differ  in  color  absolutely,  and  have 
done  so  independently  of  their  geograph- 
ical position  from  the  earliest  ages  in 
which  human  phenomena  began  to  be 
observed  and  recorded. 

Returning  from  this  digression,  we 
find  the  lines  of  distribution  for  the 
Dra vidians  to  be  drawn  course  of  the 
around  by  the  valley  of  the  StlTnd"'' 
Ganges,  skirting  the  south-  Ceyion. 
eastern  coast  of  the  Indian  peninsula  to 
its  southern  extremity.  Thence  the 
race  passed,  by  easy  migration,  into  the 
island  of  Ceylon,  where  it  received  per- 
haps its  most  characteristic  development. 
It  is  here  that  the  modern  Veddahs,  of 
whom  mention  has  been  previously 
made,  display  the  old  race  character  in 
its  recent  aspects.  In  the  island,  as 
well  as  on  the  continent,  however,  the 
dominant    Aryan  peoples  have  pressed 


510 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIXD. 


upon  the  natives,  until  the  latter  now 
represent  only  about  thirty  per  cent  of 
the  whole  population.  In  the  prehistoric 
ao-e  all  the  aborijjincs  of  Ccvlon  were  of 
the  same  Brown  family  witli  the  people 
of  Southern  India  and  Eastern  Bcluchis- 
tan.  At  the  present  time  the  Dravid- 
ian  population  is  compacted  in  the  east- 
ern and  southern  parts  of  the  island, 
where  the  condition  and  character  of  the 
race  are  still  subject  to  the  study  of 
travelers  and  scholars. 


nese  departure; 
Lohitos  and 
Burmese. 


MODERN    DRAVIDIANS — KOTA   TYPES, 
Dr.lwn  by  P.  FVitel.  from  a  photograph. 


Returning  to  what  may  be  called  the 
intersection  of  the  original  Brown  and 
The Maiayo-Chi-  Ruddy  races  of  mankind 
in  Afghanistan,  we  find 
that  the  first  principal  Asi- 
atic stream  of  the  former  family  was  the 
!Malayo-Chinese  departure.  This  took 
its  course  in  the  direction  of  the  Upper 
Punjat,  and  crossed  directly  to  the 
east  into  Thibet.  There  appears,  how- 
ever, to  have  been  thrown  off  to  the 
southeast,  into  the  Himalayas,  a  branch 
of  this  family,  which  is  at  the  present 


time  represented  by  the  Lohito  tribes, 
between  the  Ganges  and  the  Himalayas. 
These  are  evidently  Jlongoloids,  and 
must  thus  be  in  race  alliance  with  the 
Thibetans  north  of  the  mountains.  A 
second  stream  carried  down  the  Bunnese 
to  their  destination  on  the  east  coa.st  of 
the  bay  of  Bengal.  From  this  line 
there  appears  to  have  been  deflected, 
somewhat  above  its  intersection  with 
the  Lan-Tlisang  river,  a  secondary  move- 
ment, tending  almost  directly  to  the 
southeast  and  termi- 
nating  in  two 
branches,  the  one 
in  Southern  Annam 
and  the  other  on  the 
gulf  of  Tonquin. 

By  this  latter 
movement  the  An- 
namese  peninsula, 
between  the  Cam- 
bodia and  the  South 
China  sea,  was  pop- 
ulated. It  appears, 
however,  that  the 
Siamese  peninsula, 
west  of  the  Cambo- 
dia, received  its  eth- 
nic stream  from  a 
departure  which  was 
made  high  up  in 
Thibet,  and  that  this 
latter  migratory  line  crossed  the  Annam- 
ese  dispersion  on  its  way  to  the  south. 
Another  peculiarity  of  the  Doubts  respect- 
ethnic  di.stribution  of  Siam  '^J^ir^^:^: 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  suiarAsia. 
the  populations  south  of  latitude  fif- 
teen degrees  north  all  partake  of  the 
character  of  the  Polynesian  Mongo- 
loids, as  distinguished  from  the  Asi- 
atics. Ethnogi"aphers  have  therefore 
agreed  to  regard  the  extreme  of  the 
penin,sula  and  the  adjacent  i-slands 
of  Sumatra  and   Borneo    as  having  re- 


512 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


ceived  a  Polynesian  stream  either 
turned  back  by  reversal  from  the  Micro- 
nesian  archipelago,  or  else  deduced  by  a 
change  of  ethnic  character  from  the 
Malayo-Chinese  stem.  The  Polynesian 
line  which  we  are  here  considering  may 
be  traced  through  Sumatra  and  North- 
ern Borneo,  from  which  the  migration 
appears  to  have  turned  northward  into 
the  Philippine  islands,  and  thence  to  the 
east  into  Micronesia. 

Here  it  is  that  we  begin  to  consider  the 


more 


VIEW    IN    EASTER    ISLAND — IMAGES  AT    RONOBORAK 
Drawn  by  E.  Meunier. 


great  problem  of  the  original  peopling 
of  the  islands  of  the  South  Pacific.  Ex- 
cept in  Melanesia,  all  of  the  great 
group  lying  between  the  coast  of  China 
and  South  America  are  inhabited  by 
people  of  the  Brown  race.  They  are 
manifestly  allied  with  the 
Asiatic  Mongoloids  and 
the  Dravidians  in  their 
ultimate  origin  and  descent.  No  meth- 
od more  rational,  more  consistent  with 
the  facts  can  be  devised  than  to  sup- 
pose their  distribution  into  the  great 
archipelago  from  the  smaller  group  of 


Problem  of  the 
peopling  of 
Polynesia. 


islands  directly  east  of  the  Philippines. 
This  group  is  generally  known  as  the 
Caroline  islands,  or  Micronesia.  From 
this  point  the  archipelago  eastward  is 
exceedingly  dispersed  through  a  distance 
of  more  than  twenty-five  degrees  of 
longitude.  Yet  the  progress  northward 
into  the  Ladrones  could  have  been  easily 
made. 

From  the  Caroline  group  eastward  to 
the  Marshall  and  Gilbert  islands  was  a 
extended  and  difficult  voyage. 
Thence  the 
line  contin- 
ued to  the 
southeast, 
through  the 
Ellice  group 
to  Samoa, 
where  there 
was  an  evi- 
dent bifurca- 
tion into  two 
great  lines  of 
progress. 
Meanwhile, 
from  the  El- 
lice a  stream 
of  island  mi- 
gration ap- 
pears to  have 
been  carried 
out  to  the  Phoenix  islands,  where  we  may 
suppose  the  movement  in  tliis  direction 
to  have  ceased.  From  Sa-  outreaching 
moa  one  line  of  departure  St^a^d'""" 

was  to  the  west  of  south  into    Gilbert  islands. 

the  Friendly  islands,  then  southwest  to 
Norfolk,  and  then  southeast  to  New 
Zealand.  Here,  in  the  North  island  and 
the  South  island,  were  distributed  the 
ocean  tribes  from  which  has  sprung  the 
remarkable  race  of  Maoris,  of  whose  char- 
acter and  peculiarities  a  sketch  will  be 
presented  in  a  subsequent  book. 

Eastward    from    Samoa    the   line   of 


^-^^^^^^ 


DISTRIBUTION   OF   THE  RACES.— THE   BROWN  DISPERSION.     513 


migration  was  carried  to  the  Society 
islands,  whence  it  again  divided  north 
Dispersion  from    and    south    for    two    great 

*rou  ^Tnd'the  departures  toward  the  con- 
Marquesas,  tinents  of  America.  The 
southern  line  passed  down  to  the  Austral 
islands,  and  then  southeastward  to  the 
Oparo  group,  one  hundred  and  forty-five 
degrees  west  from  Greenwich.  From 
this  point,  about  latitude  twenty-eight 
degrees  south,  the  line  of  departure, 
through  seventy-five  degrees  of  longi- 
tude, appears  to  have  been  almost  di- 
rectly to  the  east,  through  the  Elizabeth 
islands,  the  Easter  group.  Saint  Am- 
brose, and  finally  to  the  coast  of  South 
America,  about  the  center  of  Chili. 

The  other  branch  of  Polynesian  dis- 
persion from  the  Society  islands  was 
borne  to  the  northeast,  to  the  Mar- 
quesas group.  On  this  line  there  was  a 
departure  to  the  right,  from  which  the 
Low  Archipelago  may  be  supposed  to 
have  been  peopled.  From  the  Marque- 
sas the  island  migrations  bore  backward 
to  the  northwest,  through  more  than 
twenty  degrees  of  latitude,  passing,  by 
way  of  Maldon  and  Fanning,  to  Carson. 
Here  the  course  was  again  changed  to 
the  east  of  north,  to  the  Sandwich 
islands.  From  this  noted  ocean  group 
the  migration  continued  islandwise  to 
the  northeast,  passing  through  the 
sparsely  scattered  points  for  a  distance 
of  twenty  degrees  of  longitude,  to  the 
Pasaries.  From  this  group  the  line  was 
carried  away  through  Henderson  on  a 
long  curve  a  little  to  the  south  of  east, 
until  it  entered  the  gulf  of  California 
and  touched  the  coast  of  Mexico. 

These  migratory  movements  which 
ethnogi'aphers  have  attempted  to  trace 
through  the  South  Pacific  represent,  of 
course,  only  tlic  major  lines  of  dispersion 
along  which  the  Polynesian  Mongoloids 
were  carried  to  their  almost  infinite  dis- 


tribution in  these  limitless  waters.  It 
was  essentially  a  progress  from  island  to 

island.      The     stages     were    Easiness  and 
*=  difficulty  of 

sometimes    easy    and    the  the  progress 

,  1  .       through  Poly- 

movement  by  no  means  m-  nesia. 

credible.  In  other  parts  of  the  migra- 
tions the  distance  was  great  from  point  to 
23oint  of  departure  and  lodgment.  Nor 
may  it  be  easily  conceived  how  the  prog- 
ress was  continued  by  races  whose  skill 
in  navigation  must  have  been  limited  by 
the  conditions  of  savagery.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  however,  that  for  weeks 
and  months  together  the  waters  of  the 
South  Pacific  are  as  placid  as  an  unruffled 
lake..  The  trade  winds  are  equable  and 
of  constant  direction.  The  climate  is 
mild  in  the  last  degree.  Under  such 
conditions  even  savages,  in  open  boats, 
with  a  modicum  of  sail,  would  drift,  as 
in  a  dream,  for  hundreds,  perhaps  thou- 
sands, of  miles.  These  are  the  circum- 
stances which  make  it  possible  for  the  eth- 
nic distribution  through  the  islands  of 
Polynesia  to  have  been  effected  in  the 
manner  above  described. 

It  is  not  the  purpose,  at  this  point,  to 
develop  the  dispersion  of  the  Polynesian 

races  through  the  two  con-    Probable  deriva- 

tinents  of  America.  The  ^^^VeNew^"^^ 
distribution  of  the  vari-  "World. 
ous  branches  of  the  human  family  in 
these  continents  will  be  considered  when 
the  Asiatic  Mongoloids  have  also  been 
traced  to  the  western  shores  of  North 
America.  Grave  questions  arise  in  the 
mind  of  the  inquirer  relative  to  the  cer- 
tainty or  uncertainty  of  the  movements 
by  which  the  first  men  were  distributed 
on  our  continent.  In  the  present  state 
of  knowledge  the  bottom  problems  aris- 
ing in  this  connection  must  be  passed  by 
as  unsolved.  The  best  that  ethnography 
can  do  in  the  premises  is  to  trace  out  the 
possible,  even  probable,  approximation  of 
the  Polynesian  and  Asiatic  Mongoloids 


514 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


to  the  westerr.  parts  of  the  two  Ameri- 
cas. It  is  certainly  not  impossible  that  the 
race  of  man  may  have  thus  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  New  World,  and  may 
have  been  disseminated  from  ethnic 
stocks  which  were  derived  from  the 
northeasternmost  parts  of  Asia  and  the 
islands  of  the  South  Pacific.  The  im- 
mediate task  before  us  is  to  resume  the 
consideration  of  the  migratory  lines  by 
which  the  Brown  races  were  dispersed 
through  the  larger  parts  of  Asia. 


dispersed,  and  where  they  have  since 
developed  into  the  type  of  Chinese  prop- 
er. All  the  races  south  of  the  Hoang-Ho 
and  north  of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  are 
of  this  common  stock,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  distinct  and  persistent  types  of 
mankind. 

The  East  Mongols,  as  distinguished 
from  the  Chinese  and  the  Malayo-Chi- 
nese,  flowed  from  a  branch  of  the  Asiatic 
Mongoloid  family  known  as  the  North- 
east division.     Its  course  from  Afghan- 


-•^^jfe«a=!^'  lU*-^*  w 


fc 


ROUTE  OF  THE  IKJXGOLIAN   IMSl'KIIlU  rioN— Thian-,>h.>:,   MuwM  ,,i.N.,.-Ui.iiMi  by  Ki. 


We  have  now  followed  the  lines  of 
distribution  from  Thibet,  in  the  south- 
r,  ,,       ^.  eastward  direction,  to  the 

Outbranching 

of  the  Asiatic       Anuamese  and  the  Siamese 

Mongoloids.  .  ,  _ 

penmsulas.  Returnmg  to 
the  point  of  departure  we  find  from  the 
valley  of  the  Lan-Thsang  a  full  stream  of 
migration,  tending  directly  toward  the 
east  and  into  the  heart  of  the  Chinese 
empire.  From  the  head-waters  of  the 
Lan-Thsang  to  those  of  the  Yang-tse  the 
migratory  movement  carried  the  true 
^Mongolians  into  the  valley  of  the  great 
central  river  of  China,  where  they  were 


istan  was  through  Eastern  Turkistan  and 
into  that  part  of  China  which  is  known 
geographically  as  Mongolia.  This  coun- 
try occupies  the  great  re- 

J  ^  *'  Distribution  of 

gion   between   the   Amoor  the  Northeast- 

,  .  1       TT  TT  .,,    ,,        ern  Asiatics. 

and  the  Hoang-Ho,  With  the 
exception  of  the  eastern  part,  next  to 
Corea  and  the  sea  of  Japan,  which  is 
called  Manchuria.  The  people  known 
as  Manchus  are  also  descendants  of  the 
northeast  stream  of  Asiatic  Mongoloids. 
It  is  in  this  region,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Amoor,  that  the  great  movement  of 
the  Brown  races  of  men  in  their  progress 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.— THE   BROWN  DISPERSION.     515 


eastward  was  checked  and  turned  back 
into  the  almost  limitless  regions  of  North- 
Dispersionof  em  Asia.  First  of  all  the 
d'eflfct:iintr/  Mongolian  stream,  after 
Amoor  valley.  crossing  to  the  nortli  of  the 
Amoor,  was  reflected  into  a  loop,  and  the 
migratory  movement  was  resumed  to- 
ward the  head-waters  of  the  Hoane-Ho. 


appears  that  the  reverse  line  represent- 
ing the  departure  of  this  race  reaches 
throughoiit  the  entire  breadth  of  Asia, 
having  its  origin  as  a  separate  ethnic 
division  in  the  Russian  province  of 
Amoor,  north  of  the  river  of  that  name, 
and  extending  westward  through  Mon- 
golia into  Turkistan.     The  main  migra- 


iK-HCElrm 


CHUTE  OF  TCHrMBdULAC— Drawn  by  D.  Lancelot,  after  Atklii^r,,,. 


In  the  upper  valley  of  this  great  river 
the  Calmuck  Tartars  were  deposited,  as 
the  result  of  the  backward  migration  just 
described.  A  second  stream  was  deflect- 
ed from  the  main  line  of  this  movement 
and  contributed  the  Buriats,  holding  the 
country  south  of  lake  Baikal.  More  ex- 
traordinary still  was  the  departure  from 
the  backward  curve  of  the  Mongoloids 
of  the  Turkish  division  of  mankind.     It 


tory  line  seems  to  have  passed  south  of 
lake  Balkash,  and  to  have  thence  contin- 
ued its  western  progress  across  the  Ural 
and  the  Volga  to  the  northern  shores  of 
the  Black  .sea.  On  the  whole,  this  progress 
of  the  Turcomans  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable among  the  ethnic  movements 
of  mankind.  The  principal  families  de- 
posited at  the  extreme  of  the  migration 
on  the  line  we  are  now  considering  were 


516 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


the  Nogaians,  whose  territory  reached 
from  the  Volga  to  the  Caucasus  and  the 
Black  sea. 

Before   attempting   to  define   all  the 
dispersions  of  the  Turks  in  their  back- 
ward movement  into  West- 

Bace  lines  of  .....,, 

Samoyedsand      crn  Asia,  it  IS  desirable  to 

Ural-Altaics.  ,  r   it.  1.1. 

note  some  of  the  other  re- 
turning   ethnic    curves    of    the    Brown 


gration  from  the  departure  of  these  two 
peoples  was,  for  the  Samoyeds,  some- 
what south,  through  the  region  between 
lake  Baikal  and  the  desert  of  Gobi ; 
thence  the  line  extended  westward 
until  it  crossed  the  river  Obi,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Tobol.  West  of  this 
great  stream  began  the  dispersion  of  the 
so-called    Turanian,   or  Ural-Altaic,  na- 


OKF  THE  COAST  OF  COREA.— Drawn  by  Theodure  Weber,  after  Zuber. 


races  to  the  north  of  the  Turkish  line. 
From  the  same  origin  with  the  Turks 
themselves,  in  the  country  north  of  the 
principal  bend  of  the  Amoor,  extended 
westward  another  grejit  stream  of  mi- 
gration, which  bore  at  first  the  com- 
bined volume  of  the  Samoyed  and  Ural- 
Altaic  nations.     The  course  of  the  mi- 


tions,  whose  development  covers,  in 
general  terms,  the  whole  region  be- 
tween the  Baltic  and  the  Obi.  From 
the  central  line  of  migration  westward, 
having  its  termini  among  the  Finns  and 
Lapps  in  the  extreme  north  of  Europe, 
many  subordinate  migrations  turned  to 
the  left  and  right,  the  principal  of  which 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.— THE   BROWN  DISPERSION.     517 


were  the  streams  which'  contributed  cer- 
tain Mongoloid  families  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Ural  and  the  Volga,  and  the  de- 
parture on  the  south  which  ended  with 
the  Esths,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Baltic. 

Returning  to  the  point  of  division  be- 
tween the  Ural-Altaic  and  the  Samoyed 
families  east  of  lake  Baikal, 

Distribution  of 

theTwagiand      we  find  the   latter  stream 

the  Juraks.  •         -.  .  j 

pursuing  its  way  westward, 
dropping  one  branch  of  the  family  in  the 
valley  of  the  Upper  Angora,  and  carry- 
ing its  volume  thence  northward  to  the 
Twagi  tribes,  east  of  the  gulf  of  Obi,  un- 
der latitude  seventy  degrees  north.  The 
main  stream  continued  westward  to  about 
the  meridian  of  eighty  degrees  east 
from  Greenwich,  where  another  branch 
was  thrown  off  northward,  contributing 
the  Juraks  to  the  peninsula  west  of  the 
Yenisei  river.  Still  a  third  departure 
entered  the  Yalmal  peninsula,  where  the 
Juraks  also  bear  witness  of  the  Mongo- 
loid origin.  The  westward  course  of  the 
Samoyed  dispersion  ended  between  the 
meridians  of  forty  degrees  and  fifty  de- 
grees east,  with  the  tribes  of  Vanuta  and 
Laghe. 

If  then  once  more  we  take  our  stand 
in    Manchuria,   we    shall    find    still    an- 
other great  curve,  to  which 

Outline  of  the  ,  ,       .  c    rr^ 

Tungusian  dis-     the  ethnic  name    of     iun- 

persion.  ■  i  -u 

gusian  has  been  given, 
bending  in  like  manner  close  along  the 
sea  of  Japan,  and  thence  turning  to  the 
west  and  north.  It  was  from  a  branch 
of  this  Tungusian  stem  bearing  off  to 
the  south  through  Manchuria  that  the 
Coreans  were  deduced,  and  an  extension 
of  the  same  migration  carried  into  Nip- 
pon the  primitive  Japanese.  The  Ainos, 
also  of  Yezo,  on  the  north,  may  be  a 
derivative  of  the  same  branch  which 
here  perhaps  reaches  its  limit  ocean- 
ward.      The  main  line   also  divides  in 


high  latitudes,  throwing  out  branches, 
especially  on  the  right,  which  find  the 
limits  of  their  departure  among  the  Ya- 
taks,  the  Tunguses,  and  other  arctic 
tribes,  in  the  extreme  limits  of  North- 
eastern Asia.  From  this  same  origin, 
moreover,  the  eastern  movement  was 
continued  through  the  great  Asiatic 
peninsula  which  stretches  out  between 
the  Arctic  ocean  and  the  North  Pacific 
toward  Behring  strait.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  Mongoloid  tribes 
inhabiting  this  region,  such  as  the  La- 
muts,  the  Itelmes,  the  Koriaks,  and  oth- 
ers, are  of  the  same  Alongoloid  origin  with 
the  Tungusians,  the  ]Manchurians,  the 
East  Mongolians,  the  Ural-Altaics,  and 
the  Samoyeds,  the  difference  being 
chiefly  in  modifications  of  development 
effected  by  the  peculiar  geographical 
environment  into  which  the  eastern  di- 
vision of  the  race  was  thrown  on  its 
progress  to  the  northwestern  extremity 
of  North  America. 

Such,  in  brief,  is  a  sketch  in  outline 
of  the  distribution  of  the  Brown  races 
through  the  continent  of  Asia.  We 
have  now  traced  the  Polynesian  lines  to 
the  western  coasts  of  South  outer  circuit  of 
America  and  Mexico,  and  '■^t't^l^ 
the  Asiatic  Mongoloid  lines  races, 
through  the  eastern  extension  of  North- 
ern Asia  and  the  Aleutian  islands,  to 
the  northwestern  shores  of  North  Amer- 
ica. Before  beginning  an  account  of 
the  distribution  of  the.se  various  ilongo- 
loid  races  in  the  New  World,  it  will  be 
desirable  to  notice  some  exceptional 
lines  which  they  seem  to  have  followed, 
even  to  the  extreme  west  of  Europe. 

It  is  claimed   by  ethnographers  that 
the   Basques  and   Iberians,   Question  of  the 
the  ancient  nations  of  the  t^^^^^T^A 
Spanish  peninsula,  were  of  n>erians. 
Mongoloid    extraction.       The    question 
has  been  much  debated  and  the  argu- 


518 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXk'IXD. 


ments  fortified  with  every  variety  of 
proof.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  conceded 
that  these  primitive  peoples  of  Spain 
were  allied  in  their  race  descent  with  the 
Mongolians  of  the  Asiatic  continent. 
Between  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  how- 
ever, and  the  main  line  of  the  original 
Mongoloid  dispersion  where  it  passes 
northward  through  Beluchistan,  there 
have  been  found  no  ilongoloid  tribes,  or 
indeed  any  distinct  traces  of  their  pres- 
ence. In  some  manner,  then,  we  may 
assume  that  the  Basques  and  Iberians 
reached  their  destination  in  the  extreme 
west.  By  what  route  they  did  so  must 
remain  conjectural.  It  may  have  been 
by  transnavigation  of  the  IMediterranean. 
But  the  greater  likelihood  seems  to  be 
that  in  very  primitive  times  a  branch 
put  off  to  the  west  from  the  pre-Mongo- 
loid  stem,  passing  through  the  countries 
of  the  Hamites  about  the  head  of  the 
Persian  gulf,  across  Upper  Arabia,  and 
through  the  whole  extent  of  North  Afri- 
ca to  the  straits,  and  thence  into  South- 
ern Spain.  Such  a  line  may,  at  any 
rate,  without  undue  .straining  of  the 
hypothesis,  account  for  the  presence  in 
the  west  of  Europe  of  nations  evidently 
allied  in  their  ethnic  descent  with  the 
Thibetans  and  Malayo-Chinese. 

The   presence   of  the  Esths  between 

the    Letts   and    Finns    on    the   eastern 

shores   of    the    Baltic    has 

Place  of  the 

Esths  in  the        al.so  constituted  a  problem 

scheme  of  races,     j.  i   •    i  ,       ■  , 

tor  which  a  solution  has 
already  been  found  in  the  deflection  of  a 
southern  line  from  the  Ural-Altaic 
migration  in  Northern  Europe.  Some 
ethnographers  have  not  hesitated  to 
mark  out  a  route  of  migration  from  the 
country  of  the  Basques  in  a  north- 
eastern direction,  across  Gaul  and  Ger- 
many, into  Esthonia !  But,  considering 
the  general  course  and  character  of  the 
movements   by   which    Central    Europe 


was  peopled,   the  latter  supposition  ap- 
pears to  be  altogether  unwarranted. 

A  general  comment  or  two  will  be 
appropriate  as  to  the  character  of  the 
dispersion  of  the  Brown  races  in  the 
countries   which   we   have 

Ethnic  connec- 

thus  far  considered.  In  tionsofthe 
the  first  place,  it  is  remark-  ^  ^e^^y- 
able,  in  view  of  the  earl}-  preferences 
which  the  Mongoloids  showed  for  warm 
climates,  that  Africa  has  been  untouched 
by  their  migrations.  The  nearest  ap- 
proach to  this  continent  which  the  Brown 
races  has  made  is  that  of  the  Polynesian 
Mongoloids  in  Madagascar.  It  is  in 
evidence  that  from  the  island  of  Java  a 
branch  of  this  race  made  its  way  through 
the  Indian  ocean,  touching  perhaps  at 
the  southern  point  of  Ceylon,  and  thence 
passing  in  a  southerly  dii-ection  from 
island  group  to  island  group  to  its 
destination  and  development  in  the 
natives  races  of  Madagascar.  To  these 
peoples  ethnography  has  assigned  the 
ethnic  name  of  Malagasy. 

In  the  second  place,  it  may  be  noted 
that  the  Brown  races,  in  the  primary 
stages  of  their  distribution,  appear  to 
have  been  drawn  by  cosmic  General  and 

■'  special  direc- 

forces  toivard  tlic  cast.      In  tions  ofthe 

,     ^         ,  ,     .  Brown  disper- 

general,  Southern  Asia  re-  sion. 
ceived  its  populatioi>  from  movements  in 
this  direction.  These  movements  con- 
tinued until  the  Pacific  was  reached,  and 
was  even  carried  forward  through  the 
Polynesian  archipelagoes  until,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  race  lines  probably  touched 
the  western  shores  of  the  New  World. 
But  on  the  continent  the  eastern  migra- 
tions of  the  Mongoloids  seem  to  have 
fallen  into  a  whirl  in  Manchuria,  and  to 
have  been  bent  backwards,  as  above  de- 
scribed, through  the  whole  extent  of 
Northern  Asia  and  even  far  into  Eu- 
rope. The  world-wide  extent  of  these 
movements  can  with  difficulty  be  appre- 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— THE  BROWX  DISPERSIOX.       519 


ciated  or  understood  even  by  the  student 
of  history,  to  whom  great  continental 
stretches  and  far-reaching  developments 
are  familiar.  As  compared  with  the 
limited  dispersion  of  the  Hamitic  and 
Semitic  nations,  or  even  with  the  greater 
and  more  populous  distribution  of  the 
Aryans  in  the  small  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, the  Asiatic  and  Oceanic  disper- 
sion of  the  Mongoloids  appears  to  the 
scholar  in  ethnography  and  history  as 
world-wide  and  limitless. 

We  come,  then, 
to  look  briefly  at 
the  primitive  dis- 
tribution of  man- 
kind in  the  two 
Americas.  For 
many  reasons  the 
ethnology  of  these 
continents  is  be- 
set with  special 
difficulties.  The 
aboriginal  peoples 
inhabiting  them 
were  uncivilized 
races  in  the  prelit- 
erary  stages  of  de- 
velopment. Their 
monuments  had 
already  fallen  into 
the      domain      of 

archasolog)-  before  the  coming  of  the 
White  races.  The  peculiar  family  rela- 
tion existing  among  nearly  all  the  tribes 
Difficult  eth-  of  the  New  World  tended 
to  confuse  the  lines  of  race 
distinction  and  to  blur  the 
whole  ethnographic  outline.  The  house- 
hold was  generally  based  upon  a  system  of 
marriage  differing  but  little  from  poly- 
andry, the  result  of  which  was  to  con- 
verge the  lines  of  descent  through  the 
woman  instead  of  the  man.  The  tribes 
were  largely  nomadic  in  their  disposi- 
tion.    War  and  conquest  were  frequent, 


and  one  race,  by  means  of  aggression 
and  victory,  was  many  times  super- 
imposed territorially  on  another. 

Behind  all  this  confusion  there  ap- 
pears to  the  ethnographer  the  shadow 
of  the  bottom  question  rel-  , 

.  .    .      ultunate  denva- 

ative  to   the  primary  origin  tionofthein- 

^     .,  ^,.      T  dian  races. 

of   these  races.      \\  e  nave 
agreed  to  regard  the  Polynesian  islands 
and  Northeastern  Asia  as  the  sources  of 
the  American  aborigines,  but  it  may  be 
frankly  confessed  that  so  much  has  not 


COAST   OF   MADAGASCAR    ANU 


nography  of  the 
American  ab- 
origines. 


VIEW   OF    MAJONGA. — LIMIT  OF   THE   BROWX  DISPERSION". 
Drawn  by  De  Berard. 

been  established  by  irrefragable  proofs. 
Nevertheless,  the  affinity  and  diversity 
of  languages  prevalent  in  the  New  World 
give  many  evidences,  when  compared 
with  Polynesian  and  Asiatic  tongues, 
of  a  common  paternity;  and  ethnic 
and  tribal  lines  have  been  in  many 
parts  sufficiently  maintained  to  indi- 
cate Avith  tolerable  certainty  the  direc- 
tion of  migrations  and  the  ultimate 
derivation  of  these  barbarous  peoples. 
The  physical  peculiarities  of  the  Red 
men,  the  primitive  Mexicans,  and  the  Es- 
quimaux have  also  been  of  advantage  in 


520 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIXD. 


clearing  up  many  questions  relating  to  the 
first  people  of  North  America ;  and  the 
persistcncyof  manners  and  customs — that 
great  fact  wliich  has  often  come  to  the 
rescue  of  embarrassed  scholarship — has 
thrown  its  constant  light  on  many  ob- 
scure parts  of  the  questions  here  before 
us.  We  shall  now  attempt,  following  the 
hypothesis  of  an  Asiatic  and  Polynesian 
origin,  to  delineate  the  course  of  dis- 
tribution of  the  primitive  races  through 
the   two  Americas,  and   their    develop- 


the  Koriaks  and  Chuk-chee  tribes,  that 
has  warranted  the  conclusion  of  an  Asi- 
atic derivation  for  the  Orarians. 

The  line,  therefore,  marking  the  dis- 
persion of  the  northeastern  stream  of 
Asiatic  Mongoloids  into  Easy  derivation 
these  extreme  parts  of  Asia  t^^^^:^' 
may  well  be  drawn  across  the  Asiatics, 
the  strait  and  distributed  into  the  penin- 
sular region  of  Northwestern  North 
America.  In  like  manner,  the  clear 
relationship    of    the    people    inhabiting 


ROUTE  OF  THE  ORARIAN  DISPERSION.— Peril  SxRAlTS.-Drawn  by  Theodore  Weber. 


ment  into  distinct  families  of   the  hu- 
man species. 

In  the  extreme  northwestern  portion 
of  North  America  we  find  a  rather  wide- 
_,         ^  ^       ly  dispersed  race,  to  which 

Place  and  affin-       ■'  ^  ' 

itiesofthe  ethnographers  have  given 

the  name  of  Orarians.  In 
general,  they  are  distributed  in  that  penin- 
sular part  of  the  continent  which  extends 
from  the  meridian  of  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  degrees  west  to  Behring 
strait.  It  is  the  affinity,  almost  unmis- 
takable, of  these  people  wath  the  Yakuts 
of  Northeastern  Asia,  particularly  with 


the  southern  part  of  the  Alaskan  penin- 
sula with  the  Pacific  peoples  of  the 
Aleutian  islands,  gives  warrant  for  the 
derivation  of  the  former  from  the  latter. 
It  is  in  this  Alaskan  portion  of  the 
country  that  ethnographers  have  placed 
the  Orarians  proper,  while  to  the  north, 
in  Upper  Alaska,  that  is,  between  the 
Yukon  and  the  Arctic  ocean,  we  have  a 
distribution  of  the  Western  Esquimaux. 
Further  to  the  east  and  central  to  the 
peninsula  are  the  Tinneh  races,  or  at 
least  a  branch  thereof,  w-hile  to  the 
south  of  these  and  around  the  coar.t  of 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— THE  BROWN  DISPERSION.     521 


the  Great  archipelago  are  located  the 
Tlinkets  and  Xasses.  The  outlying 
islands  are  inhabited  by  other  branches 
of  the  same  race  called  the  Yakuts, 
the  Sitkans,  and  the  Hidahs. 

By  the  time  that  the  ethnographer  has 
advanced  thus  far  to  the  east,  in  follow- 
ing the  lines  of  the  Asiatic  Mongoloids 


the  Polynesians  who  had  come  primarily 
to  the  shore  of  the  continent  in  the  re- 
gion of  Old  California.  Advancing  still 
further  to  the  east,  and  following  the 
same  Asiatic  Mongoloid  line  of  disper- 
sion in  the  extreme  north,  the  inquirer 
will  make  his  way  above  the  region  of 
the  Great  Bear  and  Great  Slave  lakes, 


ROUTE  OF  THE  CHONTAL  DISPERSION  SOLTHW  ARD.-Coast  of  PANAMA.-Drawn  by  De  Berard. 


continentward,  he  finds  himself  con- 
fronted with  what  appear  to  be  return- 
Polynesian  Mon-  ing  races  of  Polynesian 
^thAs^to  extraction.  The  Tinneh 
derivatives.  family  above  referred  to 
are  a  people  different  apparently  in  race 
characteristics  from  the  other  stocks  of 
Alaska,  and  it  is  generally  conceded 
that  they  have  been  carried  into  this  re- 
mote position  by  a  returning  migration  of 
M. — Vol.  1 — 34 


in  the  country  of  the  widely  spread  fam- 
ily called  the  Tinneh.  The  territory 
occupied  by  this  division  extends  from 
about  the  meridian  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  degrees  west,  eastward  to 
Hudson's  bay  and  the  gulf  of  Boothia. 
Its  limits  northward  are  the  Arctic 
ocean  and  the  countries  of  the  Eastern 
Esquimaux,  whose  line  of  dispersion 
reaches  the  coast  of  Labrador.     On  the 


522 


GREAT  RACES    OF  MANKIND. 


south,  the  great  river  and  lake  system 
which  discharges  its  waters  through  the 
Nelson  into  Hudson's  bay  mark  the 
boundaries  of  the  Tinneh. 

It  is  in  the  latter  region  that  the  re- 
turning lines  of  the  Polynesian  Mongo- 


General  course 
of  Polynesian 
and  Esquimau 
migrations. 


loidsare  again  encountered. 


The  whole  movement  of 
the  latter  races  here  ap- 
pears from  the  east  to  the  west,  while 
the  Asiatics  flow  from  the  west  to  the 


TYPE  OF   AMERICAN    MONGOLOIDS — THE   INDIAN    BARRE, 
Drawn  by  Riou. 


east.  The  main  migration  of  the  East- 
ern Esquimaux  may  be  regarded  as  ex- 
tending through  the  j\.rctic  archipelago, 
perhaps  by  way  of  North  Devon  island, 
or  Ellesmere  land,  across  Smith's  sound 
into  Greenland,  where  the  final  distribu- 
tion of  this  family  has  its  limits. 

It  will  be  seen  by  an  examination  of 
the  map  that  this  region  is  under  the 
meridian    of    fifty   degrees   west    from 


Greenwich,  while  the  original  source 
which  we  have  assigned  to  the  Brown 
races  in  Beluchistan  is  very  near  the 
meridian  of  sixty -five  degrees  east, 
from  which  it  is  manifest  that  the  di- 
rect dispersion  east  and  west  of  the 
Asiatic  Mongoloids  has  covered  a  longi- 
tude of  one  Iiuudrcd  and  sixty- five  degrees  ; 
and  if  we  take  into  account  the  multi- 
farious departures  to  the  right  and  left — 
the  endless  curves  and  windings  by 
which  such  a  move- 
ment would  be  car- 
ried forward  from 
its  initial  departure 
to  its  final  destina- 
tion— we  shall  see 
that  the  Brown 
races  of  men  have 
virtually  encircled 
the  earth  in  their 
wanderings  1 

Meanwhile,  the 
migration  of  this 
same  family  of 
Mongoloids  had  ex- 
tended down  the 
Alaskan  coast  to 
Vancouver'sisland. 
Here,  in  the  north- 
western part  of 
what  is  now  the 
United  States,  the 
great  family  of  the 
Seli.sh  was  dis- 
tributed. By  hy- 
pothesis, a  deflected  branch  of  this 
famil}-  may  be  traced  eastward  and 
thence  southward  to  about 

Distribution  of 

the  fortieth  parallel  of  lat-  the  seiish;  the 

.^     T  1        ji  •       i        Mexican  races. 

itude  and  the  ninety- 
fourth  west  from  Greenwich.  From 
this  center  several  lines  of  departure 
may  be  noted  upon  which,  in  the  south- 
ern parts  of  the  United  States,  the 
old    nations   of   Choctaws,  Creeks,    and 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— THE  BROWN  DISPERSION.      523 


persion  of  the 
Central  Amer^ 
icans. 


Natchez  Indians  were  developed.  An- 
other line,  perhaps,  passed  from  the  same 
origin  to  the  west,  thence  southward  into 
Mexico,  and  from  the  latter  dispersion 
we  gather  the  old  races  of  the  Toltecs, 
the  Aztecs,  andtheOttomies,  who  played 
so  important  a  part  in  the  quasi  civili- 
zation which  the  .Spanish  invaders  dis- 
covered and  destroyed. 

From  another  branch  of  the  same  dis- 
persion arose  the  Cholulans.  Still  south- 
Origin  and  dis-  ward  the  course  of  migra- 
tion was  continued  into 
Central  America,  where  the 
nations  called  the  ^layas,  the  Nahoas, 
the  Quiches,  and  the  Chontals  were  dis- 
tributed north  of  the  isthmus.  We  may 
even  continue  the  same  line  of  southern 
departure  through  the  isthmus  of  Panama 
and  down  the  whole  coast  of  Western 
South  America.  The  native  races  along 
this  extended  seashore,  from  Panama 
through  Peru  and  Chili  to  Patagonia 
and  finally  to  Terra  del  Fuego,  have 
been  found  to  be  allied  throughout  with 
the  Asiatic  Mongoloids  rather  than  with 
the  Polynesians.  The  greatest  of  these 
families  are  perhaps  the  Aymaras,  the 
Quichuas,  the  Araucanians,  the  Pampas, 
and  the  Patagonians,  named  in  the  order 
of  the  descent  from  the  north.  The 
Fuegians  mark  the  extreme  of  this  dis- 
persion. The  lines  indicating  the  prog- 
ress traverse  the  entire  extent  of  the 
two  continents,  besides  many  meander- 
ings,  the  limits  of  which  could  hardly  be 
determined  in  terms  of  current  geog- 
raphy. 

At  this  point  it  may  be  well  to  note 
also  some  special  developments  north  of 
Place  of  the  Mexico.    The  Californians, 

fv'uonTfVhf"  together  with  the  Sho- 
Six  Nations.  shoues,  the  Mutsun,  and 
Yuma  nations,  may  be  regarded  as  dis- 
persions from  the  north. 

It  may  be,  however,  in  the  case  of  the 


Shoshones,  that  they  proceeded  from  an 
eastern  migration,  having  its  origin  in 
the  center  of  the  United  States.  There 
appear  to  have  been  a  good  many  inter- 
changes of  character  in  the  central 
nations  of  Nortli  America,  the  Asiatic 
Mongoloids  taking  on  the  character  of 
Polynesians,  and  vice  versa.  The  great 
nations  of  the   Eastern   United  States, 


TVPE  OF   AMERICAN    MONGOLOIDS 
INDIAN    WOMAN. 


-MONDURNCA 


the  Onondagas,  the  Oneidas,  the  Sen- 
ecas,  the  ^Mohicans,  may  be  referred 
ultimately  to  the  same  stock  with  the 
Cherokees,  the  Muskogees,  and  other 
families  of  the  Southeastern  United 
States,  and  these  in  turn  seem  to  have 
originated  in  the  Antilles,  and  to  have 
arisen  ultimately  from  a  Polynesian 
source. 

It  will  be  well,  therefore,  at  this  point 
to  take  up  the  course  of  dispersion  of  the 
Polynesian  races  from  the  center  of  the 
west  coast  of  South  America  and  follow 
the  same  in  its  divisions  through   that 


524 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


continent.     Perhaps  the  first  deflection 

from  the  main  line  of  eastern  departure 

was  to  the  right,  into  the 

The  Polynesian  .  •     i   •. 

Mongoioidsin  countries  now  occupied  by 
South  America.    ^,^^    Argentine    Republic. 

The  native  races  of  this  region  are  known 
by  the  name  of  Guaycurus.  They  be- 
long in  general  to  the  cotintry  between 
the  mouths  of  tlie  La  Plata  and  the  Rio 
Negro.  The  coast  nation  of  this  part  of 
the  continent  arc  known  as  the  Puclches. 
A  second  migratory  stream  put  off  about 
the  head-waters  of  the  La  Plata,  taking 
its  course  eastward,  and  was  thence 
deflected  to  the  coast,  in  Uruguay,  where 
the  people  called  Charraks  bear  evidence 
of  the  dispersion.  Higher  up,  the 
Guarani  were  distributed,  and  from  this 
region  the  main  line  extended  in  a 
course  nearly  parallel  with  the  sea,  into 
the  heart  of  Brazil.  The  mountain  races 
to  the  left  of  this  line  are  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Parexis,  while  the  still 
greater  family  of  nations  between  the 
river  Amazon  and  the  San  Francisco 
are  called  Tupis.  The  latter  are  sub- 
divided into  the  Crans,  the  Crens,  and 
the  Gucks,  with  many  subordinate  tribes 
and  ramifications. 

One  branch  of  this  same  Polynesian 
migration  turned  from  this  country  up 
Origin  of  tne  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon 
Shelemr-  ^nd  was  distributed  among 
*'°i^S'  the     initial      streams      of 

that  great  river,  while  another  branch 
crossed  the  Amazon  to  the  north  and 
contributed  the  Caribbean  nations  in 
their  various  families  and  tribes.  It  ap- 
pears that  from  the  coast  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco,  almost  directly  north- 
ward, and  thence  westward  through 
the  islands  to  Hayti,  and  thence  by  way 
of  the  Greater  Antilles  to  the  southern 
extremity  of  Florida,  the  line  of  migra- 
tion was  carried,  depositing  the  Sem- 
inoles  in  the  latter  country,  and  thence 


bending  eastward  through  the  coast  re- 
gions of  the  United  States.  It  is  proba- 
bly true  that  the  kinship  and  affinity  of 
so  great  numbers  of  the  Indian  tribes  of 
North  America  with  the  Polynesians  of 
the  South  Pacific  must  be  referred  to  this 
almost  infinite  line  of  departure  which 
we  have  been  following  from  Sumatra 
and  Siam  across  the  South  Pacific  to  the 
western  coast  of  South  America. 

Hereafter,  in  noticing  the  peculiarities 
of  the  Indian  races  of  the  New  World, 
we  may  have  occasion  to  speak  again  of 
their  geographical  positions  universality  of 
and  mutations.      It  is    be-  ^S^n^thr 

lieved  that  this  cursory  out-    Americas. 

line  of  the  general  movements  by  which 
the  New  World  was  probably  peopled  with 
inhabitants  belonging  to  the  Brown  races 
of  mankind,  will  be  sufficient  to  give  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  development  of 
these  races.  The  great  peculiarity  which 
impresses  itself  most  upon  the  mind  of 
the  ethnographer  and  historian  is  that 
all  the  aboriginal  families  of  these  con- 
tinents belonged  to  the  Brown  family  of 
mankind.  In  those  primary  movements 
which  may  be  called  natural,  as  contra- 
distinguished from  the  somewhat  artifi- 
cial migrations  and  colonizations  which 
are  projected  from  civilized  countries 
into  the  barbarous  territories  of  the 
world,  not  a  single  Black  or  Ruddy  tribe 
of  men  reached  the  shores  of  either 
America. 

It  is,  indeed,  a  reflection  well  calculat- 
ed to  astonish  the  inquirer  that  the  most 
progressive  and  energetic  peoples  of  the 
world  have  not,  until  times  most  recent, 
carried  the  lines  of  their  Astonishing  ex- 
dispersion  into  the  remoter  ^::^,°/„f/fl'; 
parts  of  the  habitable  globe.  Brown  races. 
It  is  true  that  the  Aryan  races  have  at 
present  extended  their  languages  and 
institutions — even  their  blood  progeny — 
into  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth,  but 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— THE  BLACKS. 


525 


these  movements  do  not  belong  to  the 
same  class  of  phenomena  by  which  the 
primitive,  unconscious  peoples  were  dis- 
tributed, to  their  several  destinations. 

If  we  look  at  these  primary  movements 
only,  our  surprise  may  w^ell  be  great  at 
the  indescribable  extent  of  the  wander- 
ings and  ethnic  dispersions  of  the  Brown 
taces  of  mankind  and  the  comparatively 
small  areas  in  which  the  progressive 
and  civilizing  peoples  have  borne  them- 
selves and  their  institutions.  With  a 
map  of  the  world  drawn  on  Mercator's 
projection  before  the  student  who  de- 
sires to  inform  himself  of  the  prehistoric 
movements  of  mankind,  the  great,  well- 
nigh  universal,  diffusion  of  the  Brown 
races  throughout  all  Asia,  several  parts 
of  Europe,  and  the  whole  of  Polynesia 
and  the  two  American  continents  must 
iinpress  his  mind  with  the  striking  char- 
acter and  singularit}-  of  these  human  phe- 
nomena. 

Before  dismissing  the  subject  of  the 
distribution  of  the  Brown  races,  we  will 
point  once  more  to  the  outer  geograph- 
ical limits  of  the  dispersion  in  different 


parts  of  the  world.  The  migratory  lines 
in  South  America  drop  to  the  extremity 
of  the  continent  in  latitude  fifty-five  de- 
grees.     The  FuegianS  rep-   outer  periphery 

resent  the  nearest  approach  t^e  Brown°dis. 
of  the  Brown  races  to  persion. 
the  south  pole.  The  next  limit  in  the 
same  direction  may  be  found  in  the 
Chatham  islands  and  the  southern  parts 
of  New  Zealand,  extending  from  lati- 
tude forty-five  degrees  to  fifty  degrees 
south.  As  already  noted,  the  western 
stream  of  this  family  terminates  in 
Spain,  at  about  ten  degrees  west  from 
Greenwich.  The  eastern  boundary  of 
the  Greenland  Esquimaux  may  be  given 
at  about  twenty  degrees  west.  The 
northern  excursions  of  this  race  have 
reached  to  at  least  the  eightieth  paral- 
lel north ;  from  which  we  may  gather 
that  through  three  hundred  and  fifty  de- 
grees of  longitude  and  «  Inmdred  mid  tlnrty- 
five  degrees  of  latitude  the  descendants  of 
the  Brown  races  of  mankind  have  been 
dispersed  by  the  natural  forces  to  which 
barbarians  in  their  migratory  movements 
are  subject! 


Chapter  XXX.— Disxribuxiom  of^  xhe  Black 

Races. 


S  compared  with  the 
complexity  and  extent 
of  the  dispersion  of  the 
Brown  races  of  man- 
kind, the  Black  divi- 
sions and  departures 
of  the  human  family 
are  simple  and  easy  of  apprehension. 
They  are  confined,  in  general  terms,  to 
that  portion  of  the  African  continent  ly- 
ing south  of  the  twentieth  parallel  of 
north  latitude,  and  to  Australia  and  the 
Micronesian  islands.     The  fact  that  the 


Indian  ocean  lies  between  these  African 
and  Australian  dispersions  of  the  race, 

and    that    the      presence     of   General  charac- 

Black  peoples  isnotdiscov-  ^frdistrlb^'u-""* 
erable  in  any  other  of  the  ^^io''- 
great  continents,  except  by  reason  of  re- 
cent civilizing  movements,  introduces 
the  one  great  difficulty  in  determining 
the  origin  whence  both  streams  of  the 
race  have  flowed.  It  is  this  circum- 
stance, moreover,  which  has  in  a  great 
measure  fortified  the  hypothesis  that 
under    the  Indian  ocean  lies    the   sub- 


526 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


merged  continent  of  Lenmria,  the  an- 
cestral home  of  all  the  races  of  men. 

Granted  the  existence  in  prehistoric 
ages  of  such  a  continent,  and  the  sub- 
Lemuria  neces-  Sequent  dispcrsiou  of  man- 
BiackXper-'''*  ^^^^  «"  the  monogenetic 
sion.  hypothesis   becomes   not 

only   plausible,  but    easy   and   natural. 
But  the   continent   is  a  supposition    so 


Africa  seems  to  have  been  on  the  east- 
ern or  jDcninsular  coast  where  the  conti- 
nent   juts  out    into  the    In-    origin  of  the  eth- 

dian  ocean,  about  the  par-  'Z^:^lT"' 
allel  of  ten  degrees  north.  African  races. 
It  has  been   stated  above  that  most  of 
the  peoples  of  this  coast  region  as  far 
west  as  about  the  thirty-seventh  degree 
of  longitude  are  of  Semitic  origin,  with 


MEURKA.— Drawn  by  Y.  PranishnikoS. 


far  as  the  present  knowledge  of  man- 
kind is  concerned,  and  we  are  obliged 
to  consider  the  African  and  the  Aus- 
tralian distribution  of  the  Black  races  as 
.separate  phenomena,  one  presenting  it- 
self with  a  westward  and  the  other  with 
an  eastward  migratory  tendency. 

As  already  remarked,  the  beginning 
of  the    Black   populations  of    Southern 


perhaps  a  mixture  of  Hamitic  stock. 
Such  peoples  are  the  Somali,  the  Dona- 
kil,  the  Galla  tribes,  and  others,  inhabit- 
ing this  peninsular  part  of  Africa.  It  is 
somewhat  to  the  west  of  these,  there- 
fore, that  the  actual  dispersion  of  the 
Black  peoples  seems  to  have  its  center. 
This  is  to  say  that  the  lines  indicative 
of  the  migration  of  the  Black  races  from 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE  RACES.— THE   BLACKS. 


b-11 


the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  are  for  a  dis- 
tance of  about  ten  degrees  from  the 
ocean  hypothetical,  the  country  through 
which  they  pass  being  now  occupied  by 
tribes  of  another  race. 

It  may  be  conceded  that  the  oldest 
branch  of  the  Xegro  family,  upon  the 
Place  and  dis-  consideration  of  which  we 
are  now  to  enter,  are  the 
Fundi-Sudanese,  who  oc- 
cupy the  country  between  the  Blue  and 
the  White  Nile  for  some  distance  south  of 


tribution  of  the 
Fundi-Sudan- 
ese. 


At  this  point  it  may  be  well  to  des- 
ignate the  principal  branches  into  which 
the  Xegro  race  proper  is  divided.  The 
northern  stem,  next  to  the  Kinship  of Fuiah 
Fundi  just  mentioned,  car-  ''^l^^Hr^' 
ried  into  Central  Africa  famiUes. 
the  Negroes  of  the  Sudan  and  perhaps 
the  Fulah  races  lying  to  the  north. 
Some  trouble  has  arisen  as  to  the  classi- 
fication of  the  latter  peoples,  and  there 
are  traces  in  their  color  and  other  pecul- 
iarities indicative   of   an   admixture   of 


BAMliARRA  TYPES.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 


their  intersection.  It  is  likely  that  this 
was  the  first  territorial  dispersion  of  the 
family  which  afterwards  spread  through 
the  larger  part  of  the  continent  to  the 
west  and  south.  The  Fundi  seem  never 
to  have  removed  very  far  from  their 
original  seats.  They  founded  here  the 
kingdom  of  Sennaar.  They  have  the 
same  peculiarities  of  person  and  tribal 
character  with  the  Negroes  of  Southern 
and  Western  Africa,  and  are  certainly  in 
affinity  with  them  by  race  descent. 


Hamitic  blood.  By  the  Sudanese,  how- 
ever, the  Fulahs  are  regarded  as  of  the 
same  race  with  themselves,  and,  on  the 
whole,  the  evidences  of  kinship  with  the 
Black  peoples  on  the  south  are  sufficient 
to  warrant  this  classification. 

Several  subordinate  families  were 
thrown  off  from  this  same  northernmost 
stem  of  Black  dispersion.  Among  these 
are  the  Haussa  tribes,  the  Sonhrays  in 
the  valley  of  the  Niger  on  the  extreme 
west,  the  Jolofers  between  the  Senegal 


528 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKIXD. 


and  the  Gambia  on  the  coast.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  the  Hamitic  line  of  migra- 
tion, bending-  to  the  south  out  of  the 
Moorish  states  of  Western  Africa,  pen- 
etrated the  valley  of  the  Niger,  and  that 
this  stock  has  contributed  somewhat  to 
modify  tlie  Black  peoples  in  the  north 
of  the  S;idan. 

The  Sudanese  proper  are  likewise 
divided  into  many  peoples,  distributed 
from  the  Upper  White  Nile,  across  the 
Distribution  of  Continent  to  the  westward, 
^se'IdGur'-""'  to  the  Mandingos  and 
eans.  other    tribes    of     Guinea. 

Glancing  over  the  whole  field  of  Central 
Africa,  between  the  twentieth  parallel  of 
north  latitude  and  ten  degrees  .south,  we 
may,  on  a  geographical  basis,  note  four 
principal  ethnic  divisions  of  peoples: 

I .  West  Sudan  and  Guinea. — In  this  re- 
gion there  are  beside  the  Fulahs  six  other 
groujDS,  distinguishable  by  sufficient  dif- 
ferences to  warrant  a  classification .  The 
Mandingos,  with  ten  or  twelve  subordi- 
nate tribes,  occujjy  Ujipcr  Guinea  and 
vSouthern  Senegambia.  The  Woloffs  have 
.seven  divisions,  or  tribes,  which  are  dis- 
tributed inland  between  the  vSenegal  and 
Gambia  rivers.  The  Felups  are  divided 
into  twelve  tribes,  or  nations,  scattered 
over  the  territory  between  the  Gambia 
and  Sierra  Leone.  The  Liberians  have 
seventeen  tribal  divisions  .scattered  along 
the  Grain  coast  and  the  Ivory  coast. 
The  Ewe  group  consi.sts  of  ten  different 
nations,  and  are  distributed  along  the 
Gold  and  vSlave  coasts.  The  Ibo  group 
also  embraces  ten  subdivisions,  having 
their  territories  in  Benu6  and  along  the 
Lower  Niger.  The  Sonhray  family,  with 
many  subordinate  tribes,  occupy  the 
country  along  the  Middle  Niger,  from 
Timbuctu  toGando.  The  Fulahs,  already 
described,  are  divided  into  eight  nations, 
inhabiting  the  eastern  parts  of  Sene- 
gambia and  distributed  eastward  to  the 


Baghirmi  country.  All  these  peoples 
except  the  Sonhray  and  Fulah  nalit)ns 
speak  dialects  of  a  common  language, 
but  the  latter  peoples  appear  to  have 
each  a  distinct  vernacular. 

2.  Central  Sudan  and  tlie  Chad  Basin. — 
In  this  region  there  are  five  separate 
groups    of    peoples.     The  „         „   . 

°         ^  ^        ^  Central  Sudan- 

first       are       the      Adamawa    ese  and  tribes  of 
...  .     .  the  Chad  Basin. 

group,  with  some  sixteen 
tribal  branches,  belonging  to  L'pper 
Benue  and  scattered  thence  eastward  to 
Logo.  The  second  division,  called  the 
Tubu  nations,  embraces  twelve  tribes, 
inhabiting  Tibesti,  Kanem,  and  the 
countries  extending  to  the  northern  part 
of  Darfur.  The  third,  or  Logon,  group 
includes  about  fifteen  branches,  inhab- 
iting Bornu,  Lower  Shari,  and  the  Chad 
islands.  The  fourth  group,  called  the 
Baghirmi,  is  divided  into  fifteen  nations, 
occupying  the  lower  and  middle  parts 
of  Shari  and  the  territories  eastward  to 
Runga  and  Darbanda.  The  fourth,  or 
Waday,  group,  including  a  vast  number 
of  tribes,  occupy  the  country  of  Waday 
and  the  districts  eastward  to  Darfur. 

3.  East  Sudan  and  Upper  Nile. — In  this 
region  there  are  four  race  families.  The 
first,    known    as    the    Dar- 

Place  of  the 
banda     group,    has     eleven    East  Sudanese 
^    .,     1     , .     .    .  .  and  the  Nilotes. 

tribal  divisions,  occupying 
the  country  of  Upper  Shari  and  the  ter- 
ritory eastward  to  Dar-Fertit.  The  sec- 
ond family  of  tribes,  called  the  Eur 
group,  have  about  seventeen  nations  oc- 
cupying the  country  of  Darfur  and  Kor- 
dofan,  between  Waday  and  the  White 
Nile.  The  third  group,  called  Nilotes, 
are  divided  into  more  than  twenty  tribes, 
living  along  the  White  Nile  and  its  trib- 
utaries, eastward  to  Kaffa  and  Gallaland, 
and  southward  to  Uganda.  The  fourth 
group  of  tribes  are  known  as  the  Zandey, 
and  are  better  organized  as  a  nation  than 
any  of  tho.se  above  enumerated.     They 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— THE   BLACKS. 


529 


live  about  the  Welle,  and  extend  south- 
ward to  the  Lualaba. 

The  above  three  general  divisions  are 
all  included  under  the  general  head  of 
Ethnic  traces  Sudaucsc,  and  are  all  Ne- 
^^nnl^C^r     groes  — though    consider- 

among  the  Ni-        c>  & 

gritians.  ably  differentiated  in  ethnic 

character — except  in  so  far  as  they  have 
been  modified   alonsf  the   northern  and 


BANTU   TYPE — CHJKF    N'dOUMBA. 
Drawn  by  Riou. 

western  borders  by  Hamitic  influences. 
It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  Fulah 
nations,  especially  the  West  Fulahs, 
have  been  influenced  not  a  little  in  their 
race  development  by  the  impact  of  the 
Hamitic  migration,  turning  from  the 
north  into  vSenegambia.  We  now  come 
to  the  fourth  general  division  of  the  Ne- 
gro race. 

4.  The  Bantu  Family. — This  great  race 
occupies  South  Central  Africa,  between 


the  Sudanese  on  the  north  and  the  Kaf- 
firs and  Hottentots  on  the  south.  The 
Bantus  have  been  classified, 

.  Classification 

according  to  such  dlStmC-  and  subdivisions 
.  •  , -1  i.     •     i.       of  the  Bantus. 

tions  as  they  present,  mto 
five  ethnic  groups.  These  are  arranged 
principally  on  the  lines  of  geographical 
locality:  first,  the  Zulu-Kafhr  group, 
embracing  many  tribes,  are  scattered 
through  Zululand,  Xatal-Kaflfraria,  and 
in  the  region  northward  toward  the 
great  lakes  of  Eastern  Africa;  second, 
the  Central  group,  divided  into  about 
sixteen  nations,  occupy  the  Upper 
Orange  river,  Transvaal,  the  shores  of 
lake  N'gami,  and  portions  of  the  Zam- 
besi. The  Eastern  group,  also  includ- 
ing many  subordinate  tribes,  fill  the  ter- 
ritories on  the  east  coast  from  the  equa- 
tor southward  to  the  edge  of  Delagoa, 
and  westward  to  lake  Nyassa;  fourth, 
the  fequatorial  group,  including  more 
than  twenty  nations,  fill  the  regions  of 
the  great  lakes,  the  upper  part  of  Lua- 
laba, and  the  country  southward  to  the 
Lokinga  mountains;  fifth,  the  Western 
group,  including  about  forty  nations, 
are  distributed  along  the  west  coast  of 
the  continent,  from  Damaraland  north- 
ward to  the  Cameroon  mountains,  and 
eastward  to  the  twentieth  meridian  of 
longitude. 

Within  these  vast  regions,  almost  in- 
comprehensible in  their  extent  and  char- 
acter   bv    people    of    the  ,    „ 

'^       '^  Africa  the  Patria 

Western   continents,  there  Dolorosa  of  the 

arc  distributed  about  one 
hundred  and  thirty  million  of  people  of 
pure  Negro  origin,  besides  about  twenty 
million  who  have  received,  from  one 
circumstance  or  another,  the  traces  of 
foreign  blood.  These  are  the  parts  of 
the  earth  out  of  which  the  conscience- 
less states  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the 
great  nations  of  modern  times  as  well, 
have  gathered  their  cargoes  of  human 


630 


GREAT  RACES   OE  JM.VAVXn. 


chattels  for  the  slave  markets  of  the 
world.  It  is  the  region  of  infinite  sor- 
rows, to  which  the  inhabitants  of  a  bet- 
ter universe  might  point  with  shame,  as 
to  the  Patria  Dolorosa  of  all  planets, 
upon  which  the  stronger  races  of  man- 
kind have  preyed  with  the  cruelty  of 
tigers  and  the  gluttony  of  wolves. 

If  we  resume  the  consideration  of  the 
migratory  lines  by  which  the  widely  dis- 
persed races  of  the  Sudan  and  the  Bantu 
countries  were  distributed,  we  shall  find 
one  great  departure  turning 

Limits  of  the  ,  '  ° 

Zulu  and  Kaffir  to  the  south ,  from  the  coun- 
dispersion.  ^^^  included   between   the 

Blue  and  the  White  Nile,  and  bearing 
down  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  the 
primitive  races  of  that  region  as  far  as 
the  Zulus  and  Coast  Kaffirs  of  the  south. 
It  appears  that  this  branch  of  the  dis- 
persion was  limited  to  the  country  be- 
tween lake  Nyassa  and  the  .sea,  thus  con- 
stituting a  marked  division  between  the 
coast  Negroes  of  Eastern  Africa  and  the 
Hottentots  of  the  central  and  western 
parts  of  the  continent. 

In  the  district  immediately  east  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  the  migratory  line 
Ethnic  relations  seems  to  have  bifurcated, 
Kaffirs'indthe  ^  ^vestern  branch  putting 
Bantus.  off  from  the  Coast    Kaffir 

division  and  extending  around  lake  Tan- 
ganyika and  into  the  heart  of  the  Bantu 
country.  It  was  by  the  ramification, 
very  extensive  and  multifarious,  of  this 
line  that  the  Bantu  nations  and  the  great 
family  of  the  West  Kaffirs  were  distrib- 
uted. The  dispersion  continued  to  the 
western  coast  of  the  continent,  the  rami- 
fications in  this  region  reaching  from 
above  the  equator  to  the  parallel  of  twen- 
ty degrees  south.  On  the  lower  coast, 
however,  the  Bantu  tribes  were  some- 
what restricted  to  the  interior  by  a  line 
of  Hottentot  migration  from  the  south, 
which     distributed     the    Obongas    and 


other  tribes  between  the  Kaffirs  and  the 
sea. 

Such,  then,  in  general  terms,  are  the 
limits  and  extent  of  the  Negro  di.spersio.n 
of  mankind.  Geographically,  its  south- 
ernmost   point    is  with    the   General  bound- 

Zulus,  under  the  parallel  of  ^^^"^^^^ 
thirty  degrees  south.  Its  tion. 
northernmost  departure  is  with  that  eth- 
nic line  which  carried  the  Jolofers  to  their 
place  on  the  south  banks  of  the  Senegal, 
in  latitude  twenty  degrees  north.  The 
eastern  divisions  of  the  Negro  family 
arc  conterminous  with  the  African  coast 
adjacent  to  the  Indian  ocean,  and  the 
western  distribution  of  the  race  is  along 
the  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  Measured 
by  meridians  of  longitude,  the  dispersion 
reaches  from  fifty  degrees  east  to  twenty 
degrees  west.  The  whole  area,  therefore, 
included  by  the  dissemination  of  Negro 
races,  extends  through  about  fifty  degrees 
of  latitude  and  seventy  degrees  of  longi- 
tude, being,  in  general  terms,  coexten- 
sive with  Central  and  Southern  Africa. 

We  come,  in  the  next  place,  to  con- 
sider the  dispersion  of  the  Hottentots. 
These  constitute  the  remaining  major 
division  of  the  Black  race 
in  Africa. 


Race  origin  of 
It  is  claimed  by    the  Hottentots 

ethnographers  that  the  line 
of  migration  which  carried  this  people 
into  the  south  extremity  of  the  continent 
entered  from  the  side  of  the  Indian 
ocean  at  a  point  on  the  coast  somewhat 
below  the  entrance  of  the  Negroes.  We 
have,  however,  in  the  case  of  the  Hot- 
tentots the  same  uncertainty  that  con- 
fronted us  in  the  case  of  the  Negro  race. 
This  is  to  say  that  Hottentot  tribes  have 
not  been  found,  within  the  historical  era, 
in  that  part  of  the  country  where  they 
arc  supposed  to  have  entered.  The  line 
from  the  coast,  running  in  a  southwest- 
erly direction  between  lakes  Tangan- 
yika and  Nyassa,  is  carried  by  hypothesis 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES. —  THE   BLACKS. 


531 


through  more  than  twenty  degrees  of 
latitude  before  the  borders  of  the  Hot- 
tentot dispersion  are  reached.  Such  is. 
the  theory.  All  probabilities,  however, 
point  to  the  incoming  of  these  tribes 
from  the  direction  indicated,  and  their 
affinity  with  the  Negroes  fully  warrants 
the  assumption  of  a  common  origin  with 
them. 

It  is  not  until  the  inquirer  reaches  the 
valley  of  the  Upper  Zambesi  in  his  jour- 
Where  the  Hot-  ney  across  Southern  Africa 
from  the  east  that  he 
comes  upon  the  first  tribes 
of  Hottentots.  They  are  virtually  lim- 
ited  in   their  actual   distribution  to  the 


tentots  and 
Bechuanas  are 
distributed. 


BliCHUANA   TYPE — A   PAHOUIN. 
Drawn  by  Riou. 

country  south  of  the  Zambesi.  The  first 
nation  of  importance  is  the  Makololo 
people,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
and  in  the  central  part  of  the  country. 
They  have  the  Negro  Ovambos  and  Bun- 
das  on  the  west  and  the  Coast  Kaffirs  on 
the  east.  The  Makololo  may  be  regard- 
ed as  the  oldest  existing  branch  of  the 
Hottentot  race,  though  it  is  in  evidence 
that  in  former  times  they  extended  much 
further  to  the  east,  and  that  they  occu- 


pied the  country  from  which  they  were 
subsequently  expelled  by  the  Kaffirs 
and  other  Negro  tribes. 

The  next  branch  of  the  race  is  found 
on  the  head-waters  of  the  Gariep,  or  Or- 
ange, river,  and  is  known  by  the  ethnic 
name  of  Bechuanas.  Some  ethnogra- 
phers have  been  disposed  to  make  them  a 
race  of  different  origin  from  the  Hotten- 
tots. It  can  not  be  denied  that  they  are 
distinguished  from  the  aborigines  of  Cape 
Colony  by  several  important  character- 
istics. The  nation  has  been  consider- 
ably compressed  by  wars  with  the  peo- 
ple of  the  south  and  with  the  Kaffirs  on 
the  east ;  and  in  recent  times  the  Boers 
have  established  themselves  within  the 
Bechuana  territory. 

The  family  of  Hottentots  are,  like 
the  Negroes  further  north,  divided  into 
many  subordinate  tribes,  subordinate 
of  which  the  Bassutos  are  r/th^eHrttlfn? 
the  principal.  They  have  ^;°ts- 
their  territories  to  the  west  of  the  Ouath- 
lamba  mountains.  A  second  tribe  is 
called  the  Batlapi,  having  their  habitat 
on  the  borders  of  the  Kalahari  desert. 
A  third  family,  known  as  the  Barolong, 
dwell  to  the  north  of  the  last  named 
people,  but  these  have  been  nearly  ex- 
terminated in  warfare  with  the  Kaffirs. 
Still  north  of  the  Barolong  are  the  Bang- 
waketse,  while  the  Bahurutse  have  their 
territories  close  alongside.  The  Badoana 
are  scattered  on  the  north  coast  of  lake 
N'gami,  and  the  Bakwains  occupy  the 
hill-country  whence  the  rivers  Notuani 
and  Marqua  descend  to  the  coast.  These 
are  the  principal  tribal  divisions  of  the 
Hottentot  family.  In  the  extreme  south, 
however,  the  most  characteristic  of  all 
these  races,  the  Bushman  and  the  Nam- 
aqua  are  foimd,  whose  names  have  been 
synonyms  for  one  of  the  lowest  types  of 
aboriginal  life  known  in  the  annals  of 
existing  races. 


532 


GREAT  .RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


There  are  not  wanting  evidences,  suffi- 
ciently conclusive  to  the  ethnographer, 
Indications  that  that  the  peoplcs  whom  we 
H:?t'::?otfare  'ire  here  considcring-Ne- 
primitive  races,  groes  and  Hotteutots — are 
among  the  most  ancient  races  on  the 
face  of  the  globe.  A  single  fact  maj'  be 
cited,  or  rather  repeated  from  a  former 
chapter,  of  the  monumental  delineation 
of  Xegroes  among  the  captives  of  the 
primitive  Egyptians.  All  the  race  char- 
acteristics of  the  two  peoples  were  al- 
ready distinctly  developed.  The  eth- 
nologist of  to-day  could  not  detect  any 
radical  mark  of  difference  between  the 
Negro  as  he  is  depicted  among  the 
sculptures  of  the  Egyptians  or  unwrapped 
from  the  mummy  cases  of  their  tombs 
and  the  living  specimen  of  the  same 
race  taken  from  the  heart  of  Bantuland. 
But  the  Negro  of  the  sculptures  and  he 
of  the  valley  of  the  Livingstone  are 
separated  in  time  by  a  period  of  hardly 
less  than  six  thousand  years.  Yet  before 
Egypt  -was  Egypt  the  Black  race  was  dis- 
seminated in  Central  Africa,  and  was  in 
all  probability  at  that  remote  prehistoric 
epoch  not  different  in  characteristics 
and  tendencies  from  what  it  is  to-day. 

Still  further  away  from  the  historical 
era  ai-e  the  primitive  Hottentots.  All 
Probability  that  the  cthuic  qualities  of  these 
ar:ieaTd"evei!  P^^pl^  point  to  an  extrava- 
oped  of  mankind,  gant  antiquity.  An  argu- 
ment would  not  be  far  to  seek  from 
these  premises  in  favor  of  the  evolution- 
ary hypothesis  of  the  human  race,  and 
the  assignment  of  a  primitive,  or  in- 
digenous, race  center  to  the  southern 
parts  of  Africa.  The  cranial  capacity  of 
the  Hottentot  is  considerably  less  than 
that  of  the  Negro,  as  the  Negro's  bulk 
and  weight  of  brain  are  less  than  those 
of  the  Turanians.  Following  the  same 
line  of  development  we  note  the  still 
more  extended  brain  evolution   of  the 


Indo-Europeans,  reaching  its  maximum 
in  Europe  and  North  America.  In  what 
direction  soever  these  hints,  drawn  from 
the  natural  history  of  man,  may  lead, 
we  may  safely  conclude  that  the  Hot- 
tentots are  the  oldest  and  least  developed 
of  all  the  races  which  we  have  thus  far 
attempted  to  trace  in  their  migratory 
movements.  No  sketch  of  their  char- 
acteristics as  a  people  is  here  attempted. 
It  has  been  the  purpose  in  the  current 
chapter  merely  to  mark  out  the  cour.se 
of  dispersion  and  distribution  b}-  which 
the  Black  races  of  Central  and  Southern 
Africa  have  reached  their  respective 
destination. 

It  now  remains  to  notice  the  migra- 
tory movements  of  the  primitive  Austra- 
lian branch  of  the  human  family.  Viewed 
as  a  whole  continent,  Aus- 

Homogenity  of 

tralia  presents  m  its  aborig-  the  Australian 

1  ■        1      i  r   aborigines. 

mes  only  a  single  type  of 
people,  to  whom  ethnographers  have 
given  the  name  Australians.  If  there 
be  any  trace  at  all  of  another  race  in  the 
great  i.sland  continent,  it  is  on  the  ex- 
treme eastern  borders  where  the  Papu- 
ans of  Tasmania  may  have  left  some 
evidences  of  their  presence  or  at  least 
their  transmigration. 

If  the  inquirer  should  begin  his  inves- 
tigations from  the  standpoint  of  Aus- 
tralia, he  might  well  con-  The  Australians 
elude  that  the  native  races  ^f.^dtuhthe' 
are  indigenous  to  the  coun-  Nigritians. 
try,  being  apparently  without  derivation 
from  any  other  race.  In  color,  it  is  true 
that  the  primitive  people  are  in  affinity 
with  the  Negroes  and  Hottentots,  but 
their  general  characteristics  and  person- 
ality would  seem  to  set  them  apart  from 
almost  every  other  type  of  mankind.  It 
has  been  agreed,  however,  that,  pro- 
ceeding on  the  monogenetic  hypothesis, 
that  is,  on  the  supposition  of  one  com- 
mon origin  for  all  the  races  of  men,  the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— THE  BLACKS. 


533 


Australians  may  best  be  classified  with 
the  Black  races  of  Africa,  and  that  their 
incoming  into  the  island  should  be  reck- 
oned from  the  northern  coast. 


AUSTRALIAN   TYPE — JOKKAI. 

Drawn  by  Tufani, 

Ethnography  has  not  hesitated  to  trace 
backwards  from  this  point,  b}^  way  of 
Java  and  thence  across  the  Indian  ocean 
to  Southern  Hindustan,  the  prehistoric 
line  of  Australian  dispersion.  This,  of 
course,  is   done  to  carry  out  the  ever- 


present  supposition  of  a  submerged  con- 
tinent in  the  region  between  India  and 
Africa.  Thus  much  being  Lemuria  seems 
granted,  it  is  easy  to  de-  ^^^^/^^^^^J^^.^^^ 
velop  the  line  of  probability  tribution. 
by  which  the  primitive  Black  tribes  of 
Australia  may  have  made  their  way 
from  Lemuria  into  the  country  of  their 
present  occupancy.  We  shall  therefore 
follow  the  hypothesis  to  its  legitimate 
conclusions,  and  regard  the  Australian 
branch  of  mankind  as  an  eastern  deflec- 
tion from  a  parent  stream,  which  was 
common  in  its  origin  with  the  Xegritic 
and  Hottentot  divisions  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Indian  ocean. 

It  ajjpears,  then,  that  from  the  north- 
west  coast,  near  the  gulf  of  Cambridge,  or 
Arnhem's  land,  the  primitive  Australian 
migration  was  extended  by 

.  .  -^    Lines  of  the 

divergencies    through    the  Black  dispersion 

•    1        J  •      .1  :i-££  i    T      in  Australia. 

island  m  three  different  di- 
rections. The  first  extended  laterally 
from  north  to  south  to  the  coast  in  the 
vicinity  of  .Spencer  gulf  and  the  gulf  of 
St.  \'incent.  The  second  branch  turned 
to  the  west  coast,  which  it  followed  as 
far  as  the  valle}'  of  Swan  river,  and  was 
thence  extended  to  King  George  sound. 
These  divisions  were  subordinate,  how- 
ever, to  the  third  ethnic  branch  which 
turned  to  the  east,  near  the  head  of  thff 
gulf  of  Carpentaria,  and  was  thence 
parted  into  several  divisions,  losing 
themselves  in  the  modern  Queensland. 
It  appears  that  Xcav  South  Wales  was 
populated  by  tribes  from  the  Upper 
Darling,  and  that  the  whole  of  South- 
eastern Australia  was  filled  from  the 
sam.e  general  source. 

The  inquiry  will  again  suggest  itself 
by  zi'/iat  mains  these  prehis- 

Valid  grounds  01 

tone  movements  have  been  ethnographic 
indicated    to    the    ethnog-    ^° 
rapher.     What    are    the    sources    from 
which  he  has  drawn  his  conjectures  and 


534 


CRRAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


proofs?  In  the  first  place,  a  comparison 
of  the  different  dialects  spoken  by  the 
native  Australians  indicates  sufficiently 
their  affinity  and  common  origin  in  some 
single  parent  linguistic  stock.  But  sec- 
ondly, the  general  community  of  manners 
and  customs,  the  identity  of  the  barba- 
rous institutions,  of  -which  at  least  the 
rudiments  are  discernible,  lead  to  the 
same  conclusion  of  a  common  origin  for 
all  the  natives  of  the  continent.  In  the 
third  place,  what  may  be  called  personal 
peculiarities,  identical   in  different  and 


VuK) 


of   mankind    has   apparently   taken    its 
rise.     In  general,  the  Melanesian  islands 
are  peopled  with  races  de-  origin  and 
rivedfromthissource.  New  ''^ZZ:'^^:,,. 
Guinea  has  drawn  its  pojj-  bution. 
Illation  from  this  Papuan  stock,  and  has 
taken  their  name  as  the  modern  designa- 
tion of  the  island.     Traces  of  the  same 
race  have    been    followed  to   the  east 
and   south   as   far   as  the  Fiji   islands, 
where  the  migratory  movement  seems 
to  have  terminated.     In  .short,  through- 
out  Melanesia   the    Papuan   lines   have 


S/1'Vr.r 


^VMtfl 


PAITAN  TVIM.S— MALE  AND  I-EMALE  HEADS.-Drawn  by  E.  M&plfa. 


widely  spread  tribes,  point  likewise  to  a 
common  descent  from  a  single  ethnic 
branch  of  the  human  family.  It  will  be 
the  aim  in  a  sub.sequcnt  part  of  the  pres- 
ent work  to  give  an  account  of  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  these  native  races, 
and  to  outline  the  institutional  forms  of 
which  their  savage  state  has  shown  some 
traces  and  beginnings. 

From  the  main  line  of  pre-Australian 
migration  a  .secondary  ethnic  develop- 
ment has  apparently  occurred  in  the 
archipelago  lying  north  of  Au.stralia. 
From  this   origin  the   Papuan  division 


carried  peoples  of  this  stock  north, 
south,  east,  and  west,  as  far  even  as  the 
coast  of  Japan,  and  westward  to  the 
Andamans. 

Southern  Borneo  and  a  great  part  ot 
Sumatra  have  felt  the  like  influence 
among     their     aborigines, 

.  Geographical 

and  nearly  all  of  the  islands  limitations  of 
between  Au.stralia  and  the 
coast  of  China  are  infected  with  the 
same  blood  and  derivation.  The  south- 
ern limit  of  the  dispersion  is  reached 
in  Tasmania  where  the  Papuans  took 
one    of    their    most    characteristic    and 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— THE   BLACKS. 


535 


undisturbed  developments.  The  geo- 
graphical limits  of  the  race  are  the 
great  ocean  region  between  the  forty- 
second  degree  of  south  latitude  and  the 
thirty-fifth  north.  Eastward  the  Fiji 
islands,  under  the  meridian  of  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  from  Greenwich,  and 
westward  the  Andaman  islands  under 
ninety-two  degrees  east,  define  the  lat- 
eral distribution  of  the  Papuan  race.  Its 
peculiarity  is  that  it  is  wholly  insular. 
The  great  country  of  Australia,  though 
lying  in  what  might  be  called  the  heart 
of  this  ethnic  development,  seems  for 
.some  reason  to  have  shed  the  Papuans 
and  to  have  taken  a  family  of  native 
peoples  peculiar  to  itself. 

We  have  thus  attempted  to  trace  out 
the    geographical  distribution    of   man- 
kind according  to  their  sev- 

Legitimate  use  ,     ,  .      ^ 

of  hypothesis  in    cral    raccs    and    kmdreds. 
mc  inquiry.      ^^  parts  of  tlie  globe  have 

now  been  considered,  including  the  re- 
mote islands  of  the  South  Pacific.  It  will 
readily  be  allowed  that  in  many  places 
the  course  of  migrations,  as  indicated  in 
the  foregoing  discussion,  is  hypothet- 
ical. It  may  be  claimed  in  this  partic- 
i:lar  that  in  a  scientific  age,  such  as  the 
present,  all  work  by  hypothesis  and  con- 
jecture ought  to  be  eliminated  from  a 
discussion  which  pretends  to  partake  of 
the  nature  of  the  exact  sciences.  This 
view  of  the  case  is  too  extreme  and  se- 
vere. The  progress  of  knowledge  de- 
pends not  infrequently  upon  stepping 
from  shore  to  shore  by  means  of  hy- 
pothesis and  theory.  This  method  of 
human  investigation  in  many  cases  fore- 
runs the  observed  order  of  nature  and 
indicates  the  place  and  limitations  of 
law.  It  is  only  in  this  sense  that  Ave 
have  here  ventured  to  fill  up  certain 
gaps  in  the  movements  of  mankind  by 
theoretical  lines.  All  .such  work  is,  in 
the  nature  of  the  case,  tentative,  and  sub- 


ject to  revision  and  correction,  as  dis- 
covered and  discoverable  data  may 
hereafter  indicate  the  necessity  of  such 
modification. 

Before  dismissing  this  part  of  the  sub- 
ject, several  topics  present  themselves 
for  passing  consideration. 

'■  ^  Question  of 

In  the  first  place,  the  long-    time,  place,  and 
T  T  ,  ,         .     manner  recurs. 

standmg  dispute  about 
the  place,  the  time,  and  the  method  of 
man's  appearance  on  the  earth  obtrudes 
itself  constantly  into  the  inquiry.  It  is 
pressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  ethnog- 
rapher not  only  by  the  ever-recurring 
suggestions  of  traditional  belief,  but  also 
by  the  very  necessities  of  his  theme. 
Almost  in  despite  of  those  restraints  and 
cautious  methods  which  he  imposes  upon 
himself  and  upon  every  branch  of  the 
subject,  he  finds  himself  disposed  to 
favor  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  several 
current  theories  respecting  the  original 
locus  of  mankind  and  the  nature  of  the 
genesis  of  the  race. 

The  fundamental  question  is  whether 
the  facts  of  ethnology  on  the  whole  tend 
to  strengthen  or  to  weaken  Theory  of  Mon- 
the  monogenetic  theory  of  "S^ei^^/^* 
the  human  family.  Did  fa°ts. 
the  race  of  man  arise  from  a  single 
source  and  a  single  pair,  at  a  single  time 
and  under  simple  conditions?  or  did  the 
various  branches  of  mankind  have  poly- 
centric  origins  and  independent  lines  of 
development?  In  this  fonn  the  ques- 
tion is  simply  anthropological.  Carried 
into  the  domain  of  natural  science,  how- 
ever, the  problem  has  become  one  of 
creation  by  evolution  or  immediate  and 
phenomenal  creation ;  and  the  inquiry 
takes  the  same  form  which  it  has  respect- 
ing all  other  animals  and  all  plants  on 
the  face  of  the  earth,  namely,  did  they 
originate  by  evolutionary  processes  of 
growth  and  adjustment  from  a  single 
genu  or  a  few  germs  of  life,  scattered  in 


536 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


the  soil  of  possibility,  or  did  the  exist- 
ing forms  of  life  appear  phenomenally 
in  time  and  place  and  in  complete  de- 
velopment? On  the  whole,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  theory  of  a  monocentric 
origin  for  the  human  race  gains  under 
the  addition  of  facts  and  the  readjust- 
ments of  right  reason ;  while  on  the  other 
hand,  it  may  well  be  allowed  that  the 
universality  of  the  evolutionary  process 
as  applied  to  all  other  forms  of  life  would 
seem  to  demand  a  like  process  of  growth 
and  development  for  man. 

It  is  also  fitting  in  this  connection  to 
add  a  paragraph  in  the  way  of  further 
True  aspect  and  explanation  of  what  jnay  be 
t;™™o=:.ts  C'-^lle*!  the  true  aspect  and 
considered.  form  of  thoso  migratory 
movements  which  have  been  delineated 
in  the  present  book.  In  several  places 
the  reader  has  already  been  put  on  cau- 
tion against  the  too  exact  representation 
of  these  human  phenomena  by  means  of 
lines  and  the  other  physical  terms  made 
necessary  by  the  nature  of  the  discus- 
sion. Ethnic  lines  drawn  on  a  map 
from  place  to  place  as  indications  of 
the  movements  of  tribes  of  men  in 
process  of  natural  dispersion  must  not 
be  understood  as  a  narrow  highway  or 
as  a  river  channel  bearing  a  single 
definite  volume  of  water  from  its  source 
to  its  mouth — from  its  departure  to  its 
dcboucliurc.  Human  progress  over  the 
face  of  the  earth  has  never  been  in  this 
exact  similitude.  If  any  tangible  symbol 
could  be  adopted  to  express  to  the  senses 
and  receptive  faculties  of  man  the  exact 
nature  of  tribal  diffusion,  it  would  be 
that  of  a  f I  III  spreading'  over  the  faec  of  the 
earth.  Xevertheless,  this  filmy  and 
irregular  dispersion  of  mankind  does 
proceed  from  one  place  to  another.  It 
starts  from  a  definite  origin  and  rees- 
tablishes itself  in  another  locus  far  re- 
moved.   A  line  drawn  from  one  of  these 


places  to  another  subserves  an  excellent 
purpose  as  indicating  the  direction  which 
the  movement,  considered  as  a  whole, 
has  taken,  and  also  as  defining  the  points 
of  departure  and  arrival.  But  in  other 
respects  the  line  is  altogether  mislead- 
ing, as  being  too  iiiatheiiiatieal  and  precise 
for  the  fact  whicli  i-t  is  intended  to  repre- 
sent. If  a  map  could  be  so  constructed 
as  to  bear  broad,  thin  bands  of  color, 
widening  and  contracting  and  bending 
in  likeness  to  the  expansion  and  narrow- 
ing and  eddying  of  actual  tribal  move- 
ments, the  representation  would  be  more 
in  conformity  with  the  facts.  The  stu- 
dent of  ethnography  must,  therefore,  be 
on  his  guard  lest  the  notion  or  concept 
which  he  receives  of  the  migrations  of 
mankind,  deduced  from  the  drawing  of 
lines  across  the  map  through  continents 
and  over  seas,  be  inadequate,  and,  in- 
deed, erroneous  in  its  nature. 

Many  familiar  illustrations  drawn  at 
random  from  the  movement  of  peoples 
within  the  historical  era  may  be  deduced 
in  illustration  of  the  misconceptions  into 
which  the  inquirer  is  likely  Familiar  iiius- 
to  fall.  For  instance,  the  t^:^:^,^^^ 
passage  from  the  shores  of  races, 
the  Old  World,  in  ships,  of  the  colonists 
who  planted  themselves  in  little  rook- 
eries on  the  eastern  seaboard  of  America 
might  well  be  represented  by  lines  drawn 
across  the  Atlantic  from  point  of  de- 
parture to  point  of  settlement.  But  the 
diffusion  of  those  peoples  inland  from 
the  Atlantic  shores,  though  it  had  a  di- 
rection and  a  tendency,  could  hardly  be 
given  a  linear  representation.  With  the 
development  of  the  Old  Thirteen  vStates, 
the  overflow  of  their  population  by 
adventure  came  through  the  passes  of 
the  Alleghanies  into  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  valleA^s;  but  such  a  move- 
ment would  be  very  poorly  represented 
by  lines. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES—THE  BLACKS. 


537 


Gradual  diffu- 
sion of  the 
Anglo-Ameri- 
cans westward. 


The  peopling  of  the  trans-Mississippi 
states  and  territories  was  in  the  nature 
of  a  gradual  spreading  of 
the  American  race  toward 
the  Rocky  mountains. 
The  colonization  of  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska may  in  general  be  traced  to  an 
origin  in  New  England.  But  a  single 
line  drawn  from  Western  Massachusetts 
across  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
Illinois,  and  Iowa,  and  bifurcated  at  its 
passage  of  the  Missouri  river  into  East- 
ern Kansas  and  Nebraska,  would  be  a 
very  inadequate,  not  to  say  an  errone- 
ous, representation  of  the  actual  facts. 
Yet  the  movements  which  we  have  here 
described  were  projected  in  the  open 
daylight  of  history,  under  the  conscious 
and  rational  forces  of  civilization.  They 
were  consequently  much  more  exact  than 
those  natural  expeditions  and  swarmings 
forth  which  characterized  the  barbarous 
epochs  of  human  society.  The  progress 
by  which  the  colonists  have  peopled 
the  western  portions  of  America  by  mi- 
gration from  the  east  is  much  more 
susceptible  of  exact  delineation  than 
were  those  prehistoric  movements  which 
were  directed  by  the  blind  forces  of  bar- 
barism. An  attempt  to  point  out  with 
geometric  curves  the  course  taken  by  the 
Teutonic  hordes  who  came  into  Britain 
in  the  fifth  century,  or  by  the  Northmen 
into  Neustria  in  the  ninth,  would  be  not 
only  conjectural  but  exceedingly  ineffi- 
cient as  a  pictorial  method  of  symboliz- 
ing the  things  it  is  intended  to  express. 
The  movements  of  human  society  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  are  as  multifari- 
Exactitude  not  ous  as  the  swarming  of  bees 
inetw^moet  f^n^  the  parent  colony, 
"le'^ts.  It    is  easy  to  indicate  the 

general  direction  of  the  swarm,  to  point 
out  its  origin  and  its  ultimate  destination 
in  the  distant  forest ;  but  its  exact  course 

and  the  manner  of  its  going  are  phe- 
M. — Vol.  I — 35 


nomena  exceedingly  difficult  of  definition 
and  description.  Human  migrations  are 
even  more  intangible  and  multifarious 
in  their  manifestations  than  are  the  blind- 
er circlings  about  and  the  final  settlings 
of  animals  and  birds,  and  the  reader 
must  be  on  his  guard  against  the  exact 
and  mathematical  delineation  of  such 
movements  on  maps  and  globes.  They 
are,  at  best,  the  vague  indications  of  the 
places  from  which  and  to  which  and  the 
space  over  which  the  tribes  of  men  have 
drifted  and  turned  and  whirled  on  their 
way  to  a  final  occupancy  of  a  different 
and  distant  part  of  the  earth's  surface. 

Still  another  important  consideration 
arises  with  respect  to  the  classification 
and  tribal  dispersion  of  mankind.  This 
relates  to  the  precise  separa- 

Separation  of 

tion  of  tribe  from  tribe  and  tribes  and  races 

r  1  •    -L    Ai        not  complete. 

race  from  race  which  the 
ethnographers  have  employed  in  their 
schemes  of  division.  These  plans  of 
distribution  and  of  race  partition  are 
drawn  up  as  if  they  were  mathematical 
formulas.  It  is  assumed  that  the  Ruddy 
races  are  clearly  defined  from  the  Brown, 
and  the  Brown  races  from  the  Black ; 
that  is,  that  the  lines  of  demarkation  be- 
tween these  major  divisions  of  mankind 
are  clearly  and  definitely  drawn.  Such 
a  supposition  is  as  wide  from  the  fact  as 
is  the  use  of  a  line  to  represent  the  pre- 
historic movements  of  a  tribe.  It  is  true 
that  there  are  Ruddy  races,  that  there 
are  other  races  which  are  Black,  and 
others  Brown.  But  the  lines  of  dix-ision 
which  are  supposed  to  separate  the  one 
from  the  other,  that  is,  the  ethnic  dis- 
tinctions by  which  the  one  is  separated 
from  the  other,  would  be  difficult  to 
discover. 

It  is  here,  as  in  all  natural  anah'sis, 
that  nature  hangs  together.  The  races 
of  men  grade  off,  the  one  into  the  other, 
by  imperceptible  degrees.     This  is  true 


538 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


of  their  physical  characteristics,  of  their 
mental  habitudes,  of  their  morality,  and 
)ff-gradmg  of  of  their  institutional  forms 
of  life.  It  would  perhaps 
be  impossible  to  find  the 
exact   points   of    division   between    the 


the  human  spe- 
cies ;  no  Unes  in 
nature. 


TYPE   OF    RUDDY    RACE   APPROXIMATED   TO    BROWN 

— A  NATIVE  OF  MADRAS. 

Drawn  by  Einile  Bayard. 

Black  peoples  of  the  world  and  those 
■who  are  classified  as  Brown.  Xor  could 
the  Ruddy  peoples  be  separated  from 
either  by  a  precise  line  of  demarkation. 
Nature    abhors   a    line!     The    physical 


world  does  not  present  a  single  instance 
of  what  may  properly  be  called  a  line. 
Every  phenomenon  is  .shaded  off  on  all 
sides  into  the  other  facts  with  which  it 
is  associated.  It  is  true  that  the  dis- 
tinction between  night  and  day  is  suffi- 
ciently striking;  but  all  the  scien- 
tific tests  in  the  world  could  never 
define  the  limits  of  that  dawn  which 
separates  the  one  from  the  other. 
The  cloud  is  discriminated  from  the 
sky,  and  yet  by  what  kind  of  test 
could  the  edge  of  a  cloud  be  de- 
fined from  its  atmospheric  envel- 
ope? It  is  not  pos.sible  to  produce 
even  on  the  edge  of  the  finest  cut- 
lery an  actual  line.  Everywhere 
there  is  a  blending  of  the  phenom- 
ena that  lie  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
demarkation.  In  the  world  of  life 
this  absence  of  exact  outlines  by  def- 
inition is  equally  noticeable.  The 
differences  between  races  of  men  are 
among  the  most  striking  and  inter- 
esting facts  with  which  historical  in- 
;  quiry  has  to  do ;  but  these  condi- 
tions are  graded  down  until  at  the 
selvage  they  blend  with  one  another 
into  a  common  character. 

This,    however,    is    not   to  assert 
that  there  is.no  difference  between 
one    race   of    men    and  species  a  mis- 
another.     It  is  only  to  "°;^"'^*^!,„ 

J  economy  oi  na- 

deny  the  division  of  the  t"re. 
one  from  the  other  by  those  exact 
lines  of  discrimination  which  ethnog- 
raphers are  wont  to  employ.  Those 
thinkers  who  have  made  the  widest 
application  of  the  hypothesis  of  evo- 
lution to  the  various  forms  of  life  on 
the  globe  have  become  satisfied  that 
all  varieties  of  living  forms  merge  into 
each  other,  and  that  the  method  of  clas- 
sifying by  genera  and  species  is  in  reality 
fictitious — a  convenience  of  science  per- 
haps, but  having  no  corresponding  fact 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— THE  BLACKS. 


639 


in  nature.  It  is  held  that  whereas  there 
are  almost  infinite  varieties  among  liv- 
ing creatures,  there  are  no  species  in  the 
sense  in  which  that  term  has  been 
hitherto  understood  by  natural  phi- 
losophers. In  many  places  in  the 
world  of  life  great  gaps  and  chasms 
are  discovered  which  it  is  necessary  to 
bridge  over  by  supposing  intermediate 
living  forms  which  have  disappeared. 
But  it  is  believed  that  if  all  the  phenom- 
enal exhibitions  of  life  which  have  been 
seen  on  the  earth  could  be  restored,  the 
artificial  methods  of  classification  now 
employed  would  disappear;  in  other 
words,  that  all  life  would  become  one, 
the  various  formal  manifestations  of  the 
same  being  shaded  off  by  such  fine  de- 
grees as  not  to  warrant  the  fixing  of  the 
great  classes  and  smaller  divisions  which 
furnish  the  nomenclature  of  biology. 

If  this  view  of  nature  be  accepted  as 
applied  to  the  human  race,  we  should  be 
Races  of  men  led  to  regard  the  chasms 
must  be  regard-    between  the  different  divi- 

ed  as  varieties  of 

acommoniife.  sions  of  mankind  as  the  re- 
sult of  the  perishing  and  dropping  out 
of  certain  intermediate  types  that,  on  the 
whole,  were  less  able  to  perpetuate  them- 
selves than  were  those  varieties  of  men 
who  were  differentiated  under  more  fa- 
vorable conditions  on  either  side  of  the 
departure.  We  should  thus  be  led  to 
regard  a  given  "race,"  so  called,  as  a 
certain  form  of  humanity  which  nature 
had  proved  and  ratified  under  the  laws 


of  environment  and  survival.  A  differ- 
ent family  would  present  simply  another 
aspect  of  the  one  common  fact  adjusted 
to  new  conditions  and  developed  on  new 
lines  of  activity.  Intermediate  between 
these  two  separate  forms  of  human  evo- 
lution we  should  find  both  branches 
grading  toward  each  other  and  approxi- 
mating to  a  common  type.  The  type 
itself  would  perhaps  be  absent,  but  the 
shades  on  either  side  of  the  line  of  de- 
markation  would  be  so  slightly  different 
as  to  be  hardly  distinguishable  the  one 
from  the  other. 

Such  conditions  are  discovered  along 
the  edges,  or  selvages,  of  race  develop- 
ment. The  Danube  in  Peoples  approx- 
ancient  times  constituted  i^^t'eS 
a  kind  of  geographical  bar-  margins, 
rier  between  the  Teutonic  and  the 
Grseco-Italic  races.  The  Goth,  consid- 
ered as  a  Goth,  was  sufficiently  distinct 
from  the  Greek  considered  as  a  Greek, 
or  the  Roman  as  a  Roman.  But  the 
two  races  at  their  margins  approxi- 
mated a  common  ethnic  form,  and  this 
Independently  of  the  admixture  of  blood. 
All  of  these  considerations  are  adduced 
and  urged  upon  the  attention  of  the  in- 
quirer to  the  end  that  his  concept  of 
race  divisions  may  be  somewhat  more 
in  accordance  with  the  facts,  than  would 
likely  happen  if  he  were  trained  to  con- 
sider the  different  streams  of  mankind 
distinctly  separated  by  the  exact  lines  of 
ethnography. 


540 


GREAT  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


Chapter  XXXI.— IVIixed  Races  oe  NIankind. 


Existence  of 
mixed  or  inter- 
mediate races. 


|E  are  thus  led  to  the 
consideration  of  an- 
other fact  of  no  little 
importance  in  the  gen- 
eral apprehension  of 
the  movements  and 
dispersion  and  devel- 
opment of  mankind.  This  is  the  exist- 
ence and  character  of  intermediate  or 
mixed  races.  It  has  always  happened 
that  wherever  two  families 
of  men  have  touched  each 
other  geographically,  they 
have  also  touched  by  the  more  intimate 
admixture  of  blood.  In  the  early  ages 
of  history,  when  race  antipathy  was 
stronger  than  it  is  under  the  light  of 
civilization,  the  intermingling  of  differ 
ent  branches  of  the  race  was  less  fre- 
quent and  conspicuous  than  in  modern 
times.  But  intermarriages  were  com- 
mon from  the  remotest  epochs,  and  are 
mentioned  as  common  circumstances  in 
the  most  primitive  traditions  of  the 
world. 

As  a  result  of  the  cross-relation- 
ships thus  established  between  fami- 
Race  offspring      Hes  of   different  blood  an 

takes  character        cc 

fi-om  both  an-  offspnug,  possessmg  some- 
cestors.  thing  of  the  traits  of  both 

ancestors,  would  arise,  intermediate  be- 
tween the  two ;  and  when  the  departure 
between  the  two  stocks  thus  blended 
was  strongly  marked  in  color  and  other 
ethnic  qualities,  the  result  of  the  union 
would  present  a  type  sufficiently  distinct 
to  be  classified  by  itself.  An  interme- 
diate group,  or  branch,  of  people  would 
thus  be  established  who,  preferring  as- 
sociations with  their  own  kind,  would 
become  a  tribe,  and  finally  a  nation. 
Such      is      the     somewhat     theoretical 


view  of  the  genesis  of  a  mixed  race  of 
people. 

Strangely  enough,  however,  the  facts 
do  not  seem  to  warrant  the  conclusion. 

This     is     to     say     that     the    But  intermedl- 

tribal  and  race  development  pe'pe™a\t°  "°* 
of  the  intermediate  stock  themselves. 
has  never  seemed  to  answer  to  the  ex- 
pectation of  the  premises.  That  is, 
there  is  an  apparent  law  in  the  natural 
world  which  forbids  the  propagation  and 
expansion  of  these  intermediate  varieties 
of  mankind.  The  law  in  question  is 
common  to  man,  to  the  lower  animals, 
and  to  plants.  The  hybrid  does  not 
procreate  its  kind.  It  is  incapable  of 
doing  so.  This  is  to  say  that  if  the  two 
animals  which  have  been  united  in  the 
production  of  a  third  be  sufficiently  dif- 
ferentiated from  each  other  as  to  belong 
to  what  the  naturalist  calls  diverse  "  spe- 
cies," then  the  offspring  can  not  procre- 
ate its  kind,  and  the  movement  in  the 
direction  of  a  new  variety  of  animals 
ceases  with  the  first  stage.  If,  how- 
ever, the  two  animals  are  so  near  to- 
gether in  structure  and  characteristics 
as  to  fall  within  the  limits  of  what  is 
called  a  "species,"  then,  indeed,  the  off- 
spring of  their  union  can  procreate  along 
the  new  line  of  life.  But  it  has  been 
universally  observed  that  such  propaga- 
tion is  extremely  feeble,  and  that  it 
tends  to  weakness  and  early  extinction. 
In  cases  where  this  does  not  actually 
happen,  the  offspring  of  the  original 
union,  after  a  few  generations,  reverts 
to  the  type  of  the  one  or  the  other  of  the 
ancestors  from  which  it  was  descended. 
This  reversion  to  the  character  of  an 
ancestral  stock  appears  to  be  the  case 
with  the  union  of  the  different  branches 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE  RACES.— MIXED  FORMS. 


541 


of  mankind.  That  is,  considered  accord- 
ing to  the  biological  classifications 
until  recently  acknowledged  as  the  best 


APPROXIMATION    OF   BLACK   AND   BKOUN    RACES — THE 

MOOR    FAG  HE. 

Drawn  by  E.  Ronjat. 

expressions   of   the   different  orders  of 
nature,  all  men  fall  within  a  single  spe- 
cies,   having    its    varieties 

All  varieties  of  .  ^  . 

men  fall  within  a  which    may   Unite   despite 

single  "species."       <•       .1      •  .  i-    i- 

of  their  strong  distinc- 
tions, and  produce  a  progeny  having 
the  qualities  of  both  parentages.  It  has 
been  maintained  by  many  naturalists, 
and  until  recently  has  been  generally 
believed,  that  these  hybrid  forms  of  hu- 
man life  have  in  them  the  elements  of 
perpetuit}^  that  the  new  variety  of  man- 
kind thus  established  is  fecund  in  its 
kind,  and  as  well  qualified  to  maintain 
its    independent    characteristics    as    is 


either  of   the   types  from  which  it  has 
been  derived. 

A  closer  study  of  the  situation,  how- 
ever, has  established  the  opposite  view. 
It  is  now  known,  and  wellnigh  universal- 
ly recognized  bv  biologists, 

■^  ^       .  "  o  '    Short-Uved 

that   the  intermediate  va-  character  of  all 

•    ,  ■  111         -1    mixed  varieties. 

rieties,  or  so-called  mixed 
races  of  men,  are,  considered  as  distinct 
types,  exceedingly  short  lived,  unable  as 
a  rule  to  continue  their  existence  or  to 
maintain  the  distinct  features  which  they 
present  in  the  first  generations  after  the 
original  admixture.  Such  intermediate 
peoples,  therefore,  constitute,  not,  as  was 
hitherto  supposed,  distinct  races  in  the 
ethnography  of  mankind,  but  a  kind  of 
floating  population  interfused  among 
the  nations   of   the   world,  mixing  and 


APPRO.KI.MATION   OF    THE   RUDDY    AND   BROWN    RACES- 
DON   MARIANO   TERAN,    PRIEST   OF   COPORAQUE. 
Drawn  by  Riou,  from  a  photograph. 

mingling  dimly  with  the  other  human 
elements,  but  really  effecting  no  changes 
in  the  general  constitution  of  any  type. 


542 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


In  all  ages  this  impermanent  compound 
of  humanity  has  shown  itself  along  the 
Results  of  inter-  margins  of  race  contact, 
mixture  in  the      |^  ^  j  ^,^^  exerted  other 

case  of  the 

ludo-Aryans.  than  a  modifying  influence 
on  the  separate  peoples  from  whom  the 
mixed  type  has  been  deduced.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  valleys  of  India 
were  populated  before  the  immigrant 
Aryans  took  possession  of  the  country. 
In  another  chapter  the  presence  of  this 
aboriginal  population  has  been  accounted 
for  by  the  hypothesis  of  a  Dra vidian  mi- 
gratory movement  across  the  peninsula 
before  the  deflection  of  that  race  into  the 
great  archipelagoes  of  the  East.  The 
Aryan  tribes  were  not  severe  with  the 
aborigines,  but  absorbed  them  by  blood 
union  and  amalgamation.  The  result 
was,  not  the  establishment  and  perpetu- 
ity of  an  intermediate  or  mixed  race,  but 
merely  a  modification  in  the  Indo- Aryan 
character.  It  is  believed  that  the  immi- 
grant and  superior  race  took  a  consider- 
able percentage  of  the  Brown  color  of  the 
Dravidians,  something  of  their  tropical 
suppleness  of  body,  and  a  certain  mental 
quiescence  favorable  to  the  genesis  and 
propagation  of  the  dreamy  philosophies 
and  negative  religions  of  India.  These 
results  have  continued  to  the  present 
time,  and  are  quickly  discernible  by  the 
ethnographer  in  the  swarthy  complexion, 
litheness,  and  subjective  moods  of  the 
peoples  of  Hindustan.  But  the  Hindus 
are  not  to  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  a 
mixed  race.  They  are  essentially  Ar- 
yan, not  only  in  their  genesis  and  evolu- 
tion, but  in  their  present  character  as  a 
race.  The  tint  of  the  Old  Dravidians  is 
in  their  countenance,  and  their  blood  is 
tinged  with  the  influences  of  aboriginal 
descent ;  but  the  ethnic  type  is  the  same 
that  it  was  beyond  the  Hindu-Kush  and 
in  the  old  Aryan  nidus  in  Bactria. 
The  same  phenomenon  has  occurred 


and  recurred  in  hundreds  of  instances  in 
the  history  of  mankind.  In  fact,  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly   exceptional     to 

^  Examples  of  like 

find  a  race  of  men  who  have  ethnic  phenom- 

.     ,  1  .         ena  elsewhere. 

not  been  more  or  less  in- 
fected in  blood  and  development  by  alien 
influences.  But  each  race  has  continued 
its  course  of  evolution  under  the  domin- 
ion of  the  original  ethnic  impulse ;  and 
while  it  has  accepted  modifications  from 
foreign  peoples,  it  has  persisted  in  main- 
taining its  own  type.  The  attention  of 
the  reader  has  already  been  called  to  the 
fact  that  the  Assyrians  were  a  people 
who  had  been  thus  modified  by  two  or 
three  contacts  with  other  races.  The 
Hamites  on  the  south  had  somewhat  in- 
fected the  ethnic  character  of  the  people 
in  Upper  Mesopotamia.  Later  on,  the 
Aryan  Medes  penetrated  the  country  on 
the  east  and  gave  another  modification 
to  the  people.  So  great  were  the  changes 
thus  efl'ected  in  the  Assyrian  race  char- 
acter that  ethnographers  have  been  con- 
fused in  their  classification.  Even  the 
language  was  so  much  infected  as  to  mis- 
lead the  inquirer  in  regard  to  the  lin- 
guistic stock  from  which  it  was  deduced. 
But  all  of  these  foreign  influences  were 
no  more  than  modifications  in  the  real 
.Semitic  constitution  of  the  Assyrians. 
The  foreign  admixture  deflected  some- 
what the  course  and  character  of  the 
people  of  the  Upper  Tigris,  but  did  not 
subvert  their  fundamental  constitution 
or  substitute  one  ethnic  descent  for  an- 
other. 

The  peoples  of  Western  Asia  Minor, 
especially  on  the  south,   were  regarded 

as     composite.         This     fact    Further  exam- 
has    been    pointed    out    in  telt^^ZT- 
a    former    chapter.       But  acter. 
the  persistency  of  the  strongest  stock, 
whatever  that  was   in  a  given  instance, 
preserved   the    original   type,    however 
modified    and  diverted  from  its  earlier 


DISTRIBUTION   OF   THE  RACES.—MIXED   FORMS. 


543 


standards.  All  the  western  nations  of 
■  primitive  Europe  might  be  cited  as  ex- 
amples of  the  absorption,  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  of  preceding  populations 
that  were  overcome  by  conquest  and 
taken  up  by  the  pi^ocess  of  amalgama- 
tion. The  Hamitic  Basques  and  Ibe- 
rians of  Spain  were  in  this  manner 
absorbed  by  the  Aryan  Spaniards  of  a 
later  age,  and  the  latter  received  from 
the  former  a  darker  tinge  of  color,  and 
perhaps  other  physical  and  mental  char- 
acteristics which  they  carry  to  the  pres- 
ent day. 

The  modern  world  presents  still  more 
strikingly  the  modifications  resultant 
The  Israelites  from  the  intermixture  of 
eT^io^irof  distinct  types  of  people, 
races.  Perhaps    no   stock   in   the 

world  can  better  exhibit  the  persistency 
of  the  original  type  under  infinite  modi- 
fications of  environment  and  foreign  im- 
pact than  the  Israelites,  who  are  at  present 
interfused  among  the  Western  nations. 
The  "  Abrahamic  face  "  is  seen  in  all  the 
marts  of  the  world.  The  original  char- 
acter is  strong  upon  him.  He  has  inter- 
mingled with  all  the  races.  The  Spanish 
Jew  is  very  different  in  constitution  and 
ethnic  character  from  the  German  or 
Polish  Jew ;  but  each  and  all  have  pre- 
served an  original  type  under  diverse 
and  divergent  aspects. 

Modern  ethnography  has  taken  note 
of  an  almost  endless  variety  of  mixed 
races  which  present  the  beginnings,  but 
never  the  results,  of  new  ethnic  develop- 
„.^   ^-^   ■         ments.       The    distribution 

Wide  diffusion 

ofmixed  types;    of   the    Black    and    Brown 

the  Mulattoes.  .     .  .  ^       , 

races  mto  regions  of  the 
earth  now  occupied  by  the  Ruddy  fami- 
lies of  men  has  given  occasion  for  the 
production  of  these  multiform  cross- 
bloods  whose  interest  as  races  lies 
not  in  their  perpetuity,  but  merely 
in  their  present  aspect.     Wherever  the 


Ruddy  and  the  Black  race  have  come 
into  contact,  that  type  known  as  Mulat- 
toes has  appeared,  and  until  recently  it 
might  have  been  thought  that  the  Mu- 
latto was  destined  to  permanence  as  an 
intermediate  type  of  mankind.  This, 
however,  is  the  very  thing  which,  under 
the  law  of  nature,  can  not,  or  at  least 
does  not,  occur.  The  Mulatto  is  fecund. 
It  has  been  noticed  by  statisticians  that 
the  first  generation  of  Mulatto  children, 
that  is,  Cascos,  or  those  who  have  Mu- 
lattoes for  both  parents,  are  unusually 
numerous;  but  it  is  also  observed  that 
the  tendency  to  reversion  immediately 
appears,  some  being  blacker,  like  the 
ancestral  mother,  and  others  whiter,  like 
the  first  father  of  the  admixture. 

The  latter  type  of  Mulattoes,  that  is, 
those  who  gravitate  toward  the  white 
parentage,    are   almost  in- 

.  Instability  of 

variably  weak  and  spirit-  the  Mulatto 
less.  If  they  procreate  at  all, 
the  offspring  dies,  and  the  reversion  to- 
ward the  white  parentage  soon  ceases 
for  want  of  material.  The  blackward 
tendency  goes  on  for  several  genera- 
tions, when  the  distinction  between  the 
Mulatto  progeny  and  the  children  of 
Blacks  is  no  longer  noticeable.  The 
type  has  reverted  on  the  side  of  the 
original  mother.  The  same  phenom- 
enon recurs  with  the  Mestizo,  or  the 
half-breed  of  the  Mexican  and  the 
Spanish-American  states.  As  a  rule, 
the  father,  in  this  case,  is  a  white 
Spaniard  and  the  mother  an  Indian 
woman.  Here,  again,  in  the  first  gener- 
ation a  distinction  appears  among  the 
children.  The  Mestizos  fluctuate  from 
the  father's  to  the  mother's  side,  and, 
though  somewhat  more  persistent  than 
the  Mulattoes,  they  either  revert  or 
perish. 

That  indefinable  tj-pe,  called  Creole 
in   those   countries   where   the  word  is 


644 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKLYD. 


Used    to  designate    half-breeds,    shows 

the  same  or  analogous  tendencies.     The 

Zambo,    or   cross  between 

Crosses  of  Amer-  i     i        t     t 

lean  aborigines  the  Negro  and  the  Indian, 
with  Negroes.      .^  ^^^^^  ^  ^^^^^  generations 

undiscoverable  as  a  separate  type.  That 
is,  the  Zambo  can  only  be  perpetuated 
by  the  repetition   of  the  original  cross. 

l,iliti:;!!;:!11!iti1l!irtl1'rTT!ff™ffiri!!||l|lli 


or  forces  which  occasion  the  departure 
of  one  type  of  people  from  another,  and 
the  development  of  each  Ethnic  instincts 
into  diverse  forms  of   ac-  ^'^^^f^l'^i","'"' 

creation  and 

tivity,  we  should,  perhaps,  birth, 
find   the   answer   to  our  inquiry  in  the 
nature  of  procnatioii  and  birth.      There  is 
a  human  instinct  which,  in  virtue  of  its 


MlXhli   IVPhS-MEXICAN  WOM F.N. -Drawn  by  Riou 


So,  likewise,  of  the  Cholo  of  .South 
America,  the  Pardo  and  the  Mamaluco 
of  Brazil,  the  Chino  of  Mexico  and 
Spanish  America,  the  Cafuso,  or  Negro- 
Indian  cross,  of  Brazil,  and  in  general  of 
all  varieties  and  .shades  of  the  so-called 
mixed  races  of  mankind. 

If  we  are  dispo.sed  to  look  into  what 
may  be  called  the  origin  of  races, 
that  is,  the  very  primary  circumstances 


own  nature,  hovers  around  the  fact  of 
maternity.  Still  deeper  down  than  this 
somewhat  generalized  sentiment  that 
covers  the  mother,  there  is  an  instinct  of 
the  mother  herself  for  her  oifspring. 
This  is  sufficiently  strong  even  in  ani- 
mals to  .stimulate  intelligence  and  fore- 
thought. The  mother  does  not  abandon 
her  child.  She  protects  it,  nunses  it. 
Otherwise,  there  were  no  perpetuity. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF    THE   RACES.—MIXED   FORMS. 


545 


This  maternal  impulse  is  the  bottom 

fact  in  the  ethnic  dispersion  of  mankind. 

The  mother  is  bound  to  her 

AU  race  disposi-       ,  .,  ,  ,        ...  .    ,  , 

tions  arise  from  child  by  the  law  oi  her  be- 
the  family.  .^^^      Therefore  she  keeps 

it,  first  on  her  breast,  afterwards  at  her 
side.  She  is  the  mother,  not  of  one, 
but  of  many.  She  nurtures  and  gathers 
all  of  them  about  her,  and  puts  herself 
between  them  and  danger.  This  phe- 
nomenon is  perfectly  natural,  and,  like 
other  elementary  facts,  is  incapable  of 
explanation.  To  the  mother  and  her 
group  the  father  is  drawn.  They  con- 
stitute a  complex  fact,  and  he  a  simple 
fact.  Even  in  savagery  he  is  tied  to 
this  group,  with  one  of  whom  he  has 
the  most  intimate  association,  and  of  the 
rest  of  whom  he  recognizes  himself  as 
the  creator. 

The  ties  which  bind  the  father  to 
the  mother  and  to  his  offspring  are 
Place  of  the  not  SO  permanent  and  abso- 
lute as  those  between  the 
mother  and  her  children. 
But  they  are,  nevertheless,  sufficient  to 
hold  him,  with  tolerable  singularity,  to 
her  and  to  them,  and,  indeed,  to  con- 
stitute him  their  head  and  defender. 
Doubtless  the  sentiment  of  fatherhood 
arises  at  a  very  early  period  in  the 
breast  of  the  savage,  and,  though  it  is 
not  constant  and  dominating  in  the  bar- 
barian, it  nevertheless  is  sufficiently 
pronounced  to  complete  the  elementary 
conditions  of  the  family.  The  family, 
then,  begun  on  these  simple  and  natural, 
we  might  say  inevitable,  conditions,  is 
the  beginning  of  race  divergence. 

Out  of  the  family  springs  the  gens. 
The  brothers  of  a  given  family,  mayhap 
In  what  manner  the  sisters,  become  the 
^vXd/r'om  heads  of  other  families, 
famiues.  bearing   an    intimate  rela- 

tionship the  one  to  the  other.  They  have 
a  common  blood.     They  dwell  together 


father  in  the 
primary  organ 
ization. 


or  in  proximity.  Their  interests  are,  in 
large  measure,  mutual.  They  help  each 
other,  prosper  together,  suffer  together, 
and  struggle  in  common  causes.  They 
call  each  other  by  the  common  ancestral 
name,  and  are  thus  all  grouped  as  one, 
constituting  that  fact  in  the  evolution  of 
man  called  tlie  gens,  the  clans,  the  sept, 
the  totem,  or  some  such  name  significant 
of  a  single  blood  origin  and  develop- 
ment. The  gens,  then,  is  the  second 
stage  of  race  evolution. 

Out  of  the  gens  arises  the  tribe.  That 
strange  fact  which  we  call  by  the  general 
name  of   nature   does   not  „ 

The  tribe  m  like 

freely  permit  the  intermar-  manner  springs 

1111  .  r   fromgentes. 

riage  and  blood  union  or 
intimate  kinspeople.  There  is  a  revul- 
sion against  it  as  a  method  of  procreat- 
ing  and  extending  the  race.  The  natural 
affections  of  brotherhood  and  sisterhood, 
even  in  the  most  savage  state,  are  totally 
different  from  those  sexual  affections 
upon  which  the  multiplication  of  the 
race  depends.  It  is  thus  found  con- 
venient and  desirable,  in  the  very  earli- 
est stages  of  society,  that  the  members  of 
a  given  gens  do  not  intermarry  with  one 
another.  It  is  found  to  be  more  fitting 
that  the  man  of  one  gens  take  the 
woman  of  another  to  his  wife,  and  vice 
versa.  For  convenience,  we  call  the 
members  of  a  given  gens  gentiles,  and 
the  rule  of  even  the  most  profound  bar- 
barism is  that  gentiles  shall  not  inter- 
marry. "With  the  cross  unions  which  take 
place  under  these  natural  laws,  relations 
are  at  once  established  between  two  or 
more  gentes.  These  cross  relations  bring 
the  several  orentes  together  in  a  common 
cause.  The  selvages  of  all  are  knit  to- 
gether by  the  marriage  unions  among 
them,  and  the  offsprings  of  such  unions 
are  allied  to  all  in  common.  This  union 
of  several  gentes  constitutes  the  tribal 
or  third  staa-e  in  race  evolution. 


546 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


It  must  be   borne  in   mind    that  the 

threefold   process  which  we  have  here 

described  occurs  in  the  plastic  stage  of 

human  development.    It  may  be  assumed 

that  the  primitive  gentile 

The  gentile  life  .  '^  r  i 

astateofsus-       was  m  a  State  of  youth  as 

cept.bil.ty.  .J.  j.g^p^.^t^  y^^  fj^n,i]y  ^.hiid- 

hood  that  had  been  and  the  race  man- 
hood that  was  to  be.  It  is  well  known 
that  throughout  all  nature  plants  and 
animals  pass  through  a  state  of  suscepti- 
bility in  which  and  out  of  which  they 
may  be  deflected  into  almost  any  form 
of  growth.  There  is  a  time  in  the  his- 
tory of  a  tree  when,  as  a  mere  withe,  it 
can  be  tied  into  a  knot  without  injury 
to  the  organism.  There  is  a  time  when 
the  husk  of  corn  may  be  opened  and  a 
row  of  the  grains  cut  out,  and  the  wound 
will  close  and  the  completed  ear  give  no 
hint  of  the  process  by  which  the  number 
of  rows  thereon  has  been  reduced  from 
even  to  odd.  Aye,  more,  in  the  early 
stages  of  life  all  animal  forms  are  virtu- 
ally identical.  But  at  a  certain  period 
they  begin,  in  obedience  to  their  own 
laws,  to  differentiate  into  the  several 
types  which  tliey  are  ultimately  to  bear. 
The  gentile  age  of  man  appears  to  be 
his  "age  of  susceptibility,"  as  it  respects 
r  .V  .  -^  y.c     tl^6  form  and  character  of 

In  the  tribal  life 

ethnic  features    the     race     toward     which 

are  established.     1^1  ,, 

he    tends.      .Something   of 

this  susceptibility  is  carried  forward  into 
the  tribe,  which  is  the  next  higher  form 
of  human  structure.  It  is  likely  that 
after  the  tribe  has  been  well  constituted, 
the  features  of  the  race  are  not  only  dis- 
coverable in  the  tribal  lineaments,  but 
are  in  a  measure /.nv/ so  as  to  be  subjected 
to  little  additional  modification .  Thus,  if 
we  trace  the  barbarian  unit  of  the  primi- 
tive world  toward  the  coming  race  of 
which  his  descendant  is  to  be  the  epitome 
and  brief  abstract,  we  shall  find  that  his 
actual  differentiation  into  race  form  takes 


place  while  he  is  passing  through  the 
gentile  and  tribal  stages  of  develop- 
ment. 

It  happens — has  happened — in  a  vast 
number  of  instances  that  the  develop- 
ment of  mankind  has  been  arrested  in 
the  gentile  stage.  This  is  The  horde  arises 
to  say  that  the  or^anie  tend-  ^TJJZTC 
ency  ceases  at  this  low  ment. 
point  in  the  scale,  and  instead  of  reach- 
ing a  tribe  by  the  evolution  of  the  gens, 
we  come  to  that  other  remarkable  fact  in 
the  prehistoric  world  called  the  horde. 
A  horde  is  not  a  tribe.  We  have  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom  a  phenomenon  called 
blasting.  The  grain  that  is  to  be,  in- 
stead of  coming  to  development  and 
maturity,  suddenly  passes,  as  in  the 
ergot  of  rye,  into  a  blasted  and  inorganic 
condition.  The  horde  is  a  blasted  tribe. 
It  happened  in  the  ancient  world  that 
the  growing  gens  sometimes  expanded 
sparsely  into  a  vast  and  cheerless  region, 
unfavorable  for  aggregation  and,  per- 
haps, already  thinly  populated  by  some 
aboriginal  form  of  humanity.  The  dis- 
persing members  of  the  gens  that  might 
have  become  a  tribe  under  more  favora- 
ble circumstances,  inviting  them  to  imite 
with  some  other  gens  into  a  more  com- 
plex form  of  organization,  merely  diffuse 
and  scatter  among  the  barbarians  already 
existing,  intermingle  with  them,  become 
a  common  mass,  without  discoverable 
features  or  form,  and  presently,  after 
multiplication  without  development,  roll 
away,  under  the  influence  of  some  blind 
force,  into  the  form  of  a  Iiorde.  This 
phenomenon  recurs  and  re-recurs  beyond 
the  horizon  of  history,  and  even  on  this 
side  of  the  dawn.  To  the  present  day 
there  are  hordes  drifting  over  the  waste 
regions  of  the  earth,  without  form  and 
void.  They  are  the  miscarried  aspects 
of  tribal  development,  the  ergot  of  races 
that  have  suffered  abortion. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   THE   RACES.— MIXED  FORMS. 


547 


The  surviving  tribe,  however,  situated 

under    more    favorable    conditions    and 

uro;ed   b\'  a  more   rational 

The  race  is  the        .         .  . 

result  of  tribal        instlUCt,   Iixes   itSelf    111    the 

evolution.  ■,  i  .1         1         •, 

SOU,  and  presently,  by  its 
growth,  expansion,  and  maturity,  pre- 
sents us  with  that  aspect  of  humanity 


to  the  divisions  thereof,  and  sometimes 
even  to  minor  stocks.  But,  as  we  have 
said,  the  context  generally  shows  in 
which  sense  the  word  has  been  em- 
ployed. Race,  then,  may  be  understood 
as  an  expression  for  a  given  type  of 
mankind  sufficiently  differentiated  from 


THK  HOKUE.— Kntkance  ok  the  Moors  i.\to  Alcazar. 


which  we  call  a  race.  The  word  is  very 
inexact.  It  has  a  wider  and  a  narrower 
sense.  Its  merit  is  that  it  generally  con- 
veys to  the  mind,  in  its  relations  with  a 
given  context,  the  true  sense  which  it  is 
intended  to  gfive.  The  term  race  is  some- 
times applied  to  all  mankind,  sometimes 


all  other  tvpes  to  present  and  maintain 
certain  characteristics  easih-  distin- 
ginshed  from  those  of  other  branches 
of  the  human  family. 

Such  a  differentiated  form  of  mankind 
is  the  product  of  tribal  evolution  into 
permanency  and  persistency  of  structure. 


548 


GREAT  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


The  genesis  begins  with  the  instinctive 
preference  and  passion  of  the  mother  for 
The  successive  her  own  offspring",  and  the 
stages  of  devei-    association  and  binding  of 

opment  summzi-  ° 

tized.  the    father   to   the  mother 

and  child  as  the  head  of  the  family.  The 
evolution  passes  easily  into  the  gentile 
form,  Avhich  is  the  first  stage  above  the 
family  development.  The  gens  unites 
with  another  gens,  or  with  other  gentes, 
to  produce  a  tribe.  This  is  the  migra- 
tory, and  also  the  differential,  period  of 
the  human  career.  When  the  tribe  has 
become  fixed  in  a  favorable  locality  it 
expands,  under  auspicious  conditions, 
into  the  permanent  form  of  a  race,  and 
the  evolution  is  complete. 

The  gradual  and  toilsome  spreading  of 

mankind  over  the  surface  of  the  globe 

has  been   a   process   both 

Slow  and  toil-  /■  -,       r    ■, 

some  progress  of  Striking     and     wondertul. 

the  human  race,     -r       .^  r  ii. 

In  the  course  of  ages  the 
planet  came  into  the  habitable  condition 
— into  the  ej^och  of  life.  Life  appeared. 
The  lower  forms  were  succeeded  by  the 
higher.  Man  came  as  the  master  race 
of  animals.  He  came  with  reason,  at 
least  potentially,  and  with  possibilities 
of  improvement,  of  adjustment  and  re- 
adjustment to  his  environment,  of  change 
and  growth  and  high  achievement. 
With  the  development  of  his  tribes  mi- 
gration became  a  necessity,  not,  indeed, 
a  definite  movement  from  one  locality  to 
another  far  distant,  but  a  spreading  first 
into  adjacent  regions,  and  afterwards  to 
lands  afar. 


With  this  outbranching  from  old  eth- 
nic centers  there  came,  in  the  plastic 
stage  of  mankind,  the  differentiation  of 
tribe  from  tribe,  of  race  from  race. 
Possibly  a  diversity  of  individual  in- 
stinct was  the  small  source  from  which 
the  differential  tendency  arose.  Some 
cause  there  certainly  was  for  the  branch- 
ing forth  into  different  forms  of  the 
common  stock  of  humanity.  Long, 
tedious,  and  variable  have  been  the  proc- 
esses of  movement  and  evolution  un- 
til, at  last,  all  parts  of  the  habitable 
globe  have  come  under  the  dominion, 
or  at  least  the  occupancy,  of  the  race. 

It  has  been  the  aim  in  the  current 
book  to  give  merely  a  cursory  sketch  of 
the    principal    movements 

■^  ....  Synoptical  view 

by  which  this  distribution  of  the  dispersion 

.  ,  .      T  .     ,         .,  ^        J.    of  mankind. 

of  mankind  into  all  parts  oi 
the  earth  has  been  effected.  In  tracing 
out  the.se  migratory  waves  we  have  only 
incidentally  touched  upon  the  peculiari- 
ties and  characteristics  which  were 
meanwhile  manifesting  themselves 
among  the  various  races  and  nations. 
While  the  distribution  has  been  in 
process  of  accomplishment,  the  distinct 
features  by  which  race  is  distinguished 
from  race  have  been  evolved.  The  con- 
spicuous differences  which  discriminate 
one  people  from  another  have  appeared, 
until  the  modern  inquirer  is  more  .sur- 
prised at  the  variable  aspect  of  mankind 
than  he  is  with  those  movements  which 
have  preceded  the  present  conditions  of 
the  race. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.    549 


Chapter  XXXII. 


-General  View  ok  Ethnic  Char= 
acteristics. 


Personal  charac- 
teristics of races 
to  be  considered. 


EFORE  passing  to  an- 
other general  division 
of  the  subject,  we  pause 
to  look  somewhat  more 
attentively  at  the  gen- 
eral ethnic  peculiarities 
by  which  the  different 
races  of  mankind  are  discriminated  the 
one  from  the  other.  The  inquiry  will 
include  not  only  distinctions,  but  also 
analogies  and  identities  among  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  the  hu- 
man race.  It  is  intended 
to  note  the  traits  and  quali- 
ties of  life  and  manners  among  at  least 
the  principal  divisions  of  mankind,  to 
the  end  that  the  race  characters  of  all 
may  be  clearly  discerned.  The  study 
before  us  will  include  Avhat  may  be 
called  the  personal  characteristics  of  the 
various  races,  together  with  their  means 
of  subsistence,  their  habits  and  manners, 
their  primitive  institutional  forms,  their 
intellectual  appetencies,  their  arts^ 
where  the  same  exist — and  their  influ- 
ence as  a  modifying  force  in  the  phys- 
ical world,  or,  in  general,  the  traits  of 
mankind  and  their  relations  with  the 
laws  and  conditions  of  environment. 

It  is  purposed  in  the  present  chapter 
to  glance  briefly  at  these  ethnic  pecul- 
Racesofmen  iarities  from  a  general 
Z^^^^.  point  of  view.  There  are 
ing  features.  a  few  leading  features  by 
which  the  races  of  men  may  be  strongly 
discriminated,  and  it  is  perhaps  along 
these  primary  lines  that  their  differenti- 
ation has  been  chiefly  accomplished. 
After  noting  these  first  principles  of 
divergence,  we  may,  in  the  following 
chapters  of  the    present  book,  descend 


into  the  particulars  of  tribal  life,  devel- 
oping, according  to  the  present  resources 
of  knowledge,  the  whole  aspect  of  the 
race  as  the  same  is  displayed  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world. 

In  the  first  place,  it  may  prove  of  in- 
terest to  note,  as  we  look  down  upon  the 
whole  scene  of  human  AbiHtyofman- 
development,  from  the  be-  ^fp^;^°^ 
ginnings  of  race  evolution  environment. 
unto  the  present  day,  the  extent  to  which 
the  different  kindreds  of  mankind  have 
been  able  to  modify  the  conditions  of  the 
physical  world.  The  observer  will  be 
struck  at  the  beginning  with  the  fact 
that  some  peoples  have  effected  a  very 
considerable  change  in  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  while  others  have  in  no  wise  modi- 
fied the  primitive  aspect  of  nature. 
There  are  parts  of  the  earth  in  which 
the  change  effected  by  human  agency 
has  been  very  considerable,  insomuch 
that  if  the  earth  were  viewed,  planet- 
like, as  we  view  the  moon,  the  modifica- 
tions effected  by  human  agency  would 
be  easily  discoverable.  It  has  happened 
that  all  such  changes  have  taken  place 
in  the  north  temperate  zone,  or  possi- 
bly to  a  small  extent  within  the  tropics. 
Western  Asia  and  Europe  throughout 
have  been,  until  the  present  century, 
the  scene  of  the  largest  modifications 
produced  by  the  agency  of  man.  At  the 
present  time  the  most  rapid  change  in 
the  general  aspect  of  the  world  is  that 
which  is  taking  place  in  the  central  zone 
of  North  America,  under  the  impact  of 
the  English-speaking  race. 

If  we  look  at  these  changes  from  an 
ethnic  point  of  view,  we  shall  soon  dis- 
cover that  they  have  been  effected  most 


550 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


largely  by  the  agency  of  the  Ruddy,  or 
so-called  White,  races  of  mankind.  In 
The  Ruddy  the  coiuitries  of  the  Brown 
races  it  is  not  in  evidence 
that  the  surface  of  the 
earth  has  been  transformed  to  any  con- 
siderable degree,  except  in  Eastern  Asia, 


races  have  ef- 
fected greatest 
modifications. 


been  changed  by  the  massing  of  a  great 
population  and  its  neecs.sary  subsistence 
from  the  soil.  Native  woodlands  could 
not  possibly  coexist  with  so  den.se  a  pop- 
ulation. Forests  have  entirely  disap- 
peared, and  the  rivers  have  n(j  doubt 
slirunk  considerably  in  their  volume. 


1* 

I 

« 

*--T.^     ^  ^ 

-^1 

MODIFICATION  OF  THE  NATURAL  WORLD  BY  MAN.— View  of  the  Fortificatjons  of  Belfokt.— Drawn  by  Taylor, 

from  a  photograph. 


where  the  Chinese  Mongolians,  through 
long  occupancy  of  a  given  country,  have 
wrought  a  considerable  change  in  its  as- 
pect. The  original  physical  condition 
of  China  is  a  matter  of  conjecture,  but 


In  most  parts  of  the  earth,  however, 
the  Brown  races  have  little  concerned 
themselves  with  the  physic-  ^rown  races  do 

■'      ■'  not  concern 

al  conditions  around  them,   themselves  with 
^lore      particularly,      they 


physical  con- 
ditions. 


it  is  not  unlikely  that  forests  were  prev-     have  made  few  efforts  to  transform  the 


alent,  and  that  much  greater  humidity 
prevailed  in  primitive  ages  than  within 
the  hi.storical  era.  As  a  matter  of  course, 
both  of    these   former  conditions  have 


primeval  state  of  the  countries  into  which 
they  have  penetrated.  A.sia  north  of  the 
Altais  remains  virtually  as  it  was  before 
the  race  of  man  had  taken  possession — if 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.    551 


possession  that  may  be  called  which  con- 
sists in  mere  occupancy.  Doubtless 
considerable  cosmic  modification  has  oc- 
curred since  the  coming  of  mankind,  and 
those  limitless  steppes  and  cheerless 
mountain  slopes  have  shared  in  common 
with  the  rest  of  the  earth  the  slow  proc- 
esses of  climatic  change  ;  but  the  actual 
agency  of  man  in  the  Turanian  countries 
has  been  but  slight  in  so  far  as  the 
conditions  of  physical  nature  are  con- 
cerned. 

One  of  the  first  instances  of  the  mas- 
tery of   the   earth's  surface  Avas  in  the 
Mesopotamian  region,  where  the  strong 
tide  of  the  Noachite  family  flowed  to  the 
west.  In  Chaldaea,  about  the 

Modifications  ef-  . 

fectedbyraan      he.:d   of  the  Persian  gulf, 

in  Mesopotamia.    , ,  ,      ,  /■  r    ^i 

the  whole  surface  or  the 
low-lying  plain  has  been  raised  to  an 
elevation  of  many  feet  above  its  prehis- 
toric position.  It  has  not  been  deter- 
mined by  geologists  and  ethnographers 
by  what  process  the  surface  of  thickly 
inhabited  countries  is  elevated  to  higher 
levels ;  but  that  such  is  the  actual  fact 
the  old  Chaldsean  burying  grounds  and 
the  level  of  the  whole  region  around 
Rome  conclusively  show.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  two  great  rivers,  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris,  were  thrown  to- 
gether either  by  the  elevation  of  the 
country  along  their  banks  or  by  the  cut- 
ting of  canals  through  the  alluvium. 
Another  marked  variation  in  the  Chal- 
dsean  landscape  was  the  extension  of  the 
verdant  region  on  the  side  next  the 
Arabian  desert.  In  this  direction  the 
waters  of  the  Euphrates  were  carried  off 
by  the  agency  of  man  to  a  distance  of 
a  score  of  miles,  by  which  agency  the 
fertile  extent  of  Lower  Mesopotamia  was 
perhaps  doubled  in  area.  In  the  north- 
ern region  the  native  woods  from  the 
foot  of  the  Armenian  mountains  down 
into  Central  Mesopotamia  were  removed. 


and  the  desert  cha,racter  of  the  country, 
such  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  Herodotus 
and  afterwards  in  the  timesof  Xenophon, 
was  the  result. 

To  what  extent  nature  sympathized 
with  these  changes  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  we  may  not  well  determine ;  but 

there   was    doubtless  a  con-   Nature  changes 

siderable  climatic  modifica-  th^fiSuen^or 
tion  resultant  from  human  "'=^'^- 
agenc)'.  Through  all  of  Asia  Minor  to 
the  ^gean  the  same  kind  of  modifica- 
tions were  effected.  On  the  whole,  the 
country  between  the  Black  sea  and  the 
Eastern  Mediterranean  was  greatly  de- 
teriorated by  the  influence  of  the  early 
peoples  who  planted  themselves  in  this 
fertile  region. 

It  is  here  that  we  may  consider  for  a 
moment  the  great  injury  done  to  the 
face  of  the  world  by  the  injury  done  to 
butchery  of  forests.  It  is  ^^eltTut^n^of 
true  that  the  relations  of  forests, 
man  with  the  earth  require  the  conver- 
sion of  wild  woods  into  fields  and  gar- 
dens, but  the  wise  energies  of  the  race 
should  be  directed  to  the  redistribution 
of  the  tree-growths  on  the  face  of  the 
earth  rather  than  to  their  mere  destruc- 
tion. Nothing  is  more  certain  than  the 
desert  tendency  which  immediately  ap- 
pears in  every  country  which  is  reck- 
lessly denuded  of  its  trees.  No  country 
has  suffered  in  this  respect  more  than 
has  Asia  ^Minor.  Its  extreme  fertility 
in  ancient  times  can  not  be  doubted. 
For  a  long  time  after  the  institution  of 
civilized  states  in  this  peninsular  portion 
of  Asia  the  country  was  proverbial  for 
its  great  vield  of  grains  and  fruits.  Man 
has  virtually  exhausted  the  whole  region 
by  his  careless  administration.  He  has 
consumed  the  current  resources  of  the 
country  and  provided  nothing  in  their 
place.  The  result  has  been  the  creation 
of  p-reat  deserts  on  this  area  once  cov- 


652 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


ered  with  grain-bearing  fields  and  or- 
chards and  vineyards. 

This  was  the  work  of  the  Aryan  peo- 
ples who  came  into  Lesser  Asia  and 
Asia  Minor  more  there  developed   the  early 

modified  than  ^ 

Easterner  States  which  flourished  iin- 

NorthernEu-         ^-i     ,.  i      j    i 

rope.  til  they  were  crushed  be- 

tween  Persia  and  Europe.     But  if  we 
follow  the    northwestern  line  of  Aryan 


The  migratory  tribes  generally  effect- 
ed no  change  in  the  regions  through 
which  they  passed.     Their 

Variable  power 

vocations  of  hunters  and  of  races  as  mod- 
mast-eaters  did  not  inter-  '^"^2  agents. 
fere  with  the  natural  course  of  the  phys- 
ical world.  At  the  beginnings  of  au- 
thentic history  Germany  and  Gaul  and 
Britain  were  in  the  primeval  condition. 


UNMODIFIED  ENVIRONMENT  OF  MAN.— View  of  Sonmarg.— Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a  phoiograph. 


migration  into  Northern  Europe,  we 
shall  pursue  our  inquiry  far  before  we 
come  upon  another  countr}'-  so  greatly 
modified  by  the  agency  of  man.  The 
southern  peninsulas  of  Europe  were 
early  transformed  from  their  native 
state  into  habitable  territories,  but  the 
vaster  regions  north  of  the  Alps  and  the 
Carpathians  remained  in  the  wild. 


In  general,  the  Celtic  race  accomplished 
but  a  slight  transformation  in  the  phys- 
ical landscape.  The  Grseco-Italic  peo- 
ples wrought  successfully  in  establish- 
ing themselves  locally  upon  the  soil  and 
in  changing  the  face  of  nature.  Indeed, 
this  is  what  is  implied  in  civilization. 

Within  certain  limits,  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  coin- 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.     553 


cident  and  coextensive  with  the  march 
of  the  general  fact  which  we  call  the 
Modification  of  civilizcd  Condition  of  man. 
the  earth  correi-  n^^^      principle,    however, 

ative  with  CIV-  r  I       '  > 

uization.  Jjas     its     limitations.        It 

is  only  within  certain  bounds  that  man 
can  effect  any  change  in  his  environ- 
ment. It  is  probably  true  that  in  such 
a  country  as  France,  or  Belgium,  or 
Great  Britain,  the  limit  of  man's  agen- 
cy as  a  cosmic  force  has  been  reached. 
This  is  to  say  that  nature  will  hardly 
feel  any  additional  modification  from 
the  continuance  of  the  established  status 
in  these  countries.  Of  course,  if  civili- 
zation should  decline,  there  Avould  be  a 
reversion  to  the  primitive  condition,  as 
has  actually  occurred  in  other  quarters 
of  the  globe. 

It  is,  then,  the  civilizing  Ruddy  races 
which  have  effected  the  largest  modifica- 
tion in  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  by 
Europe  more  this  means  have  given  a  cer- 
tain direction  to  the  ebb 
and  flow  of  nature.  The 
changes  effected  primarily  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Europe,  and,  in  later  times, 
throughout  the  whole  continent,  have 
been  more  conspicuous  than  those  pre- 
sented in  othet  portions  of  the  ancient 
world.  Along  the  northern  shores  of 
Africa,  except  in  the  extreme  northeast, 
only  slight  modifications  were  made  by 
the  races  occupying  these  countries.  It 
should  be  noted  that  the  earth  is  much 
more  refractoiy  in  .some  parts,  much 
less  susceptible  of  receiving  and  express- 
ing the  agency  of  man,  than  in  other 
parts. 

There  are  three  general  features  on 
the  surface  of  the  globe  that  strongly 
Man  success-  resist  the  influence  of  its 
thrSmsi^  inhabitants.  These  are  the 
nature.  mountains,  the  desert,  and 

the  sea.  Perhaps  a  slight  exception 
ought   to   be   made   in  the   case  of  the 


than  Africa 
changed  by  hu 
man  agency. 


M. 


-Vol.  I- 


desert;  but  the  mountains  and  the  sea 
are  absolute.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  that 
all  the  deserts  of  the  world  may  finally 
be  reclaimed  by  the  agency  of  man,  but 
the  mountains  will  hardly  ever  submit 
to  his  dominion.  As  to  the  ocean,  its 
exemption  from  human  authority  has 
been  happily  discovered  by  the  poets. 
Here  the  human  race  loses  completely 
its  power  and  ascendency. 

"  Man  marks  the  earth  with  ruin — his  control 
Stops  with  the  shore;  upon  the  wateiy  plain 
The  wrecks  are  all  thy  deed,  nor  doth  remain 
A  shadow  of  man's  ravage,  save  his  own. 
When,  for  a  moment,  like  a  drop  of  rain, 
He  sinks  into  thy  depths  with  bubbling-  groan. 
Without   a   grave,    unknell'd,    uncoffin'd,    and    un- 
known." 

The  narrow  countries  of  Northern 
Africa  were  held  between  the  mountain 
ranges  and  the  Meditcrra-  Great  modifica- 
nean.  These  two  facts  de-  r^:^^^ 
termined  the  climate  and  races, 
the  aspect  of  nature.  The  Hamitic  peo- 
ples who  built  the  primitive  states  on 
these  shores  effected  but  a  slight  change 
in  the  physical  environment.  The 
Teutonic  races  in  the  north  of  Europe 
have  accomplished  a  great  work  in  the 
transformation  of  nature.  This  region 
was  exceedingly  obdurate  as  it  stood  in 
the  primeval  ages.  But  the  race  which 
was  precipitated  along  the  Baltic  was  as 
persistent  as  the  physical  world  was  for- 
bidding. In  one  part  the  primeval 
forest,  dark  and  ominous,  and  the  great 
shiggish  rivers,  rolling  down  their  beds 
of  ooze,  were  the  enemies  of  progress  and 
development.  In  another  part  it  was 
the  ocean,  surging  back  and  forth  over 
the  lowlands,  alternately  covering  and 
uncovering  the  vast  and  coveted  regions 
which  were  only  exhibited  for  a  few 
hours  at  a  time.  The  Teuton  made  a 
league  against  the  woods  and  the  sea. 
The  one  he  destroyed,  and  the  other  he 


554 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


forced  back  and  compelled  to  stand 
aloof.  It  Northern  Europe  could  be 
viewed  with  a  telescope  from  the  inter- 
planetary spaces,  a  great  change  would 
be  noticed  in  this  region  of  our  world- 


Semitic  and  Hamitic  tribes  we  shall 
find  but  little  modification  in  the  track 
which  they  have  pursued.  This  is  part- 
ly attributable  to  the  nature  of  the  coun- 
tries into  which   they  threw  themselves 


INABIT.ITV  OF  BLACKS  TO  MODIFY  ENVIRONMENT.— African  Town  on  River. -Drawn  by  Kiou. 


disk  from  the  dark  and  dolorous  aspect 
which  it  presented  in  the  prehistoric 
ages. 

We  thus  note  that  the  conspicuous 
changes  which  have  been  effected  on  the 
The  Aryan  belt  surfacc  of  the  earth  by  the 
^;\T"emlrLb.e  ^g^ncv  of  man  have  been 
transformation,  measurably  limited  to  the 
great  belt  through  which  the  Aryan  races 
flowed  to  the  we.st.     If  we  take  up  the 


in  their  primitive  migrations.  The  cir- 
cuit of  Arabia  furnishes  little  oppor- 
tunity for  the  agency  of  man  as  it  re- 
spects the  landscape.  At  the  present 
time  it  may  readily  be  ob.served  how 
little,  on  the  whole,  the  Arabs,  from 
their  manner  of  life,  and  particularly 
from  the  nature  of  the  countries  which 
they  hold,  have  been  able  to  transform 
the  physical  condition  of  the  earth. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.     555 


But  apart  from  the  fact  that  nature 
in  a  treeless  and  riverless  region 
Hamiticand  does  not  invite  the  trans- 
urvoralTeto  forming  power  of  man  to 
physical  change,  play  upon  her  features, 
there  has  been  much  in  the  character 
and  instincts  of  the  Hamitic  and  Semitic 
peoples  averse  to  that  kind  of  exertion 
which  modifies  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
It  is  true  that  the  Hamites  and  Semites, 
especially  during"  the  ancient  activities 
of  these  races,  were  great  builders,  and 
in  some  instances  large  producers  from 
the  soil.  But  the  mere  fact  of  building 
does  not  bring  about  the  transformation 
of  the  landscape.  In  the  lapse  of  time 
the  structures  which  men  rear  go  down 
to  dust,  and  things  are  as  they  were  be- 
fore, particularly  in  a  country  such  as 
Egypt,  rainless,  cloudless,  snowless, 
treeless.  However  greatly  the  building 
energies  of  the  early  race  might  display 
themselves,  the  country  itself  would  be 
but  little  modified.  It  is  doubtless 
true  that  the  valley  of  the  Nile  has  suf- 
fered as  little  change  in  its  physical  con- 
dition, under  the  dominion  of  the  many 
races  which  have  succeeded  each  other 
there,  as  has  any  other  part  of  the 
globe. 

In  general,  the  countries  into  which 
the  Hamites  and  Semites  were  dispersed 
were  less  subject  to  the  vicissitude  of 
Countries  of        climate  and  more  uniform 

Hamites  and 

Semites  not  sus-  in  aspcct  than  the  variable 

ceptible  to  mod-  ,         .  r    i       i        i         . 

ification.  and     changetul     lands    to 

which  the  Japhetic  nations  were  as- 
signed by  their  destiny.  It  will  be  con- 
ceded that  in  Syria,  notably  in  the 
Mediterranean  states  of  Palestine  and 
Phoenicia,  the  Semites  accomplished  a 
considerable  change  in  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  earth.  If  we  may  trust 
the  ancient  descriptions  which  tradition 
has  handed  down  of  the  aspect  of  these 
lands,  it  will  certainly  appear  that  great 


modification  has  been  produced  by  the 
agency  of  the  peoples  dwelling  therein. 

If  we  turn  to  the  Black  races  of  man- 
kind, it  will  be  perfectly  reasonable  to 
assert  that  they  have  effected,  in  the 
countries  to  which  they  were  distributed, 
no  perceptible  changes  in  the  conditions 
of  their  environment.  The  Negro  races 
inhabiting  the  great  central  belt  of  Af- 
rica have  never  shown  a  disposition  to 
struggle  with  the  forces  of  the  natural 
world  and  to  subordinate  them  to  the 
purposes  of  life.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  Hottentots.  Along  the  great  Afri- 
can rivers  the  forests  stand  as  they  were 
from  the  beginning.  The  towns  are 
built  in  the  forests  by  the  river  banks 
and  nature  is  imchanged.  Though  the 
country  is  peopled  and  occupied,  it  is  in 
no  sense  possessed  to  the  extent  of  mas- 
tery and  dominion.  The  same  is  true 
in  Australia  and  Melanesia.  We  speak, 
of  course,  of  the  influence  of  the  native 
races  in  these  countries.  It  is  a  mere 
truism  to  assert  that  barbarians  so  low 
in  the  scale  as  the  Australian  and  Papuan 
races  neither  would  nor  could  modify 
the  surface  of  the  earth  by  their  indus- 
tries and  enterprises.  The  great  differ- 
ence, .  indeed,  between  the  barbarian 
and  the  civilized  states  is  that  in  the  one 
the  man  is  the  master  and  in  the  other 
the  slave  of  the  natural  world. 

On  the  whole,  we  see  that  the  great 
modifying  influence  of  man  on  his  phys- 
ical environment  has  been  Modiiying  influ- 
exerted  most  largely  by  ^^^led  w 
the  Ruddy  races,  in  their  Ruddy  to  Black, 
progress  to  the  West.  The  Brown  races 
in  Southern  Asia  have  effected  certain 
changes  of  like  kind  in  the  aspect  and 
conditions  of  the  outer  world;  but  these 
results  have  been  rather  incidental  to  the 
massing  of  vast  populations  within  small 
areas  of  territory  than  from  any  direct 
and  enerofetic  assault  of  man  on  the  nat- 


556 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIXD. 


nral  world.  In  other  regions,  the  Brown 
races  have  in  no  wise  modified  the  nature 
of  the  earth  or  directed  the  forces  and 
conditions  of  their  environment.  The 
nomadic  Turanians  and  the  Polynesian 
islanders  have  submitted  themselves  to 
the  laws  of  the  material  world,  and  turned 
their  whole  activities  to  other  fields  of 
exertion.  The  Black  races,  as  we  have 
seen,  have  in  a  still  less  degree  influ- 
enced the  physical  surroundings  where 
they  have  held  their  career.  They  have 
.simply  yielded  to  the  blind  elements  of 
the  natural  world,  and  have  resisted  the 
swirl  of  the  forces  to  which  they  were 
exposed  only  .so  far  as  to  cling  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth  and  maintain  there- 
on a  precarious  existence. 

If  wc  seek  for  the  reasons  of  this  di- 
versity in  the  relations  of  the  different 
races  with  the  planet  on  which  they  hold 
The  countries  of  their  career,  we  shall  find, 
"^:.TlTo::r  ^^-^t  of  an,  that  the  severer 
development.  aspccts  of  naturc  in  those 
countries  where  the  Aryan  races  have 
been  dispersed  have  invited  and  pro- 
voked the  energies  of  man  to  the  con- 
flict. This  is  to  .say  that  life — mere  life 
■—has  a  harder  contest  under  the  condi- 
tions which  have  been  imposed  on  the 
Ruddy  races  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  Wc  have  seen  that  the  Black 
races  have  all  been  tropical  in  their  nat- 
ural development.  Under  the  influence 
of  the  blazing  sun  the  earth  brings  forth 
in  the  tropics,  and  the  eater  eats.  He 
has  no  need  to  subsist  upon  the  heavy 
carbonaceous  and  nitrogenous  foods 
which  are  a  sine  qua  nqn  amid  the  rigors 
of  the  north.  There  is  much  of  the 
same  condition  in  the  Orient  and  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific.  It  still  remains  a 
disputed  question  whether  the  higher 
energies  of  civilization  can  be  displayed 
under  the  effeminating  influences  of 
southern  climates.     However  this  may 


be,  it  is  certain  that  the  vigor  and  an- 
tagonistic spirit  of  man  have  been  most 
highly  provoked  by  the  bhister  and  cold, 
not  to  say  the  fury,  of  northern  climates. 
Thus  far  in  the  history  of  the  world 
Egypt  and  Carthage  furnish  the  only 
conspicuous  examples  of  really  vigorous 
peoples  who  have  arisen  without  the 
spur  of  the  frost  and  the  sting  of  the 
snowflake. 

There  are  also  certain  subjective  rea- 
sons for  the  preeminence  of  the  Aryan 
race  as  a  modifying  force  subjective  rea- 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  ^o/^U'it.aion 
These  peoples  have  an  of  the  Aryans. 
instinctive  curiosity  to  scrutinize  and 
manage  the  elements  of  nature.  The 
Aryan,  from  our  first  acquaintance 
with  him  in  the  shadows  of  prehistoric 
ages,  has  been  curious  to  know,  to  the- 
orize, to  experiment  with  the  phenomena 
and  laws  of  the  material  world.  In  the 
most  primitive  epoch  of  his  activity  he 
created  a  mythology  in  explanation  of 
the  aspects  and  conditions  around  him. 
From  the  time  of  the  awakening  of  his 
tribal  consciousness  he  was  on  the  alert 
to  note,  and  even  to  record,  the  move- 
ments and  caprices  of  physical  nature. 
He  was  quick  to  discover  the  identities 
and  antagonisms  of  natural  facts,  and 
thus  were  laid  the  foundations  of  those 
classifications  which,  in  the  riper  ages  of 
the  world,  have  become  science. 

In  this  respect  the  Aryans  have  been 
strongly  discriminated  from  the  peoples 

of  Brown  descent,  and  still    Natural  science 

more  strongly  from  the  l^-J^nl^nd  S: 
Black  races  of  the  tropics.  Blacks. 
It  is  doubtful  if  any  such  thing  as  nat- 
ural science  has  ever  suggested  itself  to 
the  inquiry  of  thinkers  among  the  Brown 
peoples  of  mankind.  Doubtless  the 
highest  degree  of  knowledge  possessed 
by  any  branch  of  this  family  is  that  to 
which  the  Chinese  have  attained,  and  it 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES—ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.     551 


IS  certain  that  among  thein  the  natural 
sciences  are   either   utterly  wanting  or 


families  of  men    the  Aryan  race  is  al- 
most equally  distinguished  by  its  scien- 


MOUIUCATION  OK  ENVIRONMENT  BY  APPLICATION  OF  NATURAL  FORCES.-Hvdraulic  Mining. 


else  in  so  crude  a  condition  as  to  merit 
no  attention  from  the  Western  nations. 
Even    from    the    Hamitic    and    Semitic 


tific  tendency  and  attainments.  The 
disposition  of  the  Semitic  peoples,  and 
of  the  Hamites  in  their  best  estate,  as 


558 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


among  the  Egyptians,  has  been,  from 
the  first,  to  look  at  nature  as  a  caused 
phenomenon,  and  pass  immediately  to 
reflection  on  the  nature  and  character 
of  the  Caitsi- ;  while  the  Aryan  mimd  has 
had  almost  a  passion  for  scrutinizing  the 
phenomena  themselves,  for  determining 
the  relations  of  physical  facts,  and  dis- 
covering the  laws  by  which  they  are 
governed. 

This  subjective  difference,  as  will 
readily  be  seen,  has  led  to  the  scientific 
The  Aryans  have  asccudency  of  the  Aryan 
'::::it^:t^r  ^^ces  and  to  their  domina- 
of  phenomena,  tiou  ovcr  the  earth.  That 
is,  the  Aryan  peoples  have  mastered  the 
laws  of  phenomena  and  subordinated  the 
forces  of  nature  so  successfully  as  to  turn 
them  upon  their  environment,  and  to 
compel  nature  to  operate  against  her- 
self for  the  benefit  of  her  most  intel- 
ligent creature.  The  modification 
which  these  peoples  have  effected  in 
the  general  aspect  of  those  parts  of  the 
world  where  they  have  held  their  career 
has  been  resultant  from  their  instinctive 
curiosity  to  know  and  handle  the  forces 
of  the  natural  world.  If  for  a  moment 
we  contemplate  the  hydraulic  miners  at 
their  gigantic  task  among  the  gorges  of 
the  Sierras,  with  the  uplifted  brazen 
nozzle  of  their  hose  throwing  a  volume 
of  more  than  a  hundred  square  inches 
of  water,  compressed  into  the  destroy- 
ing impact  of  a  solid  column,  against 
the  granite  mountain  side,  hurling  and 
hurtling  the  bowlders  and  debris  as 
mere  sand  flying  before  the  blast,  we 
shall  see  the  Aryan  mind  displayed  at 
its  topmost  bent  and  in  its  most  charac- 
teristic activity.  This  intellect  delights 
in  attacking  the  environment  and  crush- 
ing it  into  subjection.  And  in  this  re- 
spect it  is  totally  unlike  the  quiescent 
and  adjustable  intellect  of  the  Brown 
or  the  Black  races. 


vStill  again  we  may  note  a  second  in- 
stinct, or  at  least  a  subjective  quality, 
in  the  Aryan  peoples  which  has  given 
them  their  energy  as  a  Extreme  sensi- 
modifying  force  on  the  sur-  TyZVolst 
face  of  the  earth.  This  is  want. 
their  scnsitivciuss  to  want,  and  the  power- 
ful reaction  which  such  want  produces 
in  arousing  them  to  exertion.  The 
stomach  was  the  prehistoric  schoolmas- 
ter, and  hunger  was  the  first  professor 
of  natural  science.  Under  the  influence 
of  these  austere  but  capable  instructors 
the  Aryan  responded  more  quickly  than 
the  other  pupils  of  the  universal  school. 
The  energy  displayed  by  the  Aryan 
races  under  the  influence  of  hunger,  of 
cold,  of  need  in  general,  has  been  a 
matter  of  astonishment  in  all  ages. 
Bodily  and  mental  want  has  acted  upon 
this  race  like  a  passion  upon  the  indi- 
vidual man,  and  the  trem.endous  exer- 
tions growing  out  of  this  hunger  of  body 
and  spirit  have  told  like  a  storm  on  all 
the  wild  forests  and  hills  and  river  banks 
where  the  Indo-European  tribes  have 
made  their  abodes. 

The  inquiry  will  at  once  arise  whether 
this  curiosity  to  scrutinize  the  processes  of 
nature  and  to  direct  her  en-  Are  Aryan  in- 
ergies,  whether  this  keen  ^^^^ 
hunger,  this  anxiety  to  feed  or  cause? 
and  clothe  and  build  against  inclemency 
which  the  Aryan  race  has  ever  exhibit- 
ed, is  not  in  the  nature  of  an  effect  rather 
than  a  cause.  Have  we  not  here — thus 
may  ask  the  reader — a  substitution  of  a 
result  for  its  antecedent  force  ?  Has  not 
such  instinct  in  the  Arj'an  race  been  de- 
veloped by  the  very  antagonisms  with 
which  it  has  had  to  contend  ?  Has  not  the 
hunger  arisen  from  the  very  exposure 
and  wasted  energy  which  has  come  to 
the  half-barbarian  wanderer  in  the  wilds 
of  Northern  Europe?  Doubtless  there 
are  many  reasons  that  may  be  assigned, 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.     559 


many  arguments  that  may  be  construct- 
ed to  answer  these  questions  iu  the  af- 
firmative, thus  making  it  appear  that 
the  subjective  conditions  among  the  Ar- 
yan peoples  from  which  we  have  deduced 
their  modifying  energy  in  the  physical 
world  are  not  really  subjective  conditions 
at  all,  but  merely  superinduced  modes  of 
activity.  But,  on  the  contrary,  if  we 
look  profoundly  into  the  problem,  we 
shall  see  still  better  grounds  for  admit- 
ting the  subjective  ethnic  distinctions 
which  we  have  here  assigned  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  Indo-European  race. 

For,  in  the  first  place,  it  was  a  matter 
of  clioicc  and  preference  on  the  part  of  the 
migrating  tribes.     In  fact,  all  the  peo- 

Ethnic  prefer-        plcS  of  the  WOrld,  if  WC  eX- 

rcMr^rS:!  cept  only  the  colonizations 
veiopment.  of     modern     times,     have 

been  distributed  to  their  respective 
quarters  of  the  globe  by  the  unreason- 
ing and  but  half-conscious  choice  and 
preference  of  the  peoples  themselves. 
Why,  otherwise,  should  a  tribe  of  pri- 
meval half-barbarians  prefer  to  depart 
toward  the  north  and  enter  the  bleak 
regions  of  storm  and  snow  and  desola- 
tion ?  Why  should  others  prefer  to  trav- 
erse the  desert?  There  was  at  the  first 
no  compulsion,  no  contrivance.  There 
was  preference  only.  The  ethnic  forces 
were  working  out  their  own  results. 
Tlie  long  lines  of  tribal  migration,  as 
traced  over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  were 
determined  in  their  course  and  extent 
by  the  choice  and  instinctive  dispositions 
of  the  moving  masses.  True  it  is  that 
every  race  of  living  beings  is  acted  upon 
by  the  conditions  of  the  environment, 
and  many  second  natures  are  produced 
by  these  external  causes.  But  the  prefer- 
ence which  impels  a  given  animal  to  adopt 
a  given  habitat  as  his  home,  is  an  in- 
stinctive choice,  not  determined,  as  a  rule, 
bv  the  influences  of  the  external  world. 


So  in  a  larger  degree  the  rational  ani- 
mal man.     The  Esquimaux  cling  to  the 

ice  floes,   struggle  with   the    Races  choose 

walrus,  live  in  their  snow  ^^IJI^-^^L, 
huts,  and,  indeed,  suffer  all  onraces. 
the  hardships  of  the  polar  circle  because 
they  choose  to  do  it.  And  the  huge  Pata- 
gonians,  bounding  among  the  rocks  at 
the  extreme  of  the  continent,  are  there 
from  choice,  and  remain  from  a  tribal 
preference,  for  which  no  explanation 
other  than  itself  can  be  assigned.  All 
the  selections  of  the  intermediate  terri- 
tories of  the  world  have  been  made 
originally  by  the  same  unreasoning 
preference  of  the  original  tribes  that  oc 
cupied  them.  We  thus  see,  after  allow- 
ing all  due  influence  to  the  reactionary 
effects  of  nature  upon  man,  that  there 
were  fundamental  activities  in  himself 
which  led  him  to  choose  his  environ- 
ment and  to  fix  himself  in  certain  con- 
ditions and  in  certain  relations  with  the 
physical  world. 

There  are  not  wanting  in  recent  times 
a  large  class  of  profound  thinkers  who  as- 
cribe the  march  of  civiliza-  Great  part  of 

human  develop- 
tion    to    the    disposition    in    ment  based  on 
1  ,  J.  the  kno-wledge 

some  advanced  races  of  men  of  nature. 
to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  laws  of 
phenomena,  and  to  make  those  laws 
available  in  the  administration  of  life. 
It  would  be,  doubtless,  too  much  to  grant 
the  truth  of  this  theory  without  restric- 
tions and  limitations  ;  but  that  it  ex- 
presses a  great  section  of  the  whole  truth 
can  hardly  be  denied.  The  last  two 
centuries  have  been  conspicuous  in  the 
whole  history  of  the  race  by  the  rapid 
development  of  scientific  knowledge  and 
the  consequent  subordination  of  the 
forces  of  the  natural  world  to  the  will  of 
man.  It  is  one  of  the  great  secrets  of 
progress,  and  it  has  belonged  to  the  Ar- 
yan race.  It  is  they  who  have  entered 
into  the  arcana  of  the  physical  environ- 


560 


GREAT  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


ment  and  extracted  its  principles  of  ac- 
tion. They  have  preserved  and  record- 
ed the  invariable  sequence  in  which  one 
natural  fact  succeeds  another,  and  have 
given  to  this  sequence  the  name  of  law. 
From  this  they  have  deduced  the  recur- 
rence and  the  expectation  of  recurrence 
among    the    phenomena    of    the   outer 


It  would  be  trite  to  enlarge  upon  the 
advantages  which  the   highest  races  of 
men    have    derived    from  concomitancy 
their  knowledge  of  physical  °h|civ"uze^d"* 
nature    and    the    laws    by  'ife. 
which  it  is  governed.     As  between  this 
knowledge  and  the  general  fact  called 
civilization,  defined  as  it  is  in  our  mod- 


MASTl.kV  01'  MAX  BY  NATURE— A  Boat  Wreck. 


world,  and  have  availed  themselves  of 
all  the  advantages  derivable  from  the 
knowledge  of  what  is  to  be.  The  man 
■who  knows  what  will  happen  is  wise  and 
strong.  He  who  does  not  know  what 
•will  happen  is  foolish  and  weak.  This 
is  said  of  man  in  his  relations  with  the 
natural  world.  What  he  understands, 
he  can  control.  What  he  can  control,  he 
can  use.  What  he  can  use,  is  beneficial. 
Benefit  is  health  and  wealth  and  renown. 


ern  languages,  it  were  hard  to  determine 
which  of  the  two  more  powerfully  stim- 
ulates the  other.  A  certain  kind  of  civ- 
ilization may  exist  without  the  preva- 
lence of  scientific  knowledge,  and  a 
certain  kind  of  scientific  knowledge  may 
prevail  without  inducing  a  high  grade 
of  civilization.  But,  on  the  whole,  the 
two  are  concomitant.  The  more  the 
man  knows  the  more  does  he  develop 
and   direct  the   civilizing   forces.     The 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.    561 


more  he  uses  the  forces  of  civilization 
the  more  he  knows  of  the  principles  by 
which  universal  nature  is  controlled  and 
directed. 

As  compared  with  the  other  races,  the 
Aryan  stock  has  been  preeminent  in 
Scientific  pre-  these  rcspects.  The  dis- 
eminence  of  the    ti^ction  between  them  and 

Indo-European 

races.  the    Hamitic   and    Semitic 

families  of  men  on  the  line  of  scientific 
achievement   is   sufficiently   broad,  and 


Indo-European,  families  of  mankind  on 
the  other. 

It  is  believed  that  the  differences  in 
the  intellectual  habits  and  achievements 
of    the    several    races    as  Knowledge  of 
viewed   from   a    general  eonditionTf^ 
point    of   observation    are  perpetuity, 
most  distinct  and  striking  with  respect  to 
this  great  fact  of  natural  law  and  the  con- 
nection of  man  with  the  material  world. 
In  general,  barbarians  and  half-civilized 


MASTERY  OF  NATURE  BY  MAN.— A  Screw  Steamer  at  Sea. 


when  we  look  at  the  Brown  races  of 
Asia  and  Polynesia  and  at  the  Black 
races  of  Africa  and  Melanesia,  we  can  but 
be  struck  with  the  strong  contrast  be- 
tween the  indifference  of  the  latter  to 
natural  law,  their  inability  to  control 
and  direct  for  benefit  the  forces  of  the 
material  world  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
breadth  and  profundity  of  scientific 
knowledge  and  the  astonishing  benefits 
derived   therefrom   by    the    Aryan,    or 


peoples  are  utterly  subject  to  the  forces 
of  physical  nature.  It  is  not  impossible 
that  the  weakness  of  the  old  forms  of 
civilization,  their  want  of  perpetuit}-,  was 
chiefly  attributable  to  the  prevailing  ig- 
norance of  the  laws  of  phenomena ;  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  strength  and  per- 
manence of  existing  institutions  are  cor- 
related with  the  prevalence  or  the  non- 
prevalence  of  scientific  knowledge.  This 
is  to  say  that  at  least  one  of  the  conditions 


562 


GREAT  RACIIS   OF  MANKfXD. 


of  perpetuity  among;  the  institutional 
foi-ms  established  b}'  mankind  is  the 
knowledge  of  the  physical  laws  by  which 
the  world  is  governed,  and  the  sympathy 
and  concord  of  man  with  those  laws  in 
the  exercise  of  his  activities. 


out  of  Mesopotamia  directly  to  the  west 
and  were  there  developed  into  the  He- 
brew and  Arabian  nations,  seem  to  have 
dwelt  in  their  mental  activities  upon  the 
nature  and  character  of  the  intelligence 
which  preceded  and  formed  and  directed 


SEMITE  CONTEMPLATING  NATURE —Drawn  l,y  Paul  Hardy. 


It  was  hinted  on  a  preceding  page  that 
the  Semitic  mind  had  shown  itself  more 
concerned  with  what  may 
be  called  the  Cause  of  na- 
ture than  with  natural  phe- 
nomena themselves.  From  the  earliest 
ages  of   history  the  peoples  who  cnme 


The  Semitic 
mind  seeks  per- 
sonality in  na- 
ture. 


not  only  the  isolated  facts  and  processes 
of  the  material  world,  but  the  world  it- 
self and  universal  nature.  It  appears  to 
have  been  in  the  nature  of  the  Semitic 
mind  to  ascribe  personality  and  intelligence 
as  the  cause  of  phenomena  and  to  pass 
over  the    phenomena  themselves,  their 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.      563 


relations  and  dependencies,  to  reflect 
upon  the  character  and  will  and  woi-k  of 
the  personal  agent  behind  the  aspects  of 
the  material  world. 

Following  out  this  fundamental  con- 
cept, the  Semitic  seer  of  the  primitive  ; 
world  would  proceed  to  the 

And  makes  man  i  i  •   i 

to  be  related  and  immediate      establishment 

bound  thereto.  c         i    !.•  ^      ±.  i   • 

ot  relations  between  him- 
self and  the  personal  intelligence  beyond 
the  tangible  forms  of  nature.  That  is, 
human  relationship,  according  to  his 
views,  would  spring  up,  not  between 
man  and  physical  laws  and  phenomena, 
but  between  man  and  that  agent  who 
stood  above  them.  We  can  easily  dis- 
cern the  strong  religious  tendency  which 
would  at  once  arise  from  the  existence 
of  such  a  disposition  of  mind,  and  we 
may  perceive  with  equal  clearness  the 
absence  of  scientific  knowledge  from  a 
system  of  thought  thus  originated. 

In  these  facts  may  be  readily  discov- 
ered the  bottom  principles  of  what  has 
been  called,  in  the  philosophical  and  re- 
Notion  of  spir-  ligious  discussions  of  the 
peTuUaHrsem-  P^^sent  century,  Semitic 
'ti=-  monotheism.     More  prop- 

erly, however,  we  should  say  that  the 
fact  indicated  is  the  theory  of  immaterial 
causation,  without  respect  to  its  single- 
ness or  multiplicity.  If  we  examine  the 
Semitic  nations,  at  our  first  acquaintance 
with  them,  in  Chaldasa  and  Assyria,  we 
shall  find  that  they  were  polytheistic  in 
their  religious  development — not  poly- 
theistic in  the  same  sense  with  the  Grasco- 
Italic  peoples  of  Europe,  but  in  the  same 
sense  with  the  Hamitic  Egyptians.  It 
was  the  peculiarity  of  both  the  Hamitic 
and  Semitic  races  that  they  ascribed  to 
the  phenomena  of  the  material  world 
immaterial  intelligent  causes. 

This  view  of  the  universe  and  its  ad- 
ministration is  totally  diflferent  from 
polytheism  as  it  was  developed  by  the 


Aryan  nations.  In  course  of  time  the 
Aryan  also  arrived  at  the  concept  of  im- 
material and  intelligent  cau-  This  notion  dif- 
sation.  But  in  the  earlier  'Zyl^^^^^ 
ages  of  these  peoples  they  ism. 
looked  simply  at  phenomena  and  gave 
names  thereto,  and  the  names  passed, 
according  as  the  phenomena  were  vast 
and  majestic,  into  the  catalogue  of  dei- 
ties. Aryan  polytheism  was  the  result 
of  the  combined  tendencies  of  primitive 
natural  philosophy  and  linguistic  growth 
and  decay.  It  is  not  intended  in  this 
place  to  elaborate,  but  only  to  point  out 
the  difference  between  the  fundamental 
ideas  of  the  Semitic  and  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean races.  The  former  conceived  of 
the  cause  apart  from  the  phenomena 
and  antecedent  thereto.  The  system  of 
religion,  therefore,  as  developed  in  Meso- 
potamia, and  even  transmitted  to  the 
West,  was  an  immaterial  kathenothe- 
ism,  as  distinguished  from  the  material 
polytheism  of  Europe. 

The  primitive  Hebrew  fathers  revolt- 
ed against  this   system    because  it  was 

polvtheistic.     Their  revolu-    Misconception 
^       ^  _  ,      of  modem  phi- 

tion  consisted  in  the  substi-  losophy  respect- 

,     ..  c    .X.  ii      •   i-      ing  such  differ- 

tution  of  the  monotheistic  gnce. 
idea  as  the  bottom  fact  in  the  universe. 
The  Hamites  never  proceeded  thus  far 
in  the  religious  evolution.  They  there- 
fore remained  identified  in  their  beliefs 
with  the  Mesopotamian  people ;  and  the 
Egyptian  system  of  religion  differed 
only  from  the  Chaldaean  in  its  more 
elaborate  development  and  its  finer 
philosophical  expression.  The  attempt 
of  certain  modern  scholars  to  make  it 
appear  that  the  Aryan  Dyaus  Pitar  of 
India,  the  Zeus  of  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Jove  of  Rome  were  fundamentally  the 
same  concept  with  the  Elohira  of  the 
Hebrews,  is  to  misconceive  the  whole 
question,  to  confound  phenomenon  with 
noumenon,  and  to  obliterate  the  differ- 


564 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


ence  between  a  material  and  an  imma- 
terial causation  of  nature. 

If  we  look  among  the  Brown  races  for 
the  highest  expression  of  their  thought 
The  Brown  on  the  Subject  we  are  here 

L'thoVoryo""  considering,  we  shall  find 
religion.  a  totally  different  view  of 

both  premises  and  conclusions.  The 
Chinese  and  Japanese  as  the  oldest  and 
most  thoughtful  of  the  early  Brown  peo- 
ples of  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia,  gave 
little  heed  to  the  aspects  of  nature  or 
to  the  interpretation  of  what  we  call 
natural  phenomena.  Neither  did  they 
concern  them.selves  to  seek  for  causes 
behind  these  phenomena,  either  material 
or  immaterial.  As  a  result,  the  Chinese 
have  never  produced  a  highl}^  inflected 
mythology,  or  what  we  may  properly 
call  a  religion.  They  have  risen  in 
their  evolution  as  far  as  ethics  and  mo- 
rality, and  on  these  lines  of  development 
have  proceeded  as  far  as  any  other 
people. 

From  the  first  it  appears  that  the 
Chinese  mind  has  been  mo.st  concerned 
Philosophical  not  with  the  facts  of  na- 
I^sremo^f"""'"  tare,  but  with  the  facts  of 
thought.  ]ife_    Their  native  religions 

have  been  simply  elaborated  systems  of 
ethics.  Confuciani-sm  is  not  a  religion 
in  the  sense  in  which  that  word  is  em- 
ployed by  the  Western  nations.  It  is 
simply  a  code  of  human  morality  as  de- 
duced from  the  life  and  teaching  of  the 
most  illustrious  sage  of  the  people.  The 
imported  Buddhism  has  in  great  measure 
lost  its  spiritual  and  .subjective  peculiar- 
ities. In  the  concept  of  the  Chinese  mind 
it  has  been  transformed  into  harmony 
with  the  older  .systems  native  to  the  na- 
tion. If  the  Chinese  can  be  said  to 
worship  at  all,  it  is  the  worship  of  life 
and  duty  and  obligation  rather  than  the 
adoration  of  any  objective  being,  whether 
the  same  be  the  highest  expression  of 


some  supreme  thing,  as  the  sky,  or  of  a 
great  Spirit  behind  and  above  all  aspects 
of  earth  and  heaven.  It  will  readily  be 
seen  that  such  a  view  is  radically  differ- 
ent from  the  bottom  notions  upon  which 
the  great  religious  systems  of  Western 
Asia  and  Europe  have  been  erected. 

In  their  concept  of  nature  and  of  the 
author  or  authors  of  nature,  the  Black 
races  have  been  lowest  of  all  in  the  scale 
of  rationality.     In  fact,  it 

The  Black  races 

has  been  authentically  dis-  still  lower  in  the 
puted  that  some  of  these  ^^  ®  °  ""^  igion. 
peoples  have  any  concept  of  a  moving 
power  among  the  objects  of  their  sense 
perceptions.  As  a  general  statement, 
the  Blacks  in  their  native  condition  have 
risen  as  high  as  fetichism  and  no  higher 
in  the  religious  evolution.  Hereafter 
we  shall  note  with  more  particularity 
the  peculiarities  of  their  superstitions, 
and  mark  out  the  divergence  of  their 
thought  from  that  of  the  Brown  and 
Ruddy  races. 

Turning  from  the  siibjective  differ- 
ences of  mind  and  thought  among  the 
races  of  antiquity  to  their  Difference  of 
objective  aetivities,^^  find  a  re%S?oT""^ 
corresponding  divergence  adventure, 
and  distinction  of  character.  The  di- 
versity of  men  of  different  races  in  their 
modes  and  purposes  of  action  is  among 
the  most  striking  features  by  which 
they  are  discriminated.  In  what  may 
be  called  the  spirit  of  adi'cutiire,  for  in- 
stance, the  various  races  have  had  each- 
its  own  distinctive  character  and  method.. 
Some  have  taken  to  the  water,  chosea 
the  maritime  li.'e,  sailed  afar  to  distant 
coasts  and  islands,  and  made  the  sea  a 
familiar  spirit.  To  others,  the  oceart 
has  been  a  terror,  while  the  continental 
vastnesses  have  invited  to  exploration 
and  even  to  peril.  To  other  branches  of 
the  human  family  both  sea  and  land  have 
appalled  and  paralyzed  the  adventurous 


THE  BLACKS  FEAR  NATURE.— Storm  in  African  Forest.— Drawn  by  Rjoii . 


50U 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


energies.  Such  peoples  have  shrank 
back  from  the  enticements  of  explora- 
tion and  the  wild  liberty  which  it  af- 
fords. They  have  settled  into  the  safest 
and  most  convenient  nooks,  and  shielded 
themselves  from  the  opposing  forces  of 
nature  by  what  barriers  soever  they 
could  discover  in  a  given  environment. 

In  these  respects,  we  find  again  that 
the  Ruddy  races  have  been  superior  to 
The  Ruddy  the  Correlated  branches  of 
races  strongest    ^j^g  human  familv.     It  can 

in  the  adventur-  .- 

ous  disposition,  not  be  said  that  their  ad- 
venture has  carried  them  as  far  as  in  the 
case  of  the  nomadic  peoples  of  Asia^ 
those  great  Turanians  of  the  Brown  race 
who  have  drifted  through  all  parts  of  the 
greatest  of  the  continents.  But  the  ac- 
tivities of  the  Aryans  have  been  char- 
acterized by  greater  energy  and  more 
rational  method.  Their  migrations  have 
been  directed  by  a  purpose,  at  least  a 
half-formed  purpo.se,  to  seek  for  better 
things  and  gain  the  ma.stery.  The  Ham- 
ites  have  given  a  few  conspicuous  exam- 
ples of  adventure,  as  when,  in  times  of 
Pharaoh  Neku  11,  they  circumnavigated 
Africa  twenty-one  centuries  in  advance 
of  Vasco  da  Gama. 

The  negative  side  of  adventure  is 
timidity.  Adventure  is  courage.  It  im- 
Courageofthe  pHcs  the  facing  of  danger, 
voTc'Idw  ra-  the  willing  exposure  of  the 
tionai  purpose,  bodily  life  for  the  sake 
of  advantage,  or  even  for  the  mere  sake 
of  freedom  from  restraint.  The  latter 
qualities  have  belonged  preeminently  to 
the  Ruddy  races.  It  can  not  be  said  that 
the  Brown  peoples  of  Northern  Asia  are 
lacking  in  courage.  On  the  contrary, 
they  have  contributed  some  of  the  most 
warlike  and  fiery  spirits  which  the  West- 
ern nations  have  had  to  meet  in  combat. 
But  the  bravery  of  the  Brown  races  as  it 
was  manifested  in  the  barbarian  era  was 
lacking  in  rationality  and  the  conscious 


purpose  to  achieve  advantage  by  victory. 
The  conquests  of  the  Turcomans,  hur- 
tling down  from  the  Altais  upon  the  ter- 
rified and  somewhat  effeminated  popula- 
tion in  vSoiithwestern  Asia  and  Eastern 
Europe,  succeeding  as  conquests  and 
then  sinking  into  an  inane  and  torpid 
condition  from  want  of  rational  purpose 
and  deliberation  of  method,  are  at  once 
the  striking  example  and  the  epitome  of 
the  spirit  of  courage  as  it  has  been  man- 
ifested by  the  Brown  races  of  mankind. 

A  volume  could  not  suffice  to  trace  out 
all  the  diversities  of  action  among  the 
different  families  of  men.  undeniable  and 
The  present  chapter  is  de-  fJi^'^-f.^T'""^- 
voted  merely  to  a  general  Aryans. 
view  of  the  most  conspicuous  traits  in 
which  the  people  of  one  race  have  dif- 
fered from  those  of  another.  On  the 
whole,  the  superiority  of  the  Ruddy 
peoples  over  the  other  varieties  of  man- 
kind, in  their  masterful  relations  with  the 
physical  world,  in  their  concept  of  nat- 
ural phenomena  and  the  laws  by  which 
they  are  governed,  in  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends  in  gaining  and  maintain- 
ing a  dominion  over  the  earth,  and  in  the 
exercise  of  an  adventurous  and  rational 
spirit,  giving  them  preeminence  and 
leadership,  is  undeniable  and  sufficient- 
ly striking. 

It  may  appear,  at  first  glance,  a  long 
departure  from  the  subjects  which  we 
are  here  considering  to  the 

.  Ethnic  diversity 

discussion  of  tlw  bodily  form    in  bodily  form 
J.J       ■      ,  y  •    ■,  •  r   arid  activity. 

ana  physical  activities  oi 
the  various  peoples  of  earth.  Men 
have  differed  according  to  race  not 
only  in  their  view  of  the  world  and  in 
their  attitude  toward  the  laws  of  matter, 
not  only  in  their  concept  of  the  primary 
principle  from  which  all  things  have 
proceeded  and  by  which  all  things  are 
governed,  not  only  in  theirnotion  relative 
to  dut}',  oblig-ation,  and  destiii)-,  but  also 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES— ETHXIC  CHARACTERISTICS.    567 


in  the  material  organism  in  which  for  the 
period  of  life  all  thought  is  resident  and 
from  which  all  forms  of  activity  proceed. 
In  fact,  the  bodily  form  and  features  of 
the  different  races  are  the  most  con- 
spicuous single  circumstance  as  well  as 
the  easiest  criterion  by  which  those 
races  are  distinguished  the  one  from  the 
other. 

We  are  not  able  to  penetrate  through 

the     shadows    of    the    prehistoric   ages 

to     a    time    when      these 

Such  diversity 

dates  back  to       Very     tangible     evidences 

the  earliest  ages.       r        .1       ■        t  t  i 

of  ethnic  divergence  did 
not  exist  as  they  exist  to-day.  Time 
and  again  we  have  repeated  what  is 
perfectly  well  known  to  historians  and 
antiquaries,  that  the  very  oldest  mon- 
uments which  modern  times  have  in- 
herited from  antiquity  bear  mute  but 
indubitable  evidence  to  the  fact  that,  in 
the  earliest  ages  to  which  we  can  in 
any  wise  penetrate,  the  physical  diver- 
gence of  the  different  branches  of  man- 
kind was  as  conspicuously  and  deeply 
cut  in  determinate  outlines  as  at  the 
present  time.  It  is  worth  while,  then, 
to  note  with  some  care  the  general  pe- 
culiarities in  physical  structure  of  man- 
kind, and  to  point  out  the  features  by 
which  one  race  of  men  is  most  notably 
and  permanently  discriminated  from  the 
others. 

In  the  first  place,  as  to  the  bulk  and 

stature  of  the   human  body.     It  will  be 

found  on   an   examination 

Great  diversity  .       . 

In  the  stature       of   the   facts   Within   reach 

and  bulk  of  men.       r     .i  •  •  it.    ^ 

of  the  inquirer  that  very 
great  diversity  exists  among  men  of  dif- 
ferent races  in  these  respects.  On  the 
whole,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  people 
of  antiquity  were  specially  different  in 
stature  and  weight  from  the  peoples  of 
modern  times.  It  might  be  difficult  to 
determine  whether  the  race,  considered 
as  a  whole,  tends,  in   its   evolutionary 


processes,  to  the  production  of  larger 
or  smaller  individual  members  of  the 
species. 

Tradition  has  preserved  the  shadowy 
recollection  of  both  giants  and  pygmies 
in  the  ancient  world,  and  from  the  mon- 
umental delineation  of  figures  we  are 
able  to  determine  that  the  average  peo- 
ples were  about  of  the  same  stature  as 
those  of  to-da}-.  Among  the  Assyrian 
and  Egyptian  sculptures  this  fact  is 
abundantly  illustrated.  But  while 
this  is  true,  it  is  clear  that,  on  the 
whole,  the  smaller  peoples  of  antiq- 
uity, as  well  as  in  modern  ages,  were 
among  the  aborigines  and  barbarous 
tribes,  while  those  of  great  stature  and 
gigantic  bulk  were  derived  from  the 
progressive  and  well-developed  families 
of  mankind. 

This  will  appear  at  first  glance  as  an 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  evolution- 
ary process.  Casually,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  the  body  of  man  has  been 
developed  from  a  comparatively  insig- 
nificant  race   of    ancestral  „      ,    . 

Correlations  of 
savages.  It    is    known    to    mind  and  body 

the  biologist  that  all  exist-  "'^'^  "  ' 
ing  species  of  horse  have  been  derived 
from  a  single  prehistoric  typical  animal 
known  as  Hipparion  thoaiis ;  and  it  is 
also  known  that  this  primitive  animal 
was  of  very  small  stature,  so  small,  in- 
deed, that  it  would  seem  impossible  that 
the  enormous  Norman  or  Clydesdale  stal- 
lion of  our  day  could  have  been  derived 
from  so  diminutive  an  ancestor.  There 
is  one  circumstance,  however,  which 
breaks  the  analog}-  so  far  as  the  devel- 
opment of  the  human  body  is  concerned ; 
that  is,  that  the  most  intellectual  and 
powerful  peoples,  civilly,  socially,  and 
politically  considered,  have  not  been 
those  of  largest  stature.  This  is  to  say- 
that  if  the  evolutionary  process  is 
to   be    accepted   as   an    explanation    of 


568 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIXD. 


the  large  size  of  some  races  as  com- 
pared with  the  diminutive  stature  of 
others,  there  is  a  clear  break  in  the 
analogy  of  bodily  and  intellectual  evo- 
lution— a  thing  that  may  be  difficult  of 
explanation. 

It  is  not  intended  in  these  pages  to 
enter  into  the  abstruse  and  difficult 
questions    of    biology.      Such    matters 


absolute  proof  exists  of  a  smaller  race 
of  people  than  these.  The  native 
Australians  and  some  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Melanesian  islands  are 
no  •  more  than  four  feet  in  stature, 
and  are  slender  in  prdportion.  These 
examples  may  be  taken  as  a  minimum 
of  size  for  prehistoric  and  existing  race.* 
of  men. 


THE  TARrAN  (FIRST  REMOVE  FROM  THE  PRIMITIVE  HORSE). 


may  be  remanded  to  specialists  and  to 
the  skill  and  scholarship  of  the  future. 
_,    ,        ,,.        It  is  sufficient  to  note  the 

The  lowest  lim- 
its of  sire  in  the    great  diversity  in   the  size 
humEui  race.  ,  . ,  ,  ,   , .  ^ 

of  the  members  of  different 
races.  In  a  preceding  book  it  was  noted 
that  the  prehistoric  folk  who  were  buried 
in  the  stone  boxes  along  the  banks  of 
the  Cumberland,  in  North  America, 
were  no  more  than  three  and  a  half  feet 
in  stature.     It  is  doubtful  whether  any 


In  considering  the  other  extreme,  we 
come  to  the  half-mythical  and  half-his- 
torical giants  of  the  heroic  ages.  Near- 
ly all  races  have  transmitted  to  posterity 
some  account  of  exceptionally  enormous 
specimens  of  the  race,  and  in  some  tra- 
ditions we  have  accounts  of  Maxima  of 

whole  tribes  conforming  to  ^T^i^^' 
the    gigantic  pattern.      It  ^^^s^- 
is  impossible  to  give  an  authentic  aver- 
age  for   the    stature   of    the   so-called 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.    569 


Slants  of  antiquity.  Goliath  of  Gath 
was  reputed  to  be  nine  feet  nine  inches 
in  height.  We  have  hints  in  Homer  of 
towering  warriors  who  might  well  be 
called  gigantic.  Some  of  the  largest 
specimens  of  the  human  i^ace  have  in 
modern  times  been  brought  out  of 
Syria.  The  Teutones  and  Gauls  were, 
among     barbarians,    notoriously     huge 


ick  William  I.  His  regiment,  known 
as  the  Potsdam  Guards,  was  made  up 
of  men  gathered  from  all  parts  of 
Europe,  the  smallest  of  whom  was  over 
seven  feet  in  height.  They  reached 
a  maximum  of  nine  feet,  and  it  is 
perhaps  not  bej'ond  the  truth  to  as- 
sign an  average  of  eight  feet  for  the 
whole  regiment.     We  may  accept  this. 


AN  ARAB  STEED  (GREATEST  REMOVE  FROM  IRLMHIVE  TYPE).— Drawn  by  T.  F.  Zimmennann. 


in  body.  The  paragraph  in  Caesar's 
Gallic  War,  wherein  he  recites  the 
ridicule  which  the  Gaulish  warriors  of 
the  Aduatuci  bestowed  on  his  Roman 
legionaries  on  account  of  their  diminu- 
tive stature  {brcviias  nostra),  will  not  be 
forgotten. 

The  most  conspicuous  example  of 
an  assemblage,  or  collection,  of  giants 
within     the    historical     era     was    that 

resulting   from   the   caprice  of   Freder- 
M. —  Vol.  I — 37 


then,  as  the  inaxvnuiii  stature  of  our 
race,  though  possibly  exceptional  in- 
stances may  have  shown  greater  height. 
Whether  the  Blacks  have  contributed 
any  specimens  worthy  to  be  classified  as 
giants  can  not  be  stated  Largest  exam- 
with  certainty, 
Brown  races,  the  most  con- 
spicuous examples  of  greatness  of  size 
are  given  by  the  Asiatic  Mongoloids  in 
Patagonia,      jMany     of     these     exceed 


A  ~,  «„  ™  4-t,  ^  pies  of  human 
Among  the  beings  among 
the  Bro'WTis. 


570 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


seven  feet  in  stature,  and  it  is  known 
that  among  their  far  ethnic  kinspeo- 
ple,  the  Chinese,  equally  exaggerated 
specimens  of  mankind  have  been  found 
— this,  too,  among  a  people  who  are 
conspicuously  below  the  average  in 
stature. 

To  generalize  these  results,  we  find 
very  great  departures  from  the  common 
Standard  of  size  among  the  ancient  peo- 
ples. The  same  phenomenon  recurs  in 
Aryan  peoples  modcm  times.  This  vari- 
reach the  high-     ^j       extends  not  only  to 

est  average 

Stature.  individual  members  of  the 

human  species,  but  to  whole  races.  It 
appears  that,  considered  as  races,  there 
were  smaller  peoples  in  the  prehistoric 
than  in  the  modern  world.  It  would 
also  seem  that  in  ancient  times  the  ex- 
aggeration of  size  above  the  average 
standard  was  as  conspicuous  as  in  recent 
ages.  On  the  whole,  the  White  races 
are  larger  in  stature  than  any  other 
people.  Among  these,  the  Aryans 
are  conspicuously  above  the  average; 
and  of  the  Aryans,  the  largest  are 
those  who  have  been  exposed  to  the 
rigors  of  northern  climates,  but  not  in 
the  high  latitudes. 

As  between  the  barbarian  and  the  civ- 
ilized state  of  man,  there  is  not  much 
Geographical  difference  as  to  size.  On 
the  whole,  the  bai'barian  is 
larger,  on  the  average,  than 
his  contemporary  from  the  civilized 
states.  Geographically,  the  distribution 
of  the  largest  races  has  been  in  the  tem- 
perate zones.  Beyond  a  certain  degree 
of  cold  the  human  family  has  been 
somewhat  dwarfed,  rather  than  stimu- 
lated into  extraordinary  growth.  The 
polar  people  are  small  in  stature.  The 
insular  populations  of  the  world  present 
the  same  variations  as  those  of  the  con- 
tinents. The  primitive  Saxons  of  our 
ancestral  islands  were  huge  in  body  and 


situation  and 
the  size  of  the 
body. 


highly  muscular.  The  Japanese,  simi- 
larly situated,  are  small  in  stature  and 
delicate  in  development.  On  the  whole, 
there  was  not  much  difference  in  the 
stature  and  muscular  power  of  the  three 
great  branches  of  the  Ruddy  race.  The 
advantage  was  in  favor  of  the  Aryans, 
and  the  Hamites  appear  to  have  been 
somewhat  weaker  and  smaller  than  the 
Semitic  peoples;  but  the  distinction  was 
not  great. 

The  races  of  men  have  generally  pre- 
served a  given  type  and  standard  of 
form  and  stature  from  our  Form  and  stat- 
earliest  acquaintance  lZ^^::.}::i 
therewith  to  the  present  from  antiquity. 
time.  The  sarcophagi  of  Egypt,  the 
dish-covered  tombs  of  Assyria,  and  the 
burying  grounds  of  Chaldsea  have  made 
us  acquainted  with  the  stature  and  pro- 
portions of  at  least  three  peoples  of  re- 
mote antiquity.  The  Assyrians  were 
not  taller  than  the  average  of  modern 
peoples,  but  were  exceedingly  stout 
and  muscular,  like  the  Romans.  The 
Chaldaeans  were  of  the  average  height 
and  form.  The  mummies  of  Egypt  are 
below  the  average  standard  in  height 
and  in  general  proportions. 

If  we  descend  from  the  general  form 
and  stature  of  the  different  peoples  of 
ancient  and  modern  times  to  consider 
some  of  the  special  features  by  which 
they  have  been  characterized,  the  first 
to  attract  our  attention  is  the  size,  shape, 
and  capacity  of  the  head.  This  organ, 
indeed,  is  about  the  only  one  with  which 
the  historian  and  ethnographer  need  to 
concern  himself.  The  established  fact 
that  the  intellect  of  man  resides  in  his 
brain,  and  is  correlated  in  its  manifesta- 
tions with  that  organ,  and  the  additional 
fact  that  the  mind  is  the  agent  of  all 
that  has  been  accomplished  by  the  hu- 
man race,  may  warrant  us  in  looking  at 
the  cranial  development  of  the  different 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.    571 


peoples  as  an  interesting  study  in  ethnic 
history. 

There  is  a  constant  relation  between 
the  size  and  formation  of  the  brain  and 
Constant  reia-      ^q   active   energy   of   the 

tiou  between  °'' 

the  size  of  the      racc.     The   facts  connect- 

brain  and  human       ,  -.i        ,i   •  •  ,        . 

energy.  sd    With    this     important 

study  have  been  gathered  from  many 
sources,  and  may  now  be  studied  on  the 
scientific  basis.  It  is  found  that  there 
is  an  ascending  ethnic  scale  of  cranial 
development,  beginning  with  the  Aus- 
tralians and  Papuans  and  proceeding 
upwards,  through  the  Black  races  of  Af- 
rica, to  the  Asiatic  and  Polynesian  Mon- 
goloids, and  thence  to  the  Ruddy  peoples 
of  Europe  and  America.  It  will  not  be 
considered  a  materializing  digression  to 
note  this  fact,  to  dwell  upon  it,  and  to 
point  out  the  perfect  correlation  existing 
between  the  average  capacity  of  the  brain 
and  the  grade  of  civilization  to  which  the 
people  of  that  average  have  attained. 
The  law  is:  small  brain,  little  achieve- 
ment; great  brain,  great  achievement. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  refer  the  progress 
of  civilization  to  the  mere  physical  fact 
of  cranial  growth.  A  more  rational 
view  is  that  the  larger  display  of  mental 
power  is  correlated  with  the  size  and 
activity  of  the  organ  by  which  that  men- 
tal power  is  expressed. 

It  has  been  found  that  a  large  varia- 
bleness exists  among  the  races  with  re- 
spect to  the  volume  and  weight  of  that 
organ  upon  which  all  thought  depends. 
The  size  and  the  capacity  of  the  brain 
in  the  different  races  of  men  have  been 
carefully  examined,  and  the 

•Winchell's  table  "' 

of  cranial  capac-  rcsults  tabulated  in  a  form 

Ity  of  races.  ia     l  i.  -1 

that  may  be  easily  appre- 
hended. The  following  table,  present- 
ing these  results  in  a  concise  form,  is 
from  Winchell's  Prcadamiics,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  an  accurate  and  indispu- 
table summary  of  the  best  that  is  known 


relative  to  the  race  gradation  of  men  on 
the  line  of  cranial  capacity : 

TABLE  OF  CRANIAL  CAPACITIES. 


No.  of 
Speci- 
mens. 


570 
293 


goi 


7 
6 

lOI 

126 
61 
.87 


176 

i8 
15 

33 


Races. 


I.  KLDDV   FACES. 

Arj-ans  of  S.  W.  Europe . . 

Europeans 

Britons,  Anglo-Sa.\ons, 
Swedes,  Irish,  Nether- 
landers 

Ruddy  Races,  mean  ca-  \ 
pac'ty f 

II.  BROWN  RACES. 


Chinese 

Chinese... 

-Mongols 

Esquimaux 

Asiatic  Esquimaux 

N.   W,    American    Esqui- 
maux   

Greenland  Esquimaux. . . . 

Esquimaux,  mean  capacity 

Chinese    and  _MongoU,  I. 

mean  capacity S 

Mongoloids,    mean    ca-  f 

pacity J 

nl.  BLACK    RACES. 

Negroes,  W.  Africa 

Negroes  of  .Africa 

Dahoman  Negroes 

Negroes,  mean  capacity. 


-Australians 

Australians 


Austnilians,    mean    ca-  i 
pacity 


Cubic 
Centi.meters. 


Men. 


Wom- 


•.576 


1.518 
1.539 


1.383 
1,428 


l,iSi 


Aver- 
age. 


Autlum 
ity. 


Broca. 
Morton* 


Davis. 


1,485 
'.534 


1,486 


1,450  Broca. 

1,452' L)avis, 
z,42i|Mortoa. 
l,488j  Broca. 
1,488:  Dall. 

1,270  Dall. 
1,250  Bessels. 


.'  J.372 
I  1,286 
\  1.441 
(  1,442 
)  1.403 
1  1.338 


1,345  Broca. 
1,364;  Morton. 
1,452  Davis. 


( 1.360 

i,264|Broca. 
1,295  Davis. 


1.279' 
1,276, 


From  the   foregoing  schedule  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  native  Australians  are 

the    lowest    type  of   men  in    Deductions  from 

cranial  capacity,  being  in-  '^,\^r;^''^' 
ferior  in  this  respect  to  the  mau-ufe. 
Negroes  by  an  average  of  eighty-four 
cubic  centimeters.  The  table  does  not 
include  the  Hottentots  as  a  separate 
study.  These  people,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  have  a  cranial  development  inter- 
mediate between  the  Australians  and  the 
Negroes.  Again,  it  will  be  noted  that 
the  Mongoloids  have  an  average  capacity 
of  eighty -two  cubic  centimeters  in  excess 
of  the  Negroes,  while  the  average  ca- 
pacity of  the  Aryans  is  forty-four  cubic 
centimeters  above  the  measure  of  the 
Mongoloids.  It  will  also  be  observed 
that  the  preceding  table  does  not  exhibit 
the  relative  size  of  the  brain  of  the  Papa* 


572 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


ans,  but  from  other  sources  this  has  been 
found  to  be  above  that  of  the  Australi- 
ans, and  nearly  identical  with  that  of 
the  Hottentots. 

It  may  well  be  confessed  that  this 
physical  index  discovered  in  the  capacity 
Relation  of  of  the  brain  for  the  several 
toTh^^'physfcai  races  points  distinctly  to  a 
features.  certain    grade   of  rational 

activity  and  progressive  power  in  each 
people.  Here,  then,  is  the  fundamental 
fact  of  a  certain  quantity  of  brain  forces 
expended  in  the  administration  of  life 
among  the  various  peoples  of  the  earth. 
The  same  is  correlated  with  other  pecul- 
iarities of  anatomical  structure.  It  is 
found  that  the  cranial  cavity  is  very  vari- 
able in  its  shape,  conforming  in  its  pro- 
portions and  relative  distribution  of  parts 
to  the  general  configuration  of  the  skull. 
And  this  is  typical  in  each  of  the  primary 
races.  It  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into 
any  elaborate  illustration  of  the  definite 
angles  and  peculiarities  of  the  hiiman 
skull,  or  to  describe  by  comparisons  its 
various  approximations  to  the  crania  of 
other  animals.  Such  discussion  belones 
to  special  scientific  treatises,  and  the  re- 
sults derivable  therefrom  could  play 
but  a  small  part  in  the  ethnic  history  of 
mankind. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  other  bodily 

organs.    It  is  well  known  that  the  lower 

types  of  the  human  family 

Selvage  of  man-      •'  ^  .  .  ,  •' 

kind  and  the        approximate  in  various  de- 

lower  animala.  ^       ,-,         t  i 

grees  to  the  form  and  or- 
ganism of  certain  quadrumana,  and  that 
these  close  analogies,  even  identities, 
have  given  rise  to  much  speculation 
about  the  connection  between  the  bot- 
tom selvage  of  the  human  race  and  the 
upper  margin  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
How  near  together  these  two  edges  of 
life  may  approximate,  or  how  far  apart 
they  may  be  found  to  lie,  it  is  not  the  duty 
of  the  historian,  or  even  the  ethnog- 


rapher, to  determine.  Certain  it  is  that 
the  highest  types  of  men  have  a  very 
marked  divergence  from  all  species  of 
quadrupeds,  and  it  will  certainly  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  lowest  orders  of  man- 
kind have  in  them  at  least  the  potential- 
ity of  a  rational,  and  possibly  an  elevated, 
life. 

The  nearest  approach  in  anatomical 
structure  in  the  human  species  to  the 
lower  orders   of   nature  is 

Approximation 
found    m    the    Bushmen    of   of  certain  Blacks 
o       ii        A  r  •  ii  i-         to  the  simians. 

South  Africa,  the  native 
Australians,  and  the  Papuans  of  Mel- 
anesia. Specimens  of  men  have  been 
found  among  the  native  races  of  Central 
America  and  in  South  America  almost 
equally  near  akin  on  the  physical  side 
with  the  simians  and  other  superior  or- 
ders of  animals.  The  peculiarities  which 
constitute  this  physical  affinity  of  man 
with  the  brutes  are  well  known.  The 
arms  of  the  lower  orders  of  men  are 
very  long,  reaching  to  the  knees  or  be- 
low the  knees  when  the  person  is  erect. 
The  hands  also  are  spread  out  and  set 
on  the  wrists  after  the  manner  of  fore- 
feet in  the  quadrupeds.  The  feet  are 
strikingly  animal  in  their  structure, 
having  a  long  heel  and  so  flat  an  instep 
that  the  whole  bottom  of  the  foot  is 
pressed  on  the  ground.  Rising  from 
these  expressionless  parts  of  the  body 
to  the  features  of  the  face,  we  find  them 
also  strongly  marked  with  animal  char- 
acteristics. The  chin  in  many  cases  is 
scarcely  better  developed  than  in  the 
chimpanzee,  and  the  forehead  slopes 
back  from  the  brow  with  scarcely  greater 
elevation  than  is  found  in  the  orang  or 
ape. 

From  these  low  grades  of  development 
in  the  human  form,  there  is  a  gradual 
ascent  from  the  level  of  the  Hottentot 
and  Australian,  through  the  Negroes 
and  the  barbarous  aborigines  of  South 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.    573 


The  three  prin. 
Cipal  things, 
food,  clothing, 
and  shelter. 


America  and  the  Pacific  islands   to  the 

Esquimaux,  thence  to  the  nomadic  races 

of  Asia,  and  thence  to  the 

Eiuts  in  lo^w 

races  of  future      nighly-developed    physical 

development.         j.  r      ii,        t^ 

form  of  the  Europeans. 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  occa- 
sionally among  the  natives  of  Polynesia 
and  South  America,  and  also  among  the 
native  races  of  North  America,  an  excep- 
tional example  of  high  personal  beauty 
of  form  and  feature  will  be  discovered. 
Such  instances  may  be  regarded  as  the 
premonitory  outgoings  of  nature  relative 
to  what  the  race  may  become  in  its  bet- 
ter stages  of  development. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  that  point 
in  the  inquiry  w^here  the  general  view 
which  takes  in  the  higher 
relations  of  the  races  de- 
scends into  particulars  and 
widens  to  infinity.  Were  we  to  pursue 
the  subject  further  in  the  present  chap- 
ter, it  would  be  to  consider  what  may  be 
called  the  tangible  parts  or  evidences  of 
civilization  as  illustrative  of  race  charac- 
ter in  different  ages  and  countries.  As 
already  said,  the  three  great  means  of 
supporting  and  developing  human  life 
are  food,clothing,and  shelter.  The  man- 
ner of  man's  activities  in  procuring  these 
essentials  of  his  own  existence  and  the 
perpetuity  of  his  kind  would  demand  in 
its  exemplification  a  great  amount  of 
space  and  variety  of  inquiry. 

On  the  side  of  food,  the  problem 
would  begin  with  the  appropriation  of 
the  simplest  vegetable  products  by  the 
Range  of  ethnic  primitive  races,  and  would 
prorut^l  ef,en-  ^nd  with  the  most  highly 
tiaisofUfe.  elaborated    and    carefully 

prepared  tissues  of  animals.  This  is  to 
say  that  food  begins  with  the  starchy 
elements  in  vegetation,  just  as  they 
are  distilled  and  manufactured  by  na- 
ture, in  vegetable  cells,  and  ends  Avith 
the  highest  form  of  nitrogenous  product 


in  the  animal  kingdom.  To  procure  the 
latter  requires  all  the  refinements  of 
skill  and  contrivances  of  art.  On  the 
side  of  clothing,  the  question  is  first 
with  the  appropriation  of  the  skins  of 
beasts,  the  mere  transfer  of  the  natural 
covering  of  a  dead  animal  to  the  body 
of  a  living  one.  It  ends  with  the  finest 
and  most  delicately  wrought  fabrics 
which  the  ingenuity  and  caprice  of  civil- 
ized races  have  been  able  to  invent.  On 
the  side  of  shelter,  it  begins  with  a 
piece  of  bark  set  up  at  an  angle  between 
a  witless  savage  and  the  rain.  It  ends 
with  the  villa  and  the  palace,  shining 
down  with  marble  front  over  boughs  of 
bending  myrtle  and  avenues  of  ever- 
green and  fountains  of  flashing  w'ater. 

The  activities  of  the  different  races  of 
mankind  have  been  exerted  primarily 
in  the  three  directions  above  indicated; 
but  the  methods  of   exer- 

Method  of  man 

tion  have  been  as  variable  in  adapting  him- 

j  i.-£  .-I      ,    •I  self  to  nature. 

and  multiform  as  the  tribes 
of  the  human  race.  In  the  first  place, 
the  earth  herself  has  been  capricious  in 
the  distribution  and  character  of  her 
natural  gifts.  Men  have  adapted  them- 
selves to  this  whimsicality  of  the  natural 
world.  But  with  the  progress  and 
development  of  the  race,  they  have  first 
gone  beyond  and  then  ignored  the  hints 
of  nature  relative  to  subsistence,  and 
have  transplanted  and  wrought  in  a  way 
suggested  by  their  instinctive  appe- 
tencies and  ethnic  preference. 

It  is  in  this  way  that  the  human  race 
has  done  so  much  in  the  way  of  diffusing 
the  natural  products  of  the  Adjustment  va- 
earth.  In  his  adjustment  t^^^^^^. 
with  the  means  of  siib-  ^itions. 
sistence,  natural  and  artificial,  man  has 
changed  first  himself  and  afterwards  his 
surroundings.  At  the  beginning  he 
fitted  and  adjusted  himself  simply  to 
natural  conditions;    but  these  he   soon 


574 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


outgrew  and  overpassed  in  development. 
It  is  in  this  respect  again  that  the  races 
have  shown  remarkable  diversity.  The 
life  of  some  has  become  highly  artifi- 
cial, while  in  others  the  natural  life  pre- 
dominates as  from  the  first.  The 
Hamitic  race  in  all  of  its  development 
remained  close  to  the  soil.  The  some- 
what complex  life  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians was,  nevertheless,  of  the  earth, 
earthy.  No  concept  of  Egyptian  civiliza- 
tion is  at  all  adequate  which  has  not  the 
mud  of  the  Nile  at  the  bottom.  It  was 
founded  on  the  ground,  and  its  high- 
est aspirations  rose  no  higher  than 
a  basket  of  lotus  on  the  head  of  a 
peasant. 

Among  the  Semites,  the  evolution  of 
food  took  place  more  rapidly  than  that 
Evolution  of  oi  either  raiment  or  archi- 
food  precedes      tccture.     For  some  reason 

building  and 

clothing.  these      peoples     bestowed 

especial  attention  upon  the  materials 
upon  which  they  subsisted.  Even  on 
their  first  emergence  from  the  pre- 
historic shadows  we  find  them  classify- 
ing and  arranging  their  foods,  especially 
those  deduced  from  the  animal  kingdom, 
by  the  distinction  of  clean  and  imclean. 
In  common  with  the  Hamites,  they 
refined  upon  this  idea,  and  carried  it 
into  their  religious  system.  But  unlike 
the  Hamites,  they  were  not,  especially 
in  the  first  stages  of  their  development, 
a  people  much  interested  in  architecture. 
The  pastoral  life  which  they  adopted 
was  unfavorable  to  building,  and  even 
when  they  settled  into  fixed  communi- 
ties and  became  husbandmen  and  keep- 
ers of  vineyards,  they  were  still  indiffer- 
ent to  building.  The  records  of  the 
Semitic  race  would  be  searched  in  vain 
for  even  the  shadows  of  such  architec- 
tural grandeur  as  was  displayed  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  or  in  the  opposite 
peninsula  of  Hellas. 


The  Brown  races,  such  as  the  Chinese 
Mongolians,  have  always  led  a  simple 
and  somewhat  primitive  The  Chinese  ex. 
life.  Their  means  of  sub-  ^^rSa^Lnof a;. 
sistence  have  remained  chitecture. 
primary.  We  may  well  be  surprised, 
when  we  reflect  upon  the  antiquity  of 
the  Chinese  nation  and  upon  the  in- 
tellectual astuteness  of  the  race,  to  note 
the  really  primitive  condition  of  their 
industrial  and  social  life.  Their  building 
is,  at  its  best  estate,  a  piece  of  Oriental 
elegance,  never  rising  to  the  grand  or 
sublime.  Their  raiment  has  perhaps 
never  been  changed  in  its  character  or 
material  for  a  thousand  years,  and  their 
food  is  as  simple  as  it  was  in  the  days 
of  Confucius.  In  the  midst  of  much 
intellectual  acumen  and  a  certain  kind  of 
perpetual  industry,  they  have  signally 
failed  to  advance  into  the  higher  forms 
of  physical  culture  and  development. 

The  Black  races  have  scarcely  at- 
tained, in  their  industrial  and  social 
state,  to  a  higher  level  than  The  Blacks  are 
that  of  aboriginal  tribes.  l^^Z%T:ir''' 
In  respect  of  food,  cloth-  tionsofufe. 
ing,  and  shelter,  they  are  savages,  but 
the  peaceful  character  of  the  race  has 
forbidden  the  display  on  a  large  scale  of 
either  the  savage  instincts  or  the  savage 
virtues.  The  Blacks  have  shown  no 
skill  in  their  native  places  in  the  adap- 
tation of  means  to  ends,  and  have,  there- 
fore, made  no  progress  in  those  primary 
industries  on  which  the  civilized  state  of 
man  is  founded. 

It  is  the  Aryan   race   again   that  has 
shown  itself  preeminent  in  its  adaptations 

to  the    natural    resources  of   The  Aryans  pre- 

the  earth,  and  in  improving  ^f^nlw' 
upon  the  conditions  and  resources, 
methods  suggested  by  nature.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  face  of  the  earth 
has,  to  a  considerable  degree,  been 
transformed  by  the  energy  and  force  of 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACES.— ETHNIC  CHARACTERISTICS.     575 


character  of  the  Aryan  peoples.  In  no 
respect  has  their  departure  from  the 
primitive  condition  of  mankind  been 
more  marked  than  with  regard  to  the 
resources  by  which  life  is  supported  and 
made  strong.  The  Aryan  peoples,  at 
least  the  Western  Aryans,  have  all  ad- 
vanced from  the  primitive  foods  to  the 


these,  great  systems  of  industry  and 
commerce  have  been  instituted,  devel- 
oping the  energies  and  perfecting  the 
skill  of  the  most  active  communities  in 
the  world.  The  same  refinement  and 
advance  may  be  observed  in  regard  to 
the  means  by  which  the  human  body  is 
defended  from  the  vicissitudes  and  rigors 


LOW  INDUSTRIAL  ESTATE  OF  THE  BROWN  AKD  BLACK  RACES.— Post  of  the  Gr.\nd  Talibouche. 

Drawn  by  Y.  Pranishnikoff. 


higher  and  more  complex  form  of  or- 
ganic tissue  in  which  the  elements  of 
subsistence  are  most  highly  condensed. 
The  race  might  be  defined  as  ' '  the  peo- 
ple who  eat  costly  food."  A  second  na- 
ture has  been  produced  in  all  Indo-Euro- 
pean countries  requiring  sustenance  from 
the  most  costly  elements  of  nature ;  and 
for  the  production   and   distribution  of 


of  climate.  This  is  said  of  the  materials 
which  the  civilized  peoples  of  the  West 
employ  in  clothing,  rather  than  of'their 
skill  in  fabrication. 

As  builders,  the  Aryans  appear  just 
at  the  present  age  to  be  entering  into 
the  era  of  splendid  and  substantial  archi- 
tecture. Strangely  enough  the  race, 
thoueh  marked  bv  imusual  skill  and  en- 


576 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKIXD. 


ergy  in  the  handling  of  materials,  has 
not  been  conspicuous  in  recent  ages  for 
Place  of  the  its  ability  to  build.  Among 
arolHelVr'ar  ^hc  ancients,  the  only  Ar- 
evolution.  yan  peoples  noted  for  their 

preeminence  in  architecture  were  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  latter  were 
only  imitators  of  the  former.  The  belief 
that  even  the  skillful  and  artistic  Greeks 
derived  their  architectural  forms  and 
methods  from  the  Hamitic  Egyptians 
seems  to  be  well  supported  by  historical 
evidence.  From  which  it  would  appear 
that  the  Hamites  of  the  Nile  valley  were 
the  first  great  original  builders — the 
first  of  the  human  race  to  create  archi- 
tectural monuments. 

As  already  intimated,  however,  the 
discussion  of  these  topics  leads  us  imme. 
diately  into  the  subject-matter  which  has 
been  reserved  for  the  detailed  account 


of  the  industrial  and  social  life  of  the 
different  races  of  mankind.  We  have 
now  reached  the  threshold  of  that  dis- 
cussion. In  the  former  chapters  we 
have  endeavored  to  delineate  the  primi 
tive  condition  of  the  human  race,  and  the 
tribal  departures  and  migrations  by  which 
the  race  was  originally  distributed  to  the 
various  quarters  of  the  globe.  In  the 
current  chapter  we  have  endeavored  to 
look  down,  as  from  a  high  point  of  view, 
upon  the  various  families  of  men,  and  to 
note  a  few  of  the  leading  features  by 
which  they  are  distinguished.  AVe  shall 
now  take  u^d  for  consideration  the  de- 
tails of  the  methods  and  manner  of  life 
among  the  principal  families  of  man- 
kind, and  shall  attempt  to  depict  the  es- 
sential facts  and  some  of  the  peculiar 
incidents  in  the  past  and  present  condi- 
tion of  the  leadino-  divisions  of  our  race. 


r^ 


RACn  CriART  No.  2. 

EXPLANATION. 

This  Chart  shows  the  geographical  spread  of  the  East  Arj-an  family  of 
mankind.  (For  the  connection  of  this  stock  with  the  whole  race  of  man- 
kind, see  Race  Chart  No.  i,  at  the  proper  point  of  departure,  to  the  left, 
above.)  The  point  of  departure  for  this  division  is  indicated  by  the  heavy 
red  line  at  the  foot  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  near  Teheran. 

The  East  Aryans,  from  this  region,  departed  to  the  right  hand ;  while 
m-ii  West  Aryans  (see  "Armenians,"  "Georgians,"  "  Ossetes,"  etc.)  departed 
to  the  left.  The  movement  extended  eastward  until  the  stricture  between  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf  was  passed,  when  the  race  branched  out 
in  many  directions. 

The  northern  division,  now  represented  in  Turkestan,  was  the  Usbeks. 
To  the  south  were  the  old  races  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  The  ancient 
Persians,  as  will  be  seen,  developed  into  several  modern  families.  Out  of  this 
line  sprang  the  Afghans,  and  further  to  the  south  the  Beluchs.  Far  to  the 
north,  from  the  original  Iranian  stem,  arise  the  Bactriaus,  one  of  the  oldest 
families  of  this  division. 

The  migrator}-  stem  of  the  East  Indian  races  is  indicated  by  the  word 
Indicans.  From  this  stem  arise  the  Punjabese ;  and  from  this  stock,  in  turn, 
the  old  Brahmans,  in  the  valley  of  the  Indus;  and  the  great  Hindu  family, 
farther  to  the  East.  From  the  Punjabese  stem,  we  have  the  modern  Nepa- 
lese.  From  the  Hindu  stem,  we  have  the  great  races  of  the  Mahrallas,  the 
Bengalese,  etc;  From  the  Bengalese  division,  at  its  easternmost  extreme,  we 
have  the  Indo-Burmese  family,  which  is  tlie  remotest  Asiatic  division  of  the 
East  Aryan  races.  The  Chart  covers  about  fifty  degrees  of  longitude,  and 
twenty  degrees  of  latitude. 


THE  RUDDY  RACES. 


I.-The  East  Aryans. 


BOOK  V.-THE   IRANIANS, 


Chapter    XXXIII.— Elementary    Character    and 

Religion. 


jUR  oldest  kinspeople, 
reckoning  by  antiquity 
of  descent,  are  discov- 
erable along  the  far- 
thest horizon  of  his- 
tory on  the  plateau  of 
ancient  Iran.  The 
country  corresponds  in  general  with 
modern  Persia.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  political  boundaries  of 
antiquity  were  not  generally  so  defi- 
nitely drawn  as  in  the  modern  world. 
The  Semitic  races  in  Western  Asia  and 
the  Greeks  in  Eastern  Europe  were  the 
first  to  set  up  termini,  and  thus  to  estab- 


lish definitely  the  metes  and  bounds  of 
a  political  state. 

The  impulse  which  carried  the  Old 
Iranians  southward  from  the  primitive 
Aryan  nidus  in  the  coun-  „^   . 

•'  The  mqniry  may 

try  aboi:t  the   lower   Cas-  begin  with  tiie 

,  ...  ,        Irzmians. 

plan  has  already  been  de- 
scribed. We  are  now  to  look  with 
some  care  at  the  people  of  the  Iranic 
family,  and  to  note  their  ethnic  peculiar- 
ities. It  will  not  be  forgotten  that  at 
the  time  of  their  first  dispersion  in  Iran 
they  were  still,  as  a  race,  fundamentally 
identical  in  character  with  the  other 
eastern  branch  of  our  ancestral  kindred, 

577 


J  ■.■"'■■■    • 


i^ 


"^^ 


4^-  : 


v  <^.- 

'//:i 


M' 


-^- 


# 


i±ii 


\    1 


THE  IRANIANS.— ELEMENTARY  CHARACTER. 


679 


which  was  carried  into  the  Punjab  and 
thence  down  the  river  valleys  of  India. 

Ancient  Iran  invited  to  the  nomadic 
life.  This  was  the  first  impress  which 
the  environment  made  upon  the  primi- 
piateauof  Iran  tive  tribes  of  our  race.  At 
LtsMplnd""  the  time  of  their  coming 
outdoor  Ufe.  into  these  open  highland 
regions  they  had  already  domesticated 
the  horse  and  several  other  species  of 
animals.  But  the  horse  was  the  special 
companion  of 
the  Iranian  on 
his  excursions, 
and  it  is  worthy 
of  note  that 
through  all 
ages  of  history 
the  preemi- 
nence of  the 
Persian  steed 
has  been  main- 
ta  i  n  e  d  .  A 
household   had 


been  organized 
after  the  man- 
ner which  has 
ever  since  pre- 
vailed among 
the  Aryan 
races.    The  re- 


chase,  and  their  use  for  food.  The 
country  of  Iran  was  in  its  natural  fea- 
tures and  resources  promotive  of  the 
chase.  It  was  inhabited  by  all  the  com- 
mon varieties  of  wild  beasts  peculiar  to 
the  plains  and  mountains  in  the  temper- 
ate zone.  To  the  pursuit  of  these  the 
Iranian  tribes  gave  themselves  with  zest, 
and  soon  became  proficient  in  the  cap- 
ture of  even  lions  and  bears  and  tigers. 
Another  method  of  life  opened  to  the  East- 


ANIMAL   LIFE   OF   PERSIA. — MOUNTAIN    SHEET   OF    KEROLT. 
Drawn  by  Tofani,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy, 


lations  of  fa- 
therhood and  motherhood,  of  sonship 
and  daughtership,  had  been  established, 
and  the  home  of  the  group  was  a  tent 
at  first,  and  a  more  permanent  abode 
afterwards. 

Not  only  were  the  common  animals 
known  to  the  primitive  Iranians,  but 
also  the  common  cereals  and  vegetable 
products.  One  point  of  divergence  be- 
The  desert  Ira-    tween   this  branch  of   the 

nians  become 

hunters:  the        human  family  and  their  in- 

Indicans  agri-  .         a     i   ■       r   '11      ii        a 

cuiturist-i  timate  kinsfolk,  the  Aryans 

of  India,  was  with  respect  to  the  wild 
animals,  the  capture  of  the  same  in  the 


ern  Aryans,  who  gave  themselves  up  to 
the  quiet  of  the  agricultural  and  domes- 
tic life ;  and  it  is  from  this  point  that 
one  of  the  striking  divergencies  in  the 
languages  of  Iran  and  India  may  be  no- 
ticed. The  domestic  animals  are  named 
in  common  by  the  two  peoples,  while 
the  wild  beasts  are  generally  designated 
by  distinct  terms  invented  after  the  sep- 
aration of  the  races. 

The  Iranian  life  thus  presented  some 
diverse  and  peculiar  aspects.  It  was  in 
one  respect  the  half -barbarous  life  of  the 
chase,  and  in  another  respect  the  civil- 


580 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


of  life  combine 
In  the  race  char 
acter. 


izing  life  of  the  field  and  the  garden. 
In  proportion  as  the  first  prevailed,  the 
Both  methods  old  nomadic  and  migratory 
impulse  of  the  race  was 
stimulated  into  activity ;  in 
proportion  as  the  other  became  predom- 
inant, the  people  were  aggregated  into 
settled  communities  and  began  to  build 
cities  and  states.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  the  origin  of  several  world-wide  va- 
rieties of  fruits,  such  as  apples,  peaches, 
and  plums,  has  been  assigned  to  Iran. 


r.'iir 


ANIMAL   LIFE   OF   PERSIA. — AN  OX   OF  THE   BISHOPRIC. 
Drawn  by  A.  L.  Clement,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy. 


It  is  quite  likely  that  the  primitive  Medo- 
Persian  peoples  were  the  first  to  cultivate 
and  improve  these  valuable  products  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom.' 

The  social  evolution  among  this  an- 


'  The  definition  of  "apple-eating  animal"  might 
be  given  to  the  Old  Iranian  and  to  all  of  his  Asiatic 
and  European  descendants.  The  word  apple,  he- 
ginning  with  the  Zend  and  Sanskrit  ap  p'/iala, 
meaning  "  fruit  of  the  water,"  or  "juicy  fruit,"  is 
common  in  nearly  every  dialect  of  the  Aryan  lan- 
guages! It  might  be  difficult  to  point  out  any  other 
term  of  like  universality  among  the  names  of  the 
things  eaten  by  men. 


cient  race  took  the  course  of  a  subsid- 
ence from  the   nomadic  into    the   agri- 

cultural   and    pastoral   life.    The  sedentary 

The  change  was  very  grad-  '^^^TAt" 
ual,  and  had  been  nearly  nomadic, 
accomplished  at  our  earliest  historical 
acquaintance  w'ith  the  Medes.  A  more 
permanent  style  of  building  had  super- 
vened, and  many  other  evidences  of  a 
rising  nationality  were  seen  as  early  as 
the  eighth  century  before  our  era. 

Before  proceeding  to  delineate  the 
manners  and 
customs,  the  re- 
ligious and  so- 
cial state  of  the 
Old  Iranians,  it 
will  be  well  to 
describe  the  per- 
sonal character 
of  the  race. 
Herodotus  and 
Xenophon  have 
given  us  full  ac- 
counts of  the  ap. 
pearance  of  the 
Medes  in  their 
day,  and  we 
may  conclude 
that  the  type 
was  the  same 
which  had  pre- 
vailed from  the 
time  of  the  original  tribes.  The  sculp- 
tures of  Persepolis  also  have  preserved 
the  person  and  features  of 

.    .  Ethnic  and  per- 

the  race,  giving  us  perhaps  sonai  character 

,1  i  ii        i-  J    of  the  Iranians. 

the    most    authentic     and 
permanent  representation  of  the  ances- 
tors  of    the    Indo-European    family   of 
men. 

The  ancient  Iranian  was  tall  and  well 
formed.  In  personal  grace  and  phys- 
ical nobility  he  was  almost  the  eqiial  of 
his  kinsmen,  the  Hellenes  of  the  West. 
In  strength  and  activity  he  was  the  peer 


Cle'ment. 


THE  IRANIAXS.— ELEMENTARY  CHARACTER. 


581 


not  only  of  his  contemporaries  in  Meso- 
potamia and  Hellas,  but  of  any  rival  in 
any  age  of  tlie  ^vorld.  The  features 
were  dignified  and  finely  drawn.  The 
forehead  was  high  and  straight.  The 
nose  was  developed  on  a  line  with  the 
frontal  bone,  after  the  manner  of  the 
]Macedonian  face,  and  was  prominent 
and  well  formed.  Sometimes  the  organ 
had  that  imperious  and  hawklike  shape 
which  reappeared  among  the  Romans  of 
a  later  age.     The  beard  was  manly  and 


stantly  exposed  to  the  reactions  of  na- 
ture than  were  these  progenitors  of  great 
races.  True,  the  climate  was  not  au- 
spicious for  an  out-of-door  life.  Storms 
were  frequent,  and  the  winters  of  Par- 
thia,  Margiana,  and  Bactria  were  toler- 
ably severe.  But  neither  the  rain  blast 
of  summer  nor  the  rigors  of  the  winter 
season  were  sufficient  to  extinguish  or 
repress  the  nomadic  freedom  of  the 
race.  To  scour  the  plains  on  horseback 
became  a  second  nature  to  the  Iranian, 


REMAINS  OF  IRANIAN  BUILDING.— Ruins  of  the  Palace  op  Darils,  at  PersepoUS.— Drawn  by  A.  Deroy,  after  a  photo- 
graph by  Madame  Dieulafoy. 


heavy,  and  the  hair  abundant  to  super- 
fluity. The  Iranian  women  were  ad- 
mired for  their  beauty  and  grace  even 
by  the  critical  Greeks.  In  dignity  of 
personal  carriage,  they  are  represented 
to  have  borne  themselves  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  barbaric  queens  of  the  heroic 
ages  of  history. 

The  environment  of  the  early  Iranian 
The  race  con-  tribes  brought  them  into 
^htinflTnct  co'istant  contact  with  the 
of  nature.  open  aspects  of  the  natural 

world.  Their  life  was  outdoors.  Per- 
haps no   people   have   been  more  con- 


and    his   preference    for    chasing  wild 
beasts  took  the  form  of  a  passion. 

As  late  as  the  beginnings  of  authentic 
histor}%  not  only  the  evidences,  but  the 
actual  example  of  this  kind  of  life  was 

still    to    be     observed.        In    Tribal  divisions 

the  times  of  Herodotus  the  "[.^r^fHe'ld- 
nations  of  Iran  had  not  "t^^. 
yet  settled  into  permanence  or  affixed 
themselves  to  given  districts  of  terri- 
tory. They  were  divided  into  tribes, 
some  of  which  had  located  their  settle- 
ments and  fixed  their  institutions  within 
definite  territories,  while  others  roamed 


582 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


at  large.  Among  the  Medes,  the  Father 
of  History  mentions  six  tribal  division : 
the  Busse,  the  Paretaceni,  the  Struchates, 
the  Arazanti,  the  Budii,  and  the  Magi. 
The  Persians  were,  in  like  manner,  di- 
vided into  the  Pasargadae,  the  ilara- 
phians,  the  Maspians,  the  Panthialaeans, 
the  Derusiaeans,  the  Gerraanians,  the 
Daans,  the  Mardians,  the  Dropicans, 
and  the  Sagartians.  The  last  four 
tribes  were  still  nomadic  in  the  times 
of  Herodotus,  while  the  others  had  set- 
tled on  the  soil  and  given  themselves  to 
husbandry.  The  tribes  were  subdivided 
into  smaller  clans,  and  these  into  gentes, 
or  households.  In  this  condition  of  af- 
fairs, which  we  may  accept  as  correct 
for  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C, 
we  may  readily  recognize  another  ex- 
ample of  that  transforming  process  by 
which  the  family  is  succeeded  in  regular 
order  by  the  gens,  the  tribe,  and  the 
race. 

At  a  very  early  period  the  intellect 
of  the  Iranian  nations  reacted  under  the 
Feebleness  of  influences  of  growth  and 
oi^uorronr  ^^^i^°°"i^°t,  and  began 
the  Iranians.  to  display  itself  with  con- 
siderable vigor.  It  is  to  this  circum- 
stance, indeed,  that  the  importance  of 
the  race  in  after  ages  is  to  be  attributed. 
It  was  not,  indeed,  in  the  direction  of 
architecture  and  art  that  this  primitive 
race  exhibited  its  best  powers.  On  the 
contrary,  it  may  be  truthfully  alleged 
that  the  ^ledes  and  Persians  were  ineffi- 
cient as  builders  and  artists.  It  appears 
that  the  aesthetic  sense  was  weak,  and 
that  even  as  late  as  the  earlier  stages  of 
Medo-Persian  nationality  the  evidences 
of  architectural  structure  are  few  and 
meager.  In  all  Persia  the  foundations 
of  but  two  cities  have  remained  to  after 
times,  in  illustration  of  the  building  and 
decorative  capacity  of  the  people.  In 
Media  not  a  single  structure  has  left  a 


trace.  It  is  true  that  this  paucity  of 
architectural  monuments  is  to  be  ac- 
counted for  in  part  by  the  use  of  wood 
rather  than  stone  as  the  building  ma- 
terial of  the  Iranians.  It  is  believed 
that  the  ancient  Medes  employed  neither 
stone  nor  brick  in  their  edifices,  relying 
wholly  upon  wood  and  the  metals  even 
for  the  palaces  of  their  kings. 

It  was  on  the  side  of  the  literary 
evokition  that  the  Iranian  mind  first  dis- 
played its  energies.  It  fell  Early  motion  of 
to  chanting  the  aspects  of  ^"^.^i^^JtS  ""* 
the  natural  world  and  to  ""ace. 
inventing  metrical  expression*  for  the 
mysteries  above  the  material  aspects  of 
nature.  Already,  before  the  partition  of 
the  Indie  and  Iranic  nations,  the  lan- 
guage had  been  well  developed.  It  had 
an  extensive  and  flexible  grammar  and 
an  abundant  vocabulary.  Its  descriptive 
elements  admitted  of  inflection,  and  its 
verbal  structure  indicated  the  niceties  of 
action  in  time  and  manner.  With  this 
vehicle  of  language  on  his  tongue  and 
the  vision  of  supernal  nature  above 
him,  the  Old  Iranian  began  to  elaborate 
that  system  of  religion  and  philosophy 
which  has  transmitted  to  the  modern 
world  an  intellectual  interest  in  the  peo- 
ple by  whom  the  system  was  produced. 

The  language  of  the  Iranic  branch  of 
the  human  family,  as  preserved  in  its 
most  ancient  books,  is  known  as  Zend, 
and  the  great  Bible  of  the  Language  and 
race,  out  of  which  its  sub-  ^„?^CzeTa?" 
sequent  religious  and  liter-  Avesta. 
ary  development  proceeded,  is  called  the 
Zend-Avesta.    It  is  in  eight  books,  which 
embrace  as  their  subject-matter  the  same 
general  topics  as  are  presented  in    the 
Old  Testament.     The  themes  are  laws, 
covenants,    prayers,    songs,    and    cere- 
monials. 

The  Avesta  may  be  called  the  Iranian 
Bible.     Its  oldest  portion  is  included  in 


THE  IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 


583 


the  Gathas,  or  "  Songs,"  many  of  which 
are  very  nearly  identical  with  the  hymns 
of  the  Indie  Veda.  This  fact  would  in- 
dicate that  the  Gathas  had  been  chanted 
by  the  primitive  Aryan  race  before  the 
separation  of  the  Iranic  and  Indie 
families.  If  we  'ook  into  the  spirit 
of  the  hymns,  we  shall  find  them 
to  be  the  exuberant  expression,  the 
fervent  utterances  of  the  primitive 
worshipers,  awe-struck  under  the  mys- 
teries of  nature,  exclaiming  in  highly 
figurative  language,  and  pouring  out 
praise  and  prayer  to  the  invisible  powers 
of  nature.  It  is  as  though  the  primeval 
singer  had  turned  up  his  face  in  adora- 
tion to  airland  and  skyland  on  high, 
praising  the  goodness  and  magnificence 
of  the  majesties  above,  and  making 
petition  for  blessing  and  peace. 

The  hymns  of  the  Avesta  are  polythe- 
istic. The  powers  on  high  are  many. 
The  beneficent  not  One,  and  Seem  to  be  de- 
t^::::^"^t:  void  of  personality.  These 
Gathas.  powers     were     good,     not 

bad — at  least  in  the  earliest  concepts  of 
the  race.  The  divine  attributes  of  the 
heavens — deities,  if  we  may  call  them 
so — bent  auspiciously  over  the  worship- 
er, and  he  adored  because  of  the  benefits 
received  and  expected.  The  supernal 
powers  were  called  Ahtiras,  and  were 
regarded  as  the  life-giving  influences  of 
the  world.  It  may  be  noted  here  as  a 
fact  beyond  dispute  that  dualism,  or  the 
recognition-  of  evil  powers  in  the  uni- 
verse set  over  against  the  good,  is  a  later 
concept  of  the  human  mind,  and  does 
not  belong  to  the  really  primitive  sys- 
tems of  belief.  Among  no  people  of  the 
world  was  dualism  more  fully  developed 
or  the  evil  powers  raised  to  higher  rank 
than  among  the  Iranians.  But  the  evo- 
lution of  this  system  followed  the  real 
body  of  the  national  worship  as  ex- 
pressed  in   the    earlier  Gathas    as    the 


shadow  follows  the  substance.  The  evil 
hierarchy  was  the  invention  of  a  later 
age,  and  was  set  over  against  the  benefi- 
cent powers  of  earth  and  air  and  sky  as 
if  to  oppose  them  and  to  thwart  their 
benefits  to  men. 

The  Gathas  are  gathered  from  that 
general  division  of  the  Avesta  called  the 
Yayna.  The  more  important  part  of  the 
sacred  writings,  however, 

T   \.       -,■-,-,      Theme  and 

is  known  as  the  v  endidad,  method  of  the 

1  •    1  -,       •  Vendidad. 

which  corresponds  in  gen- 
eral outline  with  the  Pentateuch  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible.  It  contains  in  general 
an  account  of  the  genesis  of  things  and 
the  laws  for  the  ethical  government  of 
mankind.  It  embraces,  besides,  the 
ceremonial  code,  in  which  the  rites  and 
processes  necessary  for  avoiding  evil 
and  expiating  sin  and  impurity  are  pre- 
scribed. The  whole  is  presented  in  the 
general  form  of  dialogue,  or  colloquy, 
between  the  supreme  Ahura,  called 
Ahura-Mazdao,  and  his  favorite  servant, 
named  Zarathustra,  who  is  a  prophet. 
In  his  Iranic  name  we  recognize  at  once 
the  Zoroaster  of  tradition.  To  him 
Ahura-Mazdao  reveals  his  will  in  an- 
swer to  questions  and  prayers;  and  by 
him  the  purposes  and  laws  of  the  su- 
preme being  are  revealed  to  the  people 
of  Iran. 

The  Yagna  is   of   a   widely  different 
character.     In  this  are  included  expres- 
sions of  praise  and  adoration  peculiar  to 
the  Iranian  worship.     It  is  TheYacna 
the  devotional  part  of  the  ^^^Ztedftw 
Zoroastrian  Bible.     As  al-  relations, 
ready  said,  it  contains  the  most  ancient 
element  of  the  whole  Avesta.      There 
can    be    no    doubt    that   the    primitive 
hymns  included  in  this  collection  were 
sung  by  the  Indian  Aryans  and  the  Ira- 
nians while  they  were  still  a  common  peo- 
ple.     This   aspect  of   the  hymnody  of 
Zoroastrianism  raises  again  the  disputed 


584 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


question  as  to  whether  the  Iranians  went 
together  with  the  Indie  branch  of  the 
race  into  the  Punjab,  and  then,  from 
schism  or  other  cause,  parted  company 
with  their  kinspeople  and  turned  into 
Iran.  This  view  has  been  stoutly  main- 
tained even  by  Professor  Max  Miiller. 
But  on  the  whole  it  appears  more  ration- 
al,  considering  the  geographical  situation 
and  the  much  greater  extent  of  the  mi- 
gratory movement  into  India,  that  the 
two  races  divided  on  the  plateau,  leaving 


I'hUSlAN   KING    \VOKSHlriNG   AHURA-MAZDAO. 

the  Iranic  division  behind,  while  the  In- 
die families  made  their  way  through  the 
Hindu-Kush  or  the  Himalayas  to  their 
destination.  However  this  may  be,  the 
common  element  in  the  old  songs  of  the 
Iranians  and  in  the  Veda  can  not  be  de- 
nied  or  ignored,  and  the  fact  points  un- 
mistakably to  a  common  religious  cere- 
monial earlier  in  its  origin  than  the 
division  of  the  races. 

The  hymns  of  the  Ya9na  are  devo- 
tional. Sometimes  the  utterance  of  the 
worshiper  is  merely  praiseful  The 
attributes   of    goodness    and   love   and 


beneficence  are  ascribed,  in  exclamatory 
language,  to  the  powers  on  high.  More 
frequently  the  subject-mat- 

i  ■'  •*        _        _       Hymns  of  the 

ter  of  the  Gathas  is  in  Yacna;  MuUer'a 
..J.  1-  r^c   comments. 

the  form  of  prayer.  Of 
these,  the  great  German  Orientalist,  Dr. 
Martin  Haug,  has  made  a  translation 
into  German,  from  which  a  rendering 
into  English  has  been  easily  effected. 
The  general  integrity  of  the  translation 
is  attested  by  Miiller,  who  sums  up  the 
results  as  follows:  "Many  of  the  pas- 
sages as  translated  by 
him  [Dr.  Haug]  are  as 
clear  as  daylight,  and 
carry  conviction  by 
their  very  clearness. 
Others,  however,  are 
obscure,  hazy,  mean- 
ingless. We  feel  that 
they  must  have  been 
intended  for  some- 
thing else,  something 
more  definite  and  for- 
cible, though  we  can 
not  tell  what  to  do 
with  the  words  as 
they  stand.  Sense, 
after  all,  is  the  great 
test  of  translation. 
We  must  feel  con- 
vinced that  there  was 
good  sense  in  these  ancient  poems,  other- 
wise mankind  would  not  have  taken  the 
trouble  to  preserve  them ;  and  if  we  can 
not  discover  good  sense  in  tliem,  it  must 
be  either  our  fault,  or  the  words  as  we 
read    them    were   not   the   words 


now 

uttered  by  the  ancient  prophets  of  the 

world." 

It  can  but  be  of  interest  to  the  gen- 
eral reader  to  examine   a  „ 

.  Specimen  trans. 

few  specimens  of  some  of  lationofthe 
these     primitive    prayers. 


representing  as   they 
cient    invocations    of 


do  the  most  an- 
mankind.       The 


THE  IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 


585 


following  four  sections  are  from  the 
Gathas : 

1.  "This  thing  will  I  ask  Thee. 

Tell  Thou  it  to  me  arijjht.  Thou  living  God. 

How  rose  this  world  .' 

By  what  means  are  the  present  things  sup- 
ported .' 

That  spirit,  the  holy  Vohu-Mano,  O  true,  wise 
spirit, 

Guardian  of  the  beings  who  ward  off  evil, 

He  is  the  promoter  of  life." 

2.  "  This  thing  will  I  ask  Thee. 

Tell  Thou  it  to  me  aright.  Thou  living  God. 
Who   was   in   the   beginning   the    father    and 

creator  of  truth  ? 
Who  made  the  sun  and  stars  ? 
Who  causes  the  moon  to  increase  and  wane,  if 

not  Thou  ? 
This   would    I   know,   besides   what    I    know 

already." 

3    "This  thing  will  I  ask  Thee. 

Tell  Thou  it  to  me  aright.  Thou  living  God. 
Who  is  holding  the  earth  and  the  skies  above  it  ? 
Who  made  the  waters  and  the  trees  of  the  field  ? 
Who  is  in  the  winds  and  storms  that  they  so 

quickly  run  ? 
Who  is  the  creator  of  the  good-minded  beings, 
O  Thou  wise .'" 

4.  "  This  thing  will  I  ask  Thee. 

Tell  Thou  it  to  me  aright.  Thou  living  God. 
Will  your  friend  Sraosha  [Angel  of  Light]  recite 

his  hymn  to  my  friend  Vistaspa,  O  Thou 

Wise  ? 
Will  he  come  to  us  with  the  good  mind. 
To  perform  for  us  true  actions  of  friendship  ?  " 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  a  consider- 
able portion  cf  the  Zend-Avesta  is  in  the 
form  of  colloquy,  or  dialogue,  in  ^vhich 
Example  of  Zarathustra  appeals  to 
uo'n'of tlrzend-  Ahura-Mazdao  for  wisdom 
Avesta.  an(j  benefits,  and  the  latter 

replies  with  revelations  of  peace  and 
beneficence.  The  following  specimen 
from  Dr.  Haug's  translation  will  suffi- 
ciently illustrate  the  form  in  which  the 
subject  is  presented : 

"Zarathustra  asked  Ahura-Mazdao 
after  the  most  effectual  spell  to  guard 
against  the  influence  of  evil  spirits.  He 
was  answered  by  the  supreme  spirit  that 

M,— Vol.  1—38 


the  utterance  of  the  different  names  of 
Ahura-Mazdao  protects  best  from  evil. 
Thereupon  Zarathustra  begged  Ahura- 
Mazdao  to  reveal  to  him  the.se  names. 
Ahura-Mazdao  then  communicated  to 
him  twenty  of  his  names,  of  which  the 
following  are  examples :  The  first  is 
Ahmi,  meaning  'I  am;'  the  fourth  is 
Asha-Vahista,  meaning  '  the  best  puri- 
ty,' or,  perhaps,  'purest  and  best;'  the 
sixth  signifies  '  I  am  wisdom ;'  the 
eighth,  '  I  am  knowledge;'  the  twelfth, 
Ahura,  meaning  'the  living  one;*  the 
twentieth,  '  I*am-who-I-am  Mazdao.*" 

After  this  revelation,  Ahura-Mazdao 
then  continues: 

' '  If  you  call  me  at  day  or  at  night  by 
these  names  I  shall  come  to  assist  and 
help  you ;  the  angel  Sraosha  will  then 
come,  the  genii  of  the  waters  and  the 
trees."  Mazdao  then  reveals  to  his  serv- 
ant another  series  of  names  by  which 
evil  spirits,  bad  men,  witches.  Peris,  and 
other  enemies  of  the  human  race  may 
be  thwarted  in  their  bad  designs.  Such 
titles  as  protector,  guardian,  spirit,  the 
holy  one,  the  best  fire  priest,  etc.,  are 
communicated  as  the  talismanic  symbols 
by  which  men  are  to  be  saved  from  the 
influence  of  the  evil  powers. 

It  is  believed  that  at  least  all  the  ear- 
lier parts  of  the  Avesta  proceeded  from 
Zoroaster  himself ;  that  he  _ 

Relation  of  Zo- 
was,  in  brief,  the  primitive  roaster  to  ira- 
,  .  ,  1     i        f  nian  theology. 

lawgiver  and  prophet  of 
the  Iranian  race.  It  is  evident,  more- 
over, that  he  held  his  career  while  the 
Indo-Iranic  peoples  were  still  a  single 
division  of  mankind.  So  that  the  scheme 
of  religious  thought  which  we  have  here 
presented  belongs  rather  to  the  Old  Bac- 
trians  than  to  either  of  the  branches  of 
Eastern  Aryans  that  proceeded  there- 
from. It  will  be  of  interest,  therefore, 
to  consider  briefly  what  may  be  called 
the  Bactrian  deities,  or  those  objects  of 


586 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


adoration  which  were  deemed  by  the  an- 
cient people  of  the  highest  order  among 
the  supernal  powers. 

In  so  far  as  one  supreme  being  was 

recognized  above  the  rest,  his  name  was 

Ahura-Mazdao.    The  name 

Place  and  of-  .,  •    ^    j         -ii 

ficesofAhura-      Ahura    IS   associated   witn 

Mazdao.  jj^g  ^^^  ljgj^^_      ^g  tl^g  sun 

is  the  supreme  object  of  the  visible  uni- 
verse   and    illuminates    the    whole,    so 


^  ^i'^../  ^^^^ff"^ 


FIRE  ALTARS   OF  THE   OLD   ZOROASTRIANS. 
From  Magazine  of  Art, 

Ahura-Mazdao  was  the  highest  and 
brightest.  The  concept  did  not  rise  to 
the  level  of  monotheism.  Mazdao  was 
the  great  god  of  the  race,  and  was  re- 
garded as  the  living  creator  of  all.  In 
general,  he  was  the  giver  of  blessings 
both  temporal  and  eternal.  Such  bless' 
ings  as  earthly  honor,  preferment,  and 
such  subjective  good  as  wisdom  and  in- 
telligence came  from  this  immortal 
source.     Health  and  virtue,  wealth  and 


good  fortune  were  given  by  Ahura-Maz- 
dao.  These  good  gifts  were  withheld 
from  the  evil-minded  and  the  wicked. 
He  was  a  spirit,  and  approximated  in 
his  attributes  to  the  Hebrew  Elohim,  for 
which  reason  there  was  always  a  reli- 
gious affinity  between  the  later  Medes 
and  the  Hebrews.  The  careful  reader 
of  the  Old  Testament  will  note  that  the 
two  races  were  in  sympathy,  even  in 
matters  where  sympathy  was 
generally  impossible. 

Ahura-Mazdao  had  his  ret- 
inue  of   ministering    angels. 

They  were  about   The  retinue  of 
him  in  a  dwell-  ^^g^^^ 

ing  of  light,  and    come  personal. 

^  carried  out  his  will  respecting 
^  the  race  of  men.  One  of 
^  these  hierarchs,  greater  and 
brighter  than  the  rest,  was 
called  Sraosha.  He  was  pre- 
r  eminently  the  Angel  of  the 
■^^;^J  Light,  and,  since  light  re- 
veals  all  things,  Sraosha  was 
the  revealer  of  the  will  of 
Mazdao.  Primarily,  he  was 
merely  an  attribute  of  the 
Most  High,  one  of  his  shin- 
ings  forth.  Another  of  these 
attributes  was  called  Vohu- 
Mano,  meaning  "the  good 
mind;"  another  was  Mazda, 
meaning  "the  wise;"  and 
the  third  was  Asha,  mean- 
ing "the  true."  It  was  as  if  the  at- 
tributes of  the  primitive  Godhead  were 
detached  into  personalities,  under  the 
figure  of  angels,  or  messengers. 

After  Sraosha,  the  next  of  the  divine 
beings,   as  conceived  by   the   primitive 
Iranian,  was  Armati,  mean- 
ing  "  the  earth,"  who  was  "^^TL^^i. 
the  same  as  the   Gaia,  or 
Demeter,  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Ceres 
of  the   Romans.     The   earth  was  con« 


THE  IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 


587 


ceived  to  be  a  beneficent  power.  From 
the  mere  physical  fact  of  giving  food 
and  yielding-  increase,   the  mind  of  the 


the    contest  with  physical  nature   man 
was  helped  by  the  invisible  spirit  of  the 

earth.     When  the  adverse  forces  of  the 


i'AK>KE    1  I.MPLE 


FlkK    A  r    A  1  I- CH-uA.  — ll;.i...n  Ly  M.  Moynet. 


Old  Iranian  passed  to  the  general  notion 
of  a  good  being  who  befriended  man 
and  aided  him  in  maintaining  life.     In 


material  world  gave  back  under  the 
exertion  of  man,  it  was  Armati  that 
aided  him  to  get  the  victory.     Armati 


588 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


gave  the  seed  of  the  plant  and  the  fruit 
of  the  orchard-bough.  When  the  earth 
was  covered  with  green  grass  and 
blossoms,  Armati  gave  the  blessing  and 
clothed   her    habitation    with    verdure. 


jDroduced.    It  was  a  development  rather. 
At  the  first  there  was  a  nature  worship, 
pure  and  simple.     It   was  The  personal 
by  refining  upon  this  nat-  deit.es  arise  out 


ural 


1  ll;l.   T'lWIiR   i)f   ATECH-GA,   AT   FIROUE-ABAD. 
Drawn  by  Taylor,  after  the  restoration  by  Madame  Uieulafoy 

Whatever  good  thing  had  its  root  in  the 
bosom  of  the  earth  and  yielded  its  bene- 
fit toman,  was  the  gift  of  this  generous, 
beautiful  angel  of  the  world. 

The.  scheme  of  religious  belief  and 
service  here  outlined  was  not  the  most 
primitive  form  which  the  Iranian  mind 


of  nature  ■wor- 

system  of  belief  that  ^wp. 
the  hierarchy  of  Mazdao  and  his 
subordinates  was  developed.  In 
the  earlier  ages,  while  the  Iranians 
and  the  Aryans  of  India  still  so- 
journed together,  the  simple  pow- 
ers of  the  natural  world  were 
adored  and  worshiped.  These 
powers  came  to  be  regarded  as 
living  beings  over  and  above  the 
visible  aspects  of  nature.  The 
first  was  called  Indra,  meaning 
"the  storm;"  Mithra  was  "the 
sunlight;"  Armati,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  "the  earth;"  Vayu  was 
"  the  wind  ;"  Agni,  "the  fire ;"  and 
Soma,  "intoxication."  These 
forces  or  facts  of  the  natural  world 
were  adored  as  the  suitable  objects 
of  worship,  and  the  deities  thus  cre- 
ated were  common  to  the  Hindus 
and  the  Iranians. 

In  the  beginning  it  was  simply 
a  nature  worship,  under  the  garb 

of   polytheism.       The    separation  of 

concepts  of  the  su-  t:^Z:i^^^^ 
perior  beings  arose  duaUsm. 
gradually  to  higher  levels.  The 
materialistic  element  gave  place 
to  the  spiritual.  The  separation 
between  the  visible  aspect  and  the 
A  invisible  power  became  more  dis- 
"  tinct.     At  the  same  time  dualism 

began  to  appear.  It  was  dis- 
cerned that  the  powers  of  nature 
are  both  good  and  bad.  Some  are  bene- 
ficial to  men  and  others  disastrous  to  his 
interests.  The  former  attracted  human 
aflfection,  adoration,  worship.  The  latter 
excited  human  fear,  dread,  aversion. 
To  the  beneficent  powers  the  Iranians 
gave  the  name  of  Ahuras,  and  to  the  evil 


THE  IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 


589 


spirits  the  name  of  Devas.  Such  was 
the  genesis  of  the  gods  and  demons  of 
the  primitive  Aryan  worid. 

Full  of  interest  to  every  thoughtful 
mind  are  these  toilsome  processes  by 
T\'hich  our  ancestral  race, 
yields  to  adora-  m  the  prehistoric  ages, 
spin  .  gained  at  length  a  loftier 
view  of  themselves  and  of  the  universe 
in  which  they  were  appointed  to  live. 
The  struggle  upward  of  the  Old  Iranian 
mind  in  its  endeavor  to  reach  higher 
concepts  of  the  natural  world  and  of  the 
powers  by  which  it  is  governed  may  be 
noted  with  constant  admiration.  The 
ascent  was  spiritward.  By  degrees  the 
worship  of  these  primitive  peoples  was 
lifted  from  the  contemplation  of  material 
forms  to  the  adoration  of  spirit  and  duty. 
It  was,  in  its  very  lowest  aspect,  an 
advance  from  the  consideration  of  mat- 
ter to  the  consideration  of  force.  The 
mind,  in  its  search  for  truth  and  stability, 
ceased  to  dwell  upon  the  visible  form, 
and  passed  to  the  invisible  essence. 
The  form  was  wind,  or  thunder,  or  sun- 
light, or  fire,  but  the  essence  was  truth, 
or  purit}%  or  wisdom,  or  life.  Through 
all  the  emblems  of  this  most  ancient 
form  of  faith  it  is  possible  for  the  mod- 
ern student  to  discover  a  constant  tend- 
ency to  refinement  and  to  the  substitution 
of  spirit  for  material  form. 

Philosophically  considered,  the  march 
of  the  human  mind  from  matter  to  spirit 
SjTuboUsmin-  passes  through  a  stage  of 
"ZlHt^..r.^  symbolism.  It  is  doubtful 
spirit- -worship,  whether  any  stage  in  the 
human  evolution  can  be  cited  in  which 
the  concept  of  spirit  has  been  substituted 
at  ottcc  for  the  concept  of  matter  without 
the  interposition  of  symbolical  imager\\ 
There  is  always  a  period  in  the  develop- 
ment of  mankind,  passing  out  of  uncon- 
scious into  conscious  states,  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  progress  from  a  merely 


material  into  the  ideal  life — a  period  in 
which  emblem  and  allegory  and  myth 
are  built  into  the  bridge  which  spans 
the  chasm  between  the  things  that  are 
seen  and  the  things  that  are  eternal. 

In  the  instance  before  us  we  may  se- 
lect the  myth  of  the  Earth  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  method  by  which  the  mind 
rises  to  higher  views  and 

.  .  .  The  Karth  and 

fixes  itself  in  contemplation  the  metaphor  of 

r      ,  1  1  the  cow. 

oi  the  supernal  powers. 
Armati,  "the  Earth,"  was  represented 
under  the  metaphor  of  a  cou'.  At  first 
view  such  an  image  may  appear  gro- 
tesque. But  the  most  life-giving  of  all 
substances  with  which  the  primitive 
man  was  acquainted — and,  forsooth,  the 
modern  man  has  found  none  better — 
was  drawn  from  the  udder  of  the  cow. 
Like  her  was  the  great  earth.  Out  of 
it  came  the  streams  of  life.  All  the  life- 
producing  elements  were  given  from  the 
ground.  So  Armati  was  a  cow.  But 
the  cow  was  alive.  .She  had  a  breast,  a 
spirit,  a  soul.  Therefore  the  earth  had 
a  soul.  Armati  was  pervaded  by  the 
directing  principle  of  life — a  form  of  be- 
lief which  reappeared  in  after  ages,  in 
the  anima  viiindi  of  the  Grasco  -  Italic 
philosophers. 

Now  this  soul  of  Armati  was  called 
Geus  Urva,  "soul  of  the  cow."  And 
here   arises   the    mj'th    of 

.  .  Elaboration  of 

Geus  L  rva.    ilan,  inspired  the  myth  of 

1       T         i    J      t,  V  1.  Geus  XJrva. 

and  directed  by  Ahura- 
]\Iazdao,  when  he  came  to  plant  seed  in 
the  ground,  cut  the  breast  of  Armati 
with  a  plowshare.  Then  the  Geus  Urva, 
or  soul  of  the  cow,  cried  out  in  anguish, 
and  appealed  to  the  angels  on  high  to 
defend  Armati  against  her  brutal  rav- 
ishers.  But  the  mighty  angels,  under- 
standing the  purpose  and  thought  of 
Ahura-Mazdao,  would  not  interfere  to 
save  Armati  from  the  wound  of  the  har- 
row and  the  plowshare.     She  was  left  to 


590 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


suffer  and  to  moan  without  alleviation 
of  her  anguish.  But  in  recompense  for 
her  sorrow,  she  was  given  the  flowers 
and  fruits  and  waving  harvests  to  hide 
the  wounds  in  her  bosom. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 

Devas.      There  was  a  hierarchy  of  the 

Bad    as    well    as    of    the 

Ahriman  and  ^        ,      ^  •       i   a  i. 

the  hierarchy  Good.  Over  agamst  Ahura- 
of  the  Devas.  jja^jao  was  placed  Ahri- 
man, the  Iranian  Satan.  He  was  the 
foe  not  only  of  the  good  powers  on  high, 
but  also  of  man.  The  world  was  a  bat- 
tlefield between  the  benevolent  and 
malevolent  spirits.  Here  again  we  may 
see  the  evolution  of  a  concept,  proceed- 
ing from  material  to  immaterial  images. 
At  the  first  it  was  the  physical  world  that 
was  divided  between  the  power  of  light 
and  darkness.  In  the  world  of  matter 
dualism  is  a  fact,  and  perhaps  a  neces- 
sity. While  there  is  day,  there  is  night. 
While  there  is  sunshine,  there  is  storm. 
While  there  is  a  balm  of  summer,  there 
is  a  blast  of  winter.  While  there  is  dew, 
there  are  hailstones.  While  there  is 
blossoming  mead,  there  is  blasted  har- 
vest. While  there  is  plenty,  there  is 
starvation.  While  there  is  good,  there 
is  bad.  While  there  is  life,  there  is 
death.  The  ascent  from  the  opposition 
and  antagonism  of  material  things  to  the 
antagonism  of  things  ideal  and  spiritual 
is  inevitable  while  the  aspects  of  ph3's- 
ical  nature  are  unchanged  and  the  laws 
of  human  thought  retain,  their  integrity. 
Out  of  these  conditions  the  Old  Aryan 
mind  constructed  its  world  of  Devas,  its 
hierarchy  of  malignant  spirits.  Ahri- 
man was  at  the  head.  The  rest  were 
graduated  in  descending  orders  of  ma- 
lignity, to  the  small  sprites  that  troubled 
the  dreams  of  childhood.  Ahriman  was 
a  demon.  He  was  the  Bad  Mind  of  the 
universe.  Indra  and  Siva,  taken  from 
the  pantheon  of  the  Brahmans,  were  his 


couhselors,  who  presided  in  the  malign 
parliament  whence  the  black  armies-  of 
earth  and  heaven  were  ordered  forth  to 
debase  and  destroy  the  children  of  men. 
No  tribe  of  men  on  the  face  of  the  earth 
has  been  found  without  its  intoxicant. 
Neither  primitive  barbarian  nor  modern 
savage   has    failed   to  find  ,       .     . 

■^  Intoxication 

the  substance  and  the  proc-  and  the  wor- 

,  1-1,1  ship  of  Soma. 

ess  by  which  the  nervous 
system  may  be  artificially  excited  and 
the  mind  distraught  with  the  flying  fan- 
cies of  stimulation.  Some  of  the  oldest 
hints  of  mortal  tradition  have  transmit- 
ted the  story  of  drunkenness  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  means  by  which  it 
was  produced.  Among  the  Old  Iranians 
the  plant  of  the  East,  called  Asclcpias, 
was  discovered,  the  juices  of  its  pith  ex- 
tracted, and  turned  by  fermentation  into 
wine.  He  who  swallowed  it  was  lifted 
with  a  sudden  delight  into  the  realm  of 
delirium.  His  heart  throbbed  and  his 
vision  was  exalted,  while  wild  land- 
scapes of  fairies  and  phantoms  flitted 
before  his  eyes.  Certainly,  said  he, 
this  is  the  gift  of  a  god.  It  is  divine. 
It  is  the  blessed  secret  of  the  immortals, 
and  its  name  is  Soma.  Let  us  drink 
again  and  worship  Soma.  Of  a  cer- 
tainty the  gods  di-ink  and  are  drunken. 
Soma  is  the  only  good  thing  which  the 
gods  have  given  us. — Such  was  the  hi- 
larious dream  which 

"  Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe 
With  loss  of  Eden." 

Under  the  influence  of  this  system  of 
religion  the  Old  Iranians  rose  to  a  high 
level  as   it   respects   prac-  „  , 

'■  '■  ,  High  raorahty 

tical   ethics   and  morality,  of  the  primitive 

T,  11      1  1       1  ,     T    Zoroastrians. 

It   may   well    be    doubted 
whether   any   other    primitive    race   of 
men  were  superior  to  the  Bactrian  an- 
cestors of  the  Aryan  peoples  as  it  re- 
spects the  common  virtues  of  life.     The 


THE   IRANIANS.— RELIGION. 


591 


laws  of  Ahura-Mazdao,  as  revealed  by 
Zarathustra  to  his  people,  demanded 
piety  toward  the  gods  and  honest  en- 
deavor among  men.  Truth  and  purity 
were  regarded  as  the  fountains  of  all 
good.  A  life  without  virtue  was  worth- 
less. True,  the  thing  called  virtue  by 
the  best  pagans  of  the  ancient  world 
was  very  different  in  sense  from  the 
narrow  and  technical  meaning  of  the 
word  in  modern  times.  It  was  the  vir- 
tue of  strength  and  courage,  the  virtue 
which  defended  the  weak  and  shielded 
innocence. 

According  to  the  Iranian  system  the 
actions  of  men  were  judged  by  their 
Motive  made  motives.  Conduct  was 
of^ethi^s^and""  praiscd  or  condemned  ac- 
reUgion.  cording  to  the  intent  from 

which  it  sprang.  The  simplest  pursuits 
of  life  were  infected  with  morality.  To 
till  the  soil  was  a  religious  duty.  The 
destruction  of  weeds  and  brambles  was 
a  thing  pleasing  to  Ahura-ilazdao.  The 
people  of  Iran  were  exhorted  to  turn 
from  the  barbarism  of  the  nomadic 
life  and  to  seek  their  subsistence  from 
the  bosom  of  the  earth,  the  breast  of 
that  orenerous  Armati,  from  which  came 
the  milk  of  life  to  her  hungrj-  children. 
Tillage  was,  therefore,  a  duty  of  reli- 
gion. Zarathustra  enjoined  it  in  his  pre- 
cepts, and  piety  demanded  that  men 
should  love  and  cultivate  the  earth. 

As  in  the  case  of  all  other  religions, 

that  of  the  ancient  Iranians  soon  required 

a  retinue  of  priests.     Some 

Evolution  of 

the  order  of  the    must  be  set  apart  to  attend 
^"'  especially   to   the  worship 

of  the  gods.  In  this  system  there  were 
three  divisions  in  the  priesthood.  First, 
the  Kavi,  or  Prophets,  were  supposed, 
by  their  discipline  and  communion  with 
the  Ahuras,  to  be  versed  not  only  in  the 
lore  of  the  present,  but  in  the  things  of 
the  future.      This  ofl&ce  was  a  part  of 


that  general  scheme  of  benefit  which 
underlay  the  whole  fact  of  early  wor- 
ship. The  fundamental  idea  was  that 
of  advantage  to  men ;  and  secondly,  the 
avoidance  of  evil.  The  primitive  man 
worshiped  because  he  conceived  it  to  be 
of  advantage  to  him  to  do  so.  He  wished 
to  stand  well  with  the  powers  of  earth 
and  air,  to  be  in  alliance  with  them,  to 
conciliate  their  favor.  Afterwards  he 
wished  to  avoid,  even  to  propitiate,  the 
evil  forces  of  the  world,  and  to  thwart 
the  malevolence  of  the  bad-minded  dei- 
ties. 

One  may  well  be  astonished  to  see 
how  completely  all  ancient  forms  of 
religfion  are  permeated  with  ,        ,     .      , 

°  ^  .  .  Imperfection  of 

this   narrow  consideration  primitive  reu- 

•  1  1  i  glous  concepts. 

of  personal  advantage. 
Those  high  and  unselfish  considerations 
that  are  urged  iipon  the  minds  of  modem 
peoples  by  religious  teachers  were  un- 
known in  the  primitive  world.  There 
was,  indeed,  in  the  mind  of  antiquity  no 
perception  or  sense  to  w^hich  such  ex- 
hortations and  inducements  would  have 
appealed  at  all.  The  old  tribes,  still 
struggling  with  the  rank  conditions  of 
unsubdued  environment,  thought  only 
of  advantage,  how  thej^  might  for  the 
present  be  benefited,  how  gain  might  be 
had  and  misfortune  avoided. 

Even  among  the  Semitic  nations  the 
same  low  concept  of  the  relation  of  man 

to   the    power   on    high    ex-    KventheSem- 

isted.  As  late  as  the  time  'l^^^t'Zrl^^ 
of  the  composition  of  the  and  duty. 
Pentateuch  the  Hebrew  race  had  risen 
no  higher  than  this  earthly  view  of  the 
profitableness  of  religion.  In  the  twenty- 
eighth  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  the  sum- 
mary of  the  whole  argument  in  favor 
of  the  expediency  and  rightfulness  of 
religious  servace  to  Jehovah  Elohim  is 
set  forth  in  an  extended  catalogue  of 
benefits   to  be  gained  and  evils  to  be 


592 


GREAT  RACES    OE  .UAX/kEVE). 


avoided,  not  a  single  one  of  which  rises 
above  the  level  of  mere  temporal  advan- 
tages on  the  one  hand  or  physical  afflic- 
tions on  the  other.  This  is  all  the  more 
surprising  when  we  reflect  on  the  high 
concept  which  the  Hebrew  race  had  of 
the  nature  and  attributes  of  Deity. 


added  the  natural  curiosity  of  the  human 
race  to  know  mystery  and  to  see  the  in- 
visible. The  Kavi  were  supposed  to  be 
in  communion,  at  least  when  exercising 
their  priestly  office,  with  the  Ahuras, 
especially  with  Mazdao  and  Sraosha,  and 
from  such  intercourse  with  the  powers 


(",rKl;FR  CKKEMONIES  AT  TEMPLE  OF  ATECII-OA,  XEAR  P.AKAM.— Drawn  by  M.  Moynet. 


This  notion  of  advantage  underlay 
the  prophetical  office  of  the  Iranian 
_     ^  ,       Kavi.       It   was    beneficial 

Fundamental 

ideas  of  the         to   foreknow  what  was  to 

office  of  Kavi.  _,,        ^  .  , 

come.  1  he  Iranic  people, 
with  such  revelation  of  the  hereafter, 
might  better  adjust  themselves  to  the 
conditions  of  the  physical  world,  and 
thereby  more  easily  gain  its  benefits  and 
avoid  its  evils.  To  this  bottom  motive 
in  the  institution  of  prophecy  must  be 


on  high  they  gathered  their  revelations 
for  men. 

The  second  class  of  Iranian  priests 
were  known  as  Karopani ;  that  is, 
"  Sacrificers."    The  notion  Sacrifice  in- 

tended  to  supply 

of  contributing  something  the  deities  with 

,  -  ,  .  , ,        food  and  ral- 

to     the     gods     from     the  ment. 
abundance   of  the  earth   is  one  of  the 
most  primitive  of  the  religious  concepts 
of  mankind.     It  implies  mutual  advan- 
tage.      Men,  hoping   to   receive  favors 


THE   IRANIANS— RELIGION. 


593 


from  the  powers  of  earth  and  heaven, 
give  something  of  their  own  goods  in 
return.  The  fruits  of  the  field  are 
brought  and  laid  upon  the  altar.  Favor- 
ite animals  are  led  forth  and  presented 
to  the  deities. 

There  are  two  correlations  here  which 
may  be  noticed  with  interest.  First, 
that  the  deities — in  this  case,  the  Ahuras 
— are  supposed  to  require  for  food  the 
same  things  that  are  agreeable  to  the 
appetites  and  wants  of  men.  Very  rarely 
do  the  things  sacrificed  represent  any 
other  element  than  that  of  food  value. 
Among  some  primitive  peoples  articles 
of  clothing,  the  hunter's  gear  and 
weaponry,  were  given  in  sacrifice.  But 
generally  there  was  a  strict  conformity 
of  the  things  offered  to  the  articles  of 
food  most  desired  by  the  sacrificers. 
With  the  growth  of  aesthetic  tastes 
flowers  were  added,  but  generally  those 
articles  of  the  vegetable  and  animal 
kingdom  which  were  used  by  the  peo- 
ple to  sustain  life  were  given  as  an 
offering. 

Among  the  Old  Iranians,  such  articles 
were  fruits  and  grains  and  certain  ani- 
mals, particularly  the  horse.  The  latter 
was  a  notable  departure 
rificed ;  gift  of  from  the  usual  order.  The 
t  e  orse.  horse  was  sacrificed  not  as 

an  article  of  food,  but  as  the  most  valu- 
able of  the  possessions  of  the  worshiper. 
Without  the  horse  his  journey  from 
place  to  place  could  not  be  made. 
Without  him  the  hunt  would  be  reduced 
to  a  mere  struggle  of  man  with  the  wild 
beast,  and  without  him  war  would  be 
impossible.  So  the  horse  must  be  given 
to  the  Ahuras  as  the  most  acceptable 
gift. 

The  second  notion  above  referred  to 
is  that  of  the  method  of  transferring  the 
gifts  from  the  visible  hands  of  the  givers 
to  the  invisible  hands  of   the   Ahuras. 


Fire  has  been  a  possession  of  all  the 
races  of  men.  Its  general  office  is  to 
make  the  visible  forms  of 

_  Fire  employed 

things  invisible  by  combus-  as  the  agent  of 

, .  m  1   •        i  r  •  transformation. 

tion.  Phis  transforming 
force  was  therefore  employed  in  all  the 
sacrifices  of  the  primitive  world.  The 
thing  2:iven  was  committed  to  the  flames, 
and  disappeared.  By  this  process  of 
divine  commerce  the  fruit  of  the  earth 
or  the  slaughtered  animal  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  immortals.  As  a  rule, 
however,  not  all  of  the  thing  sacrificed 
was  committed  to  the  flames.  The 
shrewd  wit  of  the  primitive  worshiper 
still  dallied  with  the  idea  of  advantage 
to  himself.  A  part  of  the  offering  was 
reserved  for  the  priest.  As  for  him, 
he  could  readily  make  a  tradition  that 
by  eating  of  the  sacrificial  offering  he 
sat  at  a  common  table  with  the  gods. 
This  ingenious  casuistry  would  be  ac- 
cepted as  a  verity,  and  the  giver  of  the 
sacrifice  would  be  satisfied. 

The  third  group  of  Iranian  priests 
were  known  as  the  Ricikhs,  or  the 
"Sages."  They  were  the  The  primitive 
eariy  philosophers  of  the  ?,^^Sar°' 
race.  In  the  religious  race, 
evolution  the  Iranian  mind  conceived 
it  wise  to  draw  along  with  the  develop- 
ment of  ceremony  the  incipient  learning 
of  the  age.  A  class  of  hierarchs,  known 
as  the  Ricikhs,  thus  arose,  as  natural 
philosophers,  interpreters  of  earth  and 
air  and  heaven,  not  seers  in  the  pro- 
phetical sense,  for  that  was  the  office  of 
the  Kavi,  but  wise  men  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  all  things  secular  and 
material — teachers  of  the  commonplace 
and  natural. 

Nature  worshipers  in  the  primitive 
ages  are  little  disposed  to  building  tem- 
ples. It  is  only  in  subsequent  stages  of 
development  that  a  system  of  religion, 
founded   on    natural  concepts,   requires 


594 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


the  erection  of  houses  for  the  deities.  In 
the  beginning  all  worship  is  conducted 
in  the  open  spaces,  under 
the  arch  of  heaven. 
Among  the  Old  Iranians, 
the  hilltops   were  chosen    as  the   most 


East  Aryans 
preferred  the 
open  air  for 
worship. 


PRESENT   STATE  OF   FIRE-TOWERS   AT  ATECH-GA. 
Drawn  by  Taylor,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy. 

suitable  places  on  which  to  build  their 
altars  and  offer  their  sacrifices.  It  was 
on  these  high  places,  from  which  a  view 
of  a  great  horizon  could  be  obtained, 
where    sun    and    earth    and    air   were 


revealed  in  all  their  grandeur  and 
beauty,  that  the  earliest  priests  of  the 
Ar3-an  race  stood  up  and  chanted  their 
Gathas  and  offered  prayer.  It  was  a 
long  time  before  the  temple-building 
epoch  arrived  in  the  history  of  the  two 
branches  of  the  East  Aryan  race. 
It  is  perhaps  impossible  for  the 
modern  inquirer  to  transport  him- 
self into  the  consciousness  of  this 
ancient  people,  and  to  feel  t/ie  rca- 
sous  which  were  sufficient  for  per- 
forming the  services  of  religion 
in  the  open  air  and  which  forbade 
the  localization  of  worship  in  a 
temple.  Even  to  comparatively 
late  epochs  in  the  history  of  this 
race  the  palace  of  the  king  always 
outshone  the  temple  of  the  gods. 
To  the  present  day  the  hilltops 
back  of  Bombay  smoke  with  the 
fires  of  the  Parsees,  with  no  roof 
above  save  the  Indian  sky. 

Nature  worship  did  not  incul- 
cate immortality.  The  doctrine 
of     the     continuous  ,^    . 

Notion  of  Im- 

existence  of  the  soul  mortauty  of 

-.        ,      , ,  1  later  date. 

after  death  rose  slow- 
ly and  through  many  tortuous  proc- 
esses of  thought  from  the  primi- 
tive naturalism  of  the  Iranian  race. 
It  is  surprising  to  view  the  indif- 
ference of  all  the  Aryan  peoples 
of  antiquity  to  the  question  of  a 
life  after  death.     When  the  pow- 
ers of  the  natural  world  had  been 
separated  from  its  physical  aspects 
and  elevated  into  the  character  of 
Ahuras,  they  were  regarded  as  im- 
mortal.    But  even  this  aspect  of 
the  old  natural  theology  was  not 
dwelt    upon   before   the   classical   ages. 
It  came  at  length,  however,  to  be  per- 
ceived that  the  gods,  in  order  to  be  of 
permanent  benefit  to  their  worshipers, 
must  be  immortal.      Otherwise,   death 


THE  IRANIANS.— SEX  AND  MARRIAGE. 


595 


might  inten-ene  and  all  advantages 
cease  forever. 

From  the  immortality  of  the  gods,  it 
was  but  a  step  to  the  concept  of  the  im- 
At  first  worship  mortality  of  the  soul.  In 
ho^^'^fldtSl  ^^^  ^^^^^  development  of 
tage.  Zoroastrianism  such  belief 

became  prevalent,  and  the  teachings  of 
the  ^lagi  were  largely  based  upon  the 
belief  in  an  existence  of  the  souls  of 
men  after  death.  But  in  the  earlier 
ages  duty  and  obligation  were  enforced 
by  the  Kavi  and  the  Sages  of  Mazdao 
on  the  simple  grounds  of  benefits  to 
be  gained  and  evils  to  be  averted. 
The  concept  of  an  eternal  existence 
had  not  entered  in ;  the  horizon  of  re- 
ligion, as  it  was  believed  and  practiced 
by  the  Old  Iranians,  was  coincident 
with  the  horizon  of  life,  and  the  reli- 
gious ceremonial  was  all  prepared  and 
performed  with  the  expectation  of 
earthly  benefits. 

In  the  attempt  to  gather  the  outlines 
of  the  prehistoric  life  of  a  people,  and  to 
depict  the  same  as  one  complete  image 
to  be  looked  upon  by   living   races  of 


men,  the  writer  is  many  times  embar- 
rassed in  selecting  those  features  which 
are  most  likely  to  make  a 

Iraruan  religion 
distinct  and  lasting  image,  foreran  national 
T  ,  .  development. 

In  the  present  case  we 
have  dwelt  at  some  length  upon  that  Old 
Iranian  faith  which  had  Ahura-ilazdao 
for  its  supreme  spirit  and  the  Zoroas- 
trian  Bible  for  its  apocalypse.  We  have 
done  so  for  the  reason  that  this  system 
of  belief  and  practice  was  a  fundamental 
element,  if  not  indeed  the  very  life,  of 
Iranic  development  and  nationality. 
The  rising  institutions  of  the  race  took 
form  and  fashion  from  the  religious 
system  of  Zarathustra.  One  of  the 
strongest  forces  by  which  the  impulses 
of  the  nomadic  life  were  held  back  and 
finally  bound  down  to  the  pastoral  and 
agricultural  career,  by  which  the  set- 
tled tribes  gradually  became  predomi- 
nant over  the  hunters,  and  by  which  in- 
stitutional forms  took  the  place  of  mere 
tribal  chaos,  was  the  unity  of  religious 
beliefs  and  practices  common  not  only 
to  the  Iranians  themselves,  but  also  to 
their  kinsmen  in  India. 


Chapter  XXXIV.— Sex  axd  ]Marriaoe  Axiong 

A.RVAXS. 


THE 


T  will  now  be  of  inter- 
est to  say  something 
of  the  relations  of  man 
and  woman  among  the 
forefathers  of  the  In- 
do-European races. 
The  perpetuity  and, 
indeed,  the  very  existence  of  the  human 
family  depends  upon  the  fact  of  sex  in 
the  species.  The  complete  mankind  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  man  and  the 
"f'oman.  By  a  beautiful  coordination, 
and  perhaps  what  may  be  called  a  nat- 


ural division  of  labor,   the  procreation 
and  the  bearing  of  offspring  are  divided 
as  might  be  a  piece  of  work  importance  of 
in  economics.    The  duty  of  ^^^Z^l^,, 
perpetuating   the     race    is  history. 
separated  into  parts  and  given  to  two  in- 
stead of  to  one.     In  this  respect  man- 
kind share  in  the  general  analogies  of 
nature.     Nearly  all  animals  and  plants 
reproduce  by  sex.      In  some  cases  the 
whole  procreative  act  is  accomplished  in 
a  single  individual  of  the  species,  but, 
as  a  rule,  it   is   divided   between    two 


596 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


The  laws  by  which  the  two  cooperate  in 
this  vital  effort  to  maintain  the  species  of 
which  they  are  themselves  the  units  are 
all-important,  and  must  ever  constitute 
one  of  the  most  interesting  studies  to 
which  the  reflective  mind  may  be  devoted. 


tain  that  no  one  of  these  has  been 
used  by  all  as  the  first,  or  primal,  meth- 
od of  maintaining  human  existence.  The 
facts  seem  to  warrant  the  belief  that 
some  of  the  primitive  races  have  in- 
stinctively employed  one   plan    for  the 

union       of      the 


IRANIAN   FAMILY   TYPE. 
Drawn  by  Tofani,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy. 


general 


In   the   human    family   four 
schemes  of  propagation  have  been  em- 
„  ploved    by   various   tribes 

Four  methods        ^       ^  -^     _ 

of  sexual  union    of   men  while    still   under 
among  races.  ,,  ,         .    .  r     .1 

the  dominion  of  the  un- 
conscious forces  peculiar  to  the  child- 
hood  of  the   race.       It    is    almost  cer- 


sexes,  and  oth- 
ers another  plan. 
The  four  meth- 
ods referred  to 
differ  among 
themselves  ma- 
terially. They 
are  unlike  con- 
sidered as  plans 
of  procreation, 
and  are  diverse 
in  the  social  re- 
sults to  which 
they  lead. 

The  first  is  the 
scheme  of  sexual 
union  in  which 
men  and  women 
are  miscellane- 
ously joined  in 
the  procreation 
of  the  race.  It 
implies  little 
more  than  the  in- 
stinctive  and 
temporary  union 
of  the  male  and 
the  female  in  the 
other  races  of  an- 
imals. It  signi- 
fies that  after 
this  temporary 
relation,  resultant  in  the  birth  of  a  new 
member  of  the  species,  the  relation 
shall  cease  as  it  respects  communal  sys- 
the  parents,  and  that  each  ^^-J^^^,™^' 
of  them  shall  thereafter  nence. 
enter  into  new  unions  with  other 
members    of    the    species,    and    so   on 


THE  IRAXIAXS.—SEX  AND  MARRIAGE. 


597 


throughout  the  productive  period  of 
life. 

Impennanence  is  the  feature  of  such 
a  connection  of  the  sexes.  It  extends 
even  to  uncertainty  as  to  the  male  pa- 
rentage of  all  offspring.  It  makes  the 
woman  the  mother  of  many  children 
by  different  men,  and  the  man  the 
father  of  many  children  by  differ- 
ent women.  The  sy.stem  is  known  as 
communal  marriage,  and  it  may  well 
be  regarded  as  the  most  barbarous,  if 
not  the  most  primitive,  of  all  the  forms 
of  procreative  union  between  the  sexes. 

The  second  scheme  is  that  in  which 

one  man  selects  two  or  more  women  as 

his  wives  and  by  them   multiplies  his 

kind.      The  relation    once 

Nature  of  the 

polygamous         established  is  supposed  to 

schpjiie  of  union.    ,  i      j       •  ii. 

be  permanent  during  the 
procreative  period  of  life.  This  makes 
the  man  the  central  fact  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  race.  From  him  the  lines  of 
life  diverge  through  several  members  of 
the  opposite  sex,  and  are  spread  wider 
and  wider  as  the  process  goes  on,  to  the 
second  and  third  generation,  until  his 
blood  is  almost  infinitely  diffused.  After 
some  generations  vast  multitudes  would 
trace  backward,  through  different  moth- 
ers, their  descent  from  a  common  father. 
To  this  scheme  of  multiple  marriage  is 
given  the  name  of  polygamy — a  word 
which  the  discerning  tongue  of  the 
Greeks  has  contributed  to  the  vocabulary 
of  the  world. 

The  third  plan  of  union  between  the 
sexes  is  like  the  last,  except  that  the  po- 
sition of  the  parties  is  reversed — exactly 
reversed  as  to  parentage,  but  not  as  to 
Antecedents  rcsults  in  offspring.  In  this 
^^J^^^l^,,l^       tliird  scheme  several  men 

polyandrous 

marriage.  are  married  to  one  woman. 

She,  and  not  the  man,  becomes  the  cen- 
tral fact  in  whom  the  lines  of  life  con- 
verge.    In  all  other  schemes  the  lines 


are  divergent  toward  posterity,  but  in 
this — such  is  the  nature  of  the  union — 
the  course  of  all  the  forces  of  procreation 
is  toward  the  woman.  As  to  the  off- 
spring, the  mother,  as  in  all  cases,  is 
known ;  but  the  paternity  is  undiscover- 
able.  Each  child  has  a  single  unit  for 
its  mother  and  a  multiple  factor  for  its 
father.  In  some  tribes  all  the  brothers 
born  of  a  single  mother  are  married  in 
common  to  one  woman.  But  when  it  is 
said  fhat  all  the  brotlurs  are  so  wedded 
to  one,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
brothers  in  question  have  a  multiple  pa- 
ternity ;  that  is,  they  are  not  brothers  in 
the  sense  that  men  are  brothers  in  the 
monogamic  relation,  or  even  in  polygamy. 
In  other  tribes  not  only  the  sons  of  a 
single  mother  are  wedded  to  one  woman 
as  her  husbands,  but  all  of  the  members 
of  the  tribe  are  in  like  relation  with  her. 
Among  many  of  the'  North  American 
aboriginal  nations  the  woman  is  the  wife 
of  the  tribe.  This  system  is  called  poly- 
andry, a  term  which  is  self-definitive  of 
the  relation. 

The  fourth  plan  of  procreative  union 
is  called  monogamy.  It  is  the  joining 
of  one  man  to  one  woman  Monogamy  de- 
and  of  her  to  him.  The  ^^/^rnt- 
relation  thus  established  is  ^s®- 
distinct  from  any  of  the  three  preceding. 
It  is  especially  different  as  it  relates  to 
offspring.  It  signifies  an  ascertained 
parentage  in  both  maternity  and  paterni- 
ty. It  signifies  that  all  the  children  bom 
of  one  woman  have  a  single  father,  and 
that  all  the  children  bom  of  one  father 
have  a  common  mother.  The  relation  is 
so  easily  apprehensible  that  it  need  not 
be  described,  either  in  itself  or  its  re- 
sults. 

It  shjuld  be  remarked  that  the  sexual 
usage  in  different  nations  adopting  differ- 
ent schemes  of  procreative  relationship 
is  particularly  tenacious,  and  is  generally 


698 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


maintained  with  scrupulous   exactitude 

by   the   sentiment  of  the  given  people. 

Monogam\'  is  by  no  means 

All  races  have  ,     ,  .    , 

and  maintain  a     regarded  as  more  essential 
sexual  code.         ^^  ^^^  welfare  of  the  race 

by  those  peoples  who  practice  it  than  are 


OLDEST  TYPE   OF  THE  MARRIED   WOMAN — A   CHA!.D.«AN. 
Drawn  by  Mile,  de  Lancelot,  after  a  sketch  by  Madame  Dieiilafoy. 


the  other  schemes  of  union  by  the  re- 
spective races  among  whom  they  pre- 
vail. There  has  never  been  found  a 
tribe  of  savages  so  low  in  the  human 
scale  as  not  to  have  a  certain  sexual  code, 
any  departure  from  which  by  the  mem- 


bers of  the  tribe  would  be  regarded  not 
only  as  scandalous,  but  as  destructive  of 
the  welfare  and  happiness  of  all. 

We  can  not  pass  from  this  analytic  view 
of  the  nature  and  methods  employed  by 
different  peoples  in  perpetuating  the 
race  without  notic- 
ing the  bearings  of 
the  subject  on  cer- 
tain  controverted 
questions.  The 
principal  of  these  is 
the  historical  prior- 
ity of  the  several 
plans  of  marriage 
enumerated  above. 
The  problem  is  not 
so  important  in  it- 
self as  in  its  rela- 
t  i  o  n  s  to  another 
question.  It  is  easy 
to  perceive  that  if 
monogamy  be  the 
first  great  method 
of  mankind,  then 
the  family,  which  is 
the  second  unit  in 
ethnic  development, 
precedes  the  gens, 
the  gens  the  tribe, 
and  the  tribe  the 
race,  in  the  order 
delineated  in  a  for- 
mer chapter.  But, 
on  the  other  hand, 
if  the  system  of 
polyandry  should 
be  the  primitive 
method  of  union, 
then,    undoubtedly, 

be     the   Historical  prl- 


tribe    would 


thp    order  of    de-   o"ty of marriago 
me    oruer  or    ue-  systems  consid- 


the 

first    in 

velopment,    the  gens   sec-  ^^^^' 

ond,  and  the  family  the  last  stage  in  the 

human  evolution. 

If  the  ethnographer  of  to-day  is  com- 


THE  IRANIANS.— SEX  AND   MARRIAGE. 


599 


pelled,  with  the  data  before  him,  to  de- 
cide this  important  question,  he  will  be 
Some  tribes  obliged,  in  view  of  all  the 
od?ndTomTan;  f'-^^ts,  to  express .  the  belief 
o^T^e^-  that  some  of  the  primitive 

races  of  mankind  have  adopted  one  of 
these  schemes,  and  others  another.  This 
is  to  say  that  in  certain  families  of  men 
the  monogamic  principle  employed  from 
the  beginning  has  led  from  the  family  to 
the  gens,  from  the  gens  to  the  tribe,  and 
from  the  tribe  to  the  race,  while  in 
other  branches  and  under  different  con- 
ditions instinctive  ethnic  preferences 
have  led  to  the  adoption  of  communal 
marriage,  or  more  particularly  to  poly- 
andry, by  which  the  general  course  of 
the  race  development  has  been  exactly 
reversed,  beginning  with  the  tribe  and 
passing  by  way  of  the  gens  to  the  final 
establishment  of  the  family. 

It  has  been  the  custom  to  say  that 
monogamy  originated,  or  was  at  least 
AUeged  begin-  given  its  first  authoritative 
^^M^g  tl;  expression,  among  the  Ro- 
Romans.  mans.     It    can  not  be  de- 

nied that  from  a  very  early  age  the 
monogamic  relation  was  formally  recog- 
nized by  the  Latin  race  as  the  one  valid 
law  of  sexual  union.  It  is  equally  cer- 
tain that  the  extension  of  Roman 
power  over  all  the  countries  around  the 
Mediterranean  and  far  into  the  East 
compelled  the  acceptance  of  this  feature 
of  social  organization.  Monogamy  be- 
came thus  intimately  associated  with  the 
bottom  principles  of  Christianity,  and 
after  the  decline  of  the  empire  the  law 
of  single  marriage,  the  union  of  one  man 
and  one  woman  for  life,  was  carried 
throughout  the  world,  wherever  that 
system  of  religious  belief  found  a  foot- 
ing. But  it  is  doubtful  if  such  is — if 
such  was — the  actual  beginning  and  es- 
tablishment  of  the  monogamic  relation 
among  mankind. 


The  Greeks  were  monogamists.      In 
general,  the  Oriental  nations  were  polyg- 
amists,  but  in  the  West  the  opposite  prin- 
ciple prevailed.   Among  the   other  Indo-Eu- 
Gothic  races,  also,  as  far  as  ^"f/.T  p''"''- 

'  '  ticed  smgle  mar- 

custom  had  been  formu-  "age. 
lated  into  law,  it  appears  that  the  prin- 
ciple  of  single  marriage  was  universally 
recognized.  The  primitive  institutions 
of  the  Celtic  tribes  in  Western  Europe 
have  not  been  well  ascertained,  but  we 
have  reason  to  believe  that  among  them 
also  the  law  was  monogamic.  The 
Greeks  did  not  elevate  woman  to  a  high 
rank  or  make  her,  in  any  sense,  the  so- 
cial equal  of  man,  but  they  were  not 
polygamists.  Neither  were  the  primi- 
tive Aryans  of  India.  We  have  already 
seen  that  the  Old  Aryan  Housefolk  of 
the  Indian  valleys  were  organized  into 
families  on  the  m.onogamic  basis.  The 
system  of  naming  which  they  used  to 
express  the  family  relations  precludes 
all  idea  of  communal  or  polygamic  prac- 
tices among  them. 

The  same  is  true  in  Iran.  As  far 
back  toward  the  bottom  of  the  Ar}^an 
nidus  as  we  are  able  to  Difficulty  of 
penetrate  the  relation  was  IZ^^/ 
one  man  for  one  woman  against  ucense. 
and  one  womaa  for  one  man.  While 
men  are  in  a  tribal  state,  such  a  prin- 
ciple can  never  be  carried  into  full  effect. 
All  modern  nations  have  had  cause  to 
appreciate  the  extreme  difficulty  of  main- 
taining in  its  integrity  the  system  of 
monogamy  as  against  the  natural  license 
and  vagrant  instincts  of  the  race.  If  the 
system  has  thus  had  to  contend  with 
many  diverse  forces  in  the  higher  forms 
of  society,  how  much  more  may  we  ex- 
pect it  to  have  had  an  imperfect  form 
among  prehistoric  nations! 

It  is  true,  then,  that  the  Romans  were 
the  great  authoritative  promoters  of  sin- 
gle marriage  in  the  ancient  world,  and 


600 


GREAT  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


that  the  Christian   religion  was  at  least 

the  vehicle  of  the  diffusion  of  that  plan 

of  union  among  the  nations 

Single  marriage  n    i     -^ 

peculiar  to  the  of  the  earth.  But  It  may 
Aryan  races.        ^^  g^j^^^  asserted  that  the 

system  is  peculiar  to  the  Aryan  race.  For 
some  reason  it  accords  with  the  in.stinc- 
tive  sentiments  of  nearly  all  people  of 
Indo-European  descent.  The  attempt 
to  introduce  and  to  maintain  some  other 
law  of  sexual  union  among  the  Indo- 
European  races  has  been  always  com- 
bated not  only  by  the  statutory  princi- 
ples and  positive  laws  prevalent  among 
them,  but  also  by  the  bottom  instincts 
of  the  race. 

It  remains,  therefore,  to  look  briefly 
at  the  reasons  that  may  be  assigned  for 
the  preference  of  one  system  of  marriage 
Faotstending  to  over   another.      What   are 

determine  mar-      ^^  cirCUmstanceS,         the 

riage  systems  ' 

considered.  facts,  which  induced  some 

of  the  primitive  tribes  of  mankind  to 
adopt  monogamy,  others  polygamy,  and 
still  others  polyandry, or  even  communal 
marriage?  It  might  well  be  thought 
that  human  beings  in  the  unconscious 
state,  placed  under  like  conditions  and 
confronted  with  a  problem  so  natural 
and  inevitable  as  that  of  procreation, 
would  all  alike  solve  the  question  in  a 
given  way,  and  adopt  a  common  ethnic 
code  governing  the  manner  and  even 
the  details  of  this  great  central  fact  in 
the  perpetuation  of  the  race.  Such, 
however,  we  shall  not  find  to  have  been 
the  natural  and  necessary  order  in  the 
evolution  of  human  society. 

A  close  study  of  the  conditions  under 
which  the  races  of  men  were  originally 
Conditions  ante-  placed  will  show  great  di- 
versity in  their  situations. 
It  may  be  perceived  that  the 
motives  which,  unconsciously  to  them- 
selves, played  upon  the  first  men  and 
women  in   different  parts  of  the  earth 


cedent  to  the 

monogamic 

method. 


were  very  diverse  and  even  antagonis- 
tic. From  the  beginning  the  unconquer- 
able instinct  of  the  mother  was  for  the 
preservation  of  her  child.  The  instinct 
of  the  father  also  tended  to  its  preserva- 
tion, but  not  with  so  great  force  as  on 
the  mother's  side.  Under  certain  con- 
ditions the  sustenance  of  the  child  was 
so  easy  as  to  be  almost  natural.  Under 
other  circumstances,  it  was  a  work  of 
difficulty  and  labor.  In  the  latter  case, 
a  repugnance  to  offspring  would  arise 
among  primitive  people,  and  would  pres- 
ently become  so  strong  as  to  suggest 
destruction.  As  soon  as  barbarian  fa^ 
thers  should  adopt  this  method  of  les- 
sening the  number  of  those  whom  they 
must  support  and  with  whom  their 
households  were  encumbered,  a  natural 
selection  would  lead  to  the  destructioa 
of  the  girls  and  to  the  preservation  of 
the  boys.  By  this  means  the  tribal  so- 
ciety would  soon  haye  a  preponderance 
of  males  and  a  paucity  of  females.  This 
is  a  monogamic  condition.  vSuch  a  state 
is  the  antecedent  of  single  marriage. 

Under  such  circumstances  several  men 
would  compete  for  a  single  woman.  The 
strongest  would  obtain  her,  Nature  of  the 
partly  by  his  strength  and  ^^rogal";!:"^ 
partly  by  her  preference  confirmed, 
for  him  as  the  best.  He  who  obtained 
could  generally  defend.  The  man  thus 
married  would  become  a  party  of  the 
first  part,  and  those  whom  he  had  sur- 
passed in  competition  a  party  of  the  sec- 
ond part,  both  obliged  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  union  thus  established. 
Each  of  the  party  of  the  second  part 
would  hope  in  turn  to  obtain  some  other 
woman  as  his  own,  and  thus  to  become 
a  party  of  the  first  part,  in  a  compact  to 
which  Ids  coinpetitors  were  a  party  of 
the  second  part.  Here  are  the  founda- 
tions of  a  natural  league  on  the  part  of 
all  to  support  and  maintain  monogamy. 


FORM  OF  ROYAI,  TOMl;  IN  POLYGAMOUS  COUNTRY — Drawn  by  Taylor,  from  a  pliotograph. 


602 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Under  other  conditions  a  wholly  dif- 
ferent state  of  circumstances  might 
Certain  other  aHse.  In  a  wami  and  fer- 
conditions  tend    ^|j     igland  or  in  a  fecund 

to  establish 

polygamy.  Oriental  valley — where  na- 

ture brings  forth  in  abundance  all  things 
soever  which  are  desired  by  man,  where 
her  resources  seem  exhaustless  and  the 
eater  has  but  to  lift  his  hand  to  the  bend- 
ing bough  to  gather  what  fruits  he  will, 
■where  the  genial  atmosphere  and  the 
equability  of  the  seasons  requires  no 
clothing  and  suggests  no  permanent 
shelter,  where  even  the  infant,  before 
it  leaves  its  mother's  breast,  begins  to 
gather  from  its  environment  all  manner 
of  natural  foods  adapted  to  its  wants — 
the  law  of  life  and  of  the  maintenance 
of  life  is  almost  reversed  from  what  it  is 
amid  the  hardships  incident  to  adverse 
regions.  In  such  circumstances  the 
maintenance  of  offspring,  however  nu- 
merous, could  not  be  regarded  as  a  task. 
Neither  father  nor  mother  could  be 
much  embarrassed  even  by  a  multitude. 
The  suggestion  of  reducing  an  overplus 
by  destroying  it  would  not  arise.  ■  The 
unrestrained  impulses  and  the  unlimited 
results  of  human  instinct  would  take 
their  natural  cour.sc,  and  no  one  would 
feel  the  burden.  In  the  choice  of  their 
sexual  mates  men  would  not  be  limited 
to  one  by  a  confederation  against  him  of 
the  parties  of  the  second  part.  The  fe- 
males of  the  tribe  would  be  at  least  equal 
in  number  to  the  males.  The  stronger 
and  more  vigorous  men  would  take  two 
women  or  more  to  wife,  and  there  would 
be  no  league  against  them  b}'  a  disfran- 
chised minority.  The  strong  man  would 
thus  originate  two,  three,  or  many 
branches  to  his  family.  The  weak  man 
would  perhaps  have  none.  In  other 
words,  here  is  the  antecedent  state  and 
condition  of  polygamy;  and,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  t'nstitution  .so  called  has  gen- 


erally prevailed  under  the  circumstances 
above  enumerated. 

As  to  communal  marriage,  it  ap- 
pears to  be  merely  the  sexual  chaos  of 
tribes  in  whom  the  human 

Communal  mar- 

sentiments  peculiar  to  this  riage  the  result 

1    ^ .  ,  .  .  of  sexual  chaos. 

relation  have  not  yet  ap- 
peared. It  wofild  be  difficult  to  point 
out  any  particular  in  which  this  s)'stem 
differs  from  the  method  of  union  in- 
stinctivel}'  chosen  by  the  lower  animals. 
The  existence  of  such  a  method,  if 
method  it  may  be  called,  implies  the 
existence  of  tribes  of  men  between  whom 
and  the  animals  there  is  only  a  small 
diversity  of  physical  form  and  the  pos- 
session by  the  one  of  larger  capacities 
than  by  the  other.  It  is  a  state  of  na- 
ture, pure  and  simple,  and  has  only  been 
found  among  peoples  whose  advance 
from  absolute  savagery  has  not  pro- 
ceeded so  far  as  the  institution  of  any 
definite  social  forms.  We  shall  here- 
after have  occasion  to  speak  further  of 
this  state  in  connection  with  some  of  the 
tribes  by  whom  simple  communal  unions 
are  the  only  custom  and  law  of  mar- 
riage. 

The  natural  antecedents  of  polyandry 
are  hard  to  trace.  This  form^of  union 
has  prevailed  in  different  paucity  of  fe- 
parts  of  the  earth  to  an  ^.tld^dpot" 
extent  not  understood  or  andry. 
appreciated  until  recent  investigations 
have  brought  the  matter  to  light.  The 
majority  of  all  the  Indian  races  of  North 
America  employed  polyandry  as  the 
bottom  fact  in  their  social  structure. 
The  same  method  of  marriage  prevails 
largely  in  the  Polynesian  islands  and  in 
other  quarters  of  the  globe  populated 
by  races  of  Mongoloid  descent.  Some 
suggestions  may  be  offered,  however, 
relative  to  the  obscure  origin  of  this, 
which  to  the  enlightened  understanding 
seems  the  most  repulsive  of  all  forms  of 


THE   IRAXIAXS.—SEX  AND   MARRIAGE. 


603 


union  between  the  sexes.  In  the  first 
place,  there  must  have  been  antecedent 
to  the  origin  of  the  custom  a  paucity  of 
females,  either  from  some  perversion  of 
the  laws  of  birth,  or  from  the  destruc- 
tion of  female  infants.  If  the  latter,  it 
may  have  occurred  either  by  the  will  of 
the  parents  or  bj-  natural  cau.ses.  Suffi- 
cient data  are  not  accessible  to  indicate 
which  of  the.se  circumstances  has  led 
among  certain  of  the  primitive  tribes  to 
the  excess  of  males.  Such  an  excess 
being    granted,   we    can    conceive    that 


mcjther.  Among  Aryan  nations,  how- 
ever,  the  rivalry  of  brothers  is  not  le.ss 
intense,  even  deadly,  than  between 
strangers.  But  for  some  reason  among 
the  polyandrous  tribes,  the  riv^alry  of 
the  males  has  not  taken  the  same 
course.  Perhaps  this  may  be  accounted 
for  on  the  ground  of  the  smallness  of 
the  divisions  into  which  the  Polynesians 
and  the  American  Indian  tribes  have 
generally  been  parted.  Where  a  given 
totem  has  embraced  but  a  few  wigwams, 
a  few  warriors,  and  still  fewer  women, 


POLVOAMOUS   FATHER  AND  HIS  SONS.— Fattallv  Chaii.— Draw,,  by  H.  Ch.ipiii>,  after  a  photograph  by  M.idame  Dieulafoy. 


several  males  would  compete  for  the 
pos.session  of  one  woman,  and  to  this 
extent  the  antecedent  condition  is 
identical  with  that  among  monogamous 
barbarians. 

But  from  this  point  the  analogy 
breads.  For  in  polyandry,  instead  of 
Smallness  of        the    strongest     competitor 

tribal  division        t„i  * .  i      i  •  .1 

favors  poiyan-  taking  and  keepmg  the 
drous  system.  prize  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  rest,  the  rivals  make  a  league  to 
have  the  woman  in  common.  The  facts 
show  that  the  rivals  are  in  the  first  place 
the    brothers    born    of    some    common 


it  might  have  been  disadvantageous  for 
the  warriors  to  go  into  deadly  rivalry 
over  the  question  of  marriage.  It  may 
have  been  found  among  tribes  thus  weak 
that  it  was  advantageous  to  husband  the 
meager  resources  of  force  and  tribal 
vitality  by  assigning  two  or  three  war- 
riors to  a  given  woman  in  the  bond  of  a 
friendly  hu.sbandry.  Whatever  truth 
there  may  be  in  the.se  conjectures, 
which  are  put  forth  as  tentative  explana- 
tions of  the  institution  in  question, 
polyandry  exists  as  a  large  fact  in  the 
primitive  history  of   mankind.     It   has 


604 


GREAT  RACES   OF  31  AN  KIND. 


doubtless  been  practiced  by  a  greater 
number  of  aboriginal  tribes  and  races 
than  has  polygamy  or  communal  mar- 
riage itself. 

A  question  of  great  importance  relat- 
ing to  vital  statistics  and  to  a  still  deeper 
Bearing  of  mar-  h'lw  of  biology  has  been 
riage  systems  on  j-ais^d  with  rcspect  to  the 

proportion  of  ^ 

the  sexes.  tendency  of  these  several 

forms  of  marriage  on  the  proportion  of 
male  and  female  births  under  each.  It 
is  conceded  that  generally  through  the 
kingdom  of  life  the  ratio  is  equally  main- 
tained, under  equal  conditions,  between 
the  male  and  female  members  of  a  race. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  mankind 
in  the  monogamic  relation  obeys  the 
general  law,  and  is  perpetuated  by  near- 
ly equal  increments  of  the  two  sexes. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  communal 
marriages.  Among  the  tribes  where 
this  usage  holds,  infants  are  born  in 
equal  proportions  in  either  sex.  The 
great  question  is  whether  in  the  two  in- 
termediate systems  of  polygamy  and 
polyandry  the  opposing  methods  of 
tinion  tend  to  perpetuate  them.selves  by 
producing  in  one  an  excess  of  female 
births  and  in  the  other  an  excess  of 
males. 

That  such  is  the  result  has  been 
stoutly  maintained.  It  has  been  averred, 
Do  polygamy  and  many  facts  have  been 
cited  in  substantiation  of 
the  principle,  that  in  po- 
lygamy a  tendency  to  an  excess  of  fe- 
males is  at  once  discoverable.  This  is 
to  say  that  nature  provides  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  system  by  giving,  as 
the  fruit  of  the  multiple  marriages  of  one 
man,  a  considerable  preponderance  of  fe- 
male children.  It  is  also  alleged  that  in 
polyandry  the  system  perpetuates  itself 
by  the  production  of  an  excess  of  males. 
But  both  of  these  principles  have  been 
strongly   controverted,   and    facts   have 


and  polyandry 

perpetuate 

themselves? 


been  adduced  which  would  seem  in 
given  cases  to  establish  the  law  of  equal 
birth  under  both  the  systems  mentioned. 
There  are  some  physiological  reasons 
for  believing  that  the  first  of  the  two  ar- 
guments is  better  maintained,  and,  on 
the  whole,  the  true  one.  But  the  ques 
tion  is  still  ob.scured  with  much  doubt, 
and  must  be  remanded  to  future  inves- 
tigation for  a  final  decision. 

This  digressive  study  relative  to  what 
may  be  called  the  primary  or  bottom  or- 
ganization of  society  among  the  various 
tribes  and  races  of  mankind  has  been 
brought  in  in  this  connection  once  for 
all,  that  the  reader,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  delineation  of  tribal  and  national 
life  may  have,  as  in  a  chart  before  him, 
the  diver.se  plans  or  methods  of  sexual 
union,  and  the  consequent  perpetuation 
of  the  human  family  in  the  various 
quarters  of  the  globe.  The  Old  Iranians 
were  monogamists,  with  only  such  de- 
partures from  the  law  which  instinct 
and  custom  had  provided  as  are  incident 
to  the  general  lawlessness  of  mankind. 

With  this  monogamic  principle  the 
religious  elements  which  were  developed 

by      Zarathustra      and      the    Monogamy  reVn- 

Kavi  entered  into  combina-  ^°I^,ta„''^ '*'" 
tion,  and,  as  the  nomadic  prophets, 
life  gave  place  to  a  settled  state,  the  old 
provincial  nationality  of  the  Medes  may 
be  said  to  have  begun.  We  are  here  ex- 
amining the  very  roots  of  human  his- 
tory. The  opinion  is  confidently  ad- 
vanced that  there  was  something  in  the 
instinct  and  something  in  the  environ- 
ment of  the  primitive  Aryan  race,  in'its 
old  Bactrian  nidus,  before  the  Veda  was 
the  Veda,  before  the  Avesta  was  the 
Avesta,  which  impelled  to  the  union  of 
man  and  woman  in  the  procreative  re- 
lation.ship  on  the  monogamic,  or  single 
marriage,  principle.  And  from  this  re- 
mote period,  below  the  daydawn  of  hu- 


THE  IRANIANS.— HISTORICAL   DEVELOPMENT. 


605 


man  history,  that  principle  has  remained 
instinctive  in  the  race  and  in  all  its 
branches.  Doubtless,  in  some  particu- 
lar instances  the  old  bottom  law  of  Ar- 
yan thought  and  preference  on  this  sub- 
ject has  been  subverted  by  environment 


and  association,  and  has  been  supplanted 
by  one  of  the  other  principles  of  sexual 
relationship,  but  the  exceptions  will  be 
found,  on  the  whole,  rather  to  verify 
and  illustrate  than  to  abrogate  the  gen- 
eral law. 


CHAPTER    XXXV.— HISTORIC^VL   DEVELOPMENT   OF 

THE    iRAXIA^iSS. 


HUvS  far  in  the  course 
of  the  present  work 
little  attention  has  been 
paid  to  chronolog>'. 
No  effort  has  been 
made  to  fix,  with  even 
approximate  certainty, 
the  time  relations  of  events.  This 
course  has  been  fully  justified  by  the 
fact  that  the  events  referred  to  have 
been  either  absolutely  prehistoric,  or 
else  located  along  the  farthest  horizon  of 
formal   history.      Nothing 

Question  of  .  ,  , 

dates  in  Old         certain  as  to  dates  can   be 

Iranian  history,      ^ggj-g^j    fo^.    g^ch     shadowy 

parts  of  the  annals  of  the  human  race. 
Chronology  is  one  of  the  special  devices 
of  history.  It  is  said  to  be  one  of  the 
historical  eyes  through  which  all  things 
are  seen.  Perhaps  we  are  now,  however, 
arrived  at  a  point  when  something  may 
well  be  said  as  to  the  approximate  time 
when  the  Old  Iranians  merged  into  the 
dim  morning  light  of  antiquity. 

On  this  subject  we  are  fortunately  in 

possession    of   some    distinct   points    of 

observation.      It   is   conceded   that   the 

Medes  were  the  oldest  his- 

Probable  place  .  .  .  , 

and  epoch  of  torical  expression  for  the 
Zoroaster  ancient  Iranian  race.     Con- 

cerning the  antiquity  of  the  Medes,  we 
are  able  to  draw  at  least  a  vague  outline. 
According  to  Polyhistor,  following  and 
repeating  Berosus,  Zarathustra,  or  Zoro- 


aster, was  the  first  of  a  dynasty  of  eight 
iledian  kings  ruling  in  Chaldaea  in  the 
very  earliest  ages  of  history.  Indeed, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Egyptian 
annals,  this  is  the  farthest  point  of  light 
which  the  historian  is  now  able  to  touch, 
as  he  looks  into  the  mist-covered  dawn 
of  human  affairs.  The  Chaldaean  dy- 
nasty referred  to  was  the  second  which 
had  ruled  in  the  old  empire  at  the  mouth 
of  the  two  Mesopotamian  rivers.  It  was 
composed  of  eight  kings,  Zoroaster  be- 
ing the  first ;  and  there  are  good  reasons 
for  fixing  the  limits  of  this  dynasty  be- 
tween the  years  2286  and  2052  B.  C.  At 
the  close  of  this  period  it  appears  that 
the  foreign,  that  is  the  Median,  domina- 
tion in  Chaldjea  was  broken  and  the 
throne  regained  by  native  princes.  It 
has  been  customary  to  make  the  date  of 
Zoroaster  about  coincident  with  that  of 
Abraham,  but  the  current  chronology 
would  hardly  admit  of  this  construction. 
It  maj^  be  accepted  as  approximately 
correct  that  the  founder  of  the  Old  Ira- 
nian faith  flourished  at  about  the  time 
indicated  above. 

One  of  the  principal  errors  into  which 
the  occasional  student  is  likely  to  fall 
relative  to  the  relations  of  Historical  stu- 

dents  do  not 

ancient    events    is   to    fix  sufficiently  con- 

„         sider  perspec- 

them,  as  it  were,  on  a  flat  tive. 
surface,  without  allowing  for  perspective. 
In  the  present  case,  it  must  be  remem- 


THE   IRA  NIA  NS.—HIS  TO  RICA  I    DE  J  'EL  OPMENT. 


607 


bered  that  there  was  necessarily  a  long 
Iranian  history  before  the  time  of  Zoro- 
aster. There  was  already  an  organized 
people,  developed  from  the  tribal  state 
and  sufficiently  high  in  the 
scale  of  unity  and  self-con- 
sciousness to  receive  the  reve- 
lations and  accept  the  ideas 
which  he  brought.  The  mi 
gratory  period  of  the  Old  Ai 
yan  departure,  of  the  joint  and 
common  progress  of  the  Indie 
and  Iranic  races,  of  their  grad- 
ual separation  into  two  distinct 
families,  and  the  development 
of  institutio'nal  forms  in  each, 
all  preceded  by  ages  of  inde- 
terminate, or  at  least  undeter- 
mined, duration  the  apparition 
of  the  great  teacher  and  prophet 
of  Ahura-Mazdao. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  Old  Iranians, 
of  whom  we  are  .^^..^  ,,, 
here  speaking,  are  L^J'of-' ''' 
a  prehistoric  peo- 
ple. That  is  to 
say  that  their  life 
and  history  have 
been  developed  bv 
what  may  be  called 
historical  paralla.K. 
The  data  in  pos- 
session of  the  eth- 
nographer and  his- 
torian are  sufficient 
to  construct  an  ac- 
curate outline  for 
the  career  of  many 
peoples  whose  act- 
ual annals  nowhere 
exist  in   the    liter- 


reached  by  this  method  of  investigation. 
The  astronomer,  acquainted  with  the  laws 
of  physics  and  with  his  calculus  before 
him,  feels  into  the  depths  of  invisible 


OLD    MEDIAN   TYPE — CYRUS  THE   GREAl. 
Prawn  liy  Madame  Dieiilafoy  after  the  sculpture. 


ature  or  among  the   monu- 
ments   of    mankind.      Nor 
is    there    any    uncertainty 
about  the  process  of  the  results  which  are 


Possibility  of 
developing  his- 
torical outlines 
by  'jarallax 


space  and  grasps  the  un.seen  planet,  de- 
termining its  mass  and  velocity  with  an 
exactitude  which  in  a  less  cultivated  age 
would  be  set  down  as  miraculous.     To 


608 


GREAT  RACES    OE  MAXKIXD. 


the  sight  of  the  well-instructed  ethnolo- 
gist, or  even  well-versed  historian,  the 
outline  of  prehistoric  nati<Mis,  their  ca- 


'Vll  \  MAN  KING — DARIUS  AND  THE  UON. 

Heliogravure,  alter  a  photograph  from  the  sculptures,  by  Madame 

Diculafoy. 

reer  and  character,  are  as  plainly  dis- 
cernible as  are  the  unseen  worlds  to  the 
vision  of  the  astronomer. 


We  may,  first  of  all,  discover  the  Old 
Iranian  in  the  person  of  the  Mede.  The 
Median  nation  is  the  earli-  The  oid  Medes 
cstapparition  intotheactual  ^f.^'e'irl^™^ 
foreground  of  the  ancient  evolutions. 
Bactrian  Aryans  whom  the  natural  eye 
has  ever  seen.  For  how  long  a  period 
the  Iranian  race  continued  to  expand  and 
become  fi.xed  in  institutional  aspects  be- 
fore the  actual  historical  emergence  of 
the  nation  it  is  impossible  to  determine. 
So  far  as  existing  records  are  concerned, 
our  first  acquaintance  with  this  people 
may  be  set  at  the  latter  half  of  the  ninth 
century  before  our  era.  It  was  at  this 
time,  in  the  reign  of  Shalmaneser  II  of 
Ass3^ria,  that  an  expedition  was  carried 
out  across  the  Zagros  into  j\Iedia,  where 
the  Assyrian  army  succeeded  in  taking 
several  cities,  slaying  the  inhabitants, 
and  carrying  off  the  spoils  of  victory. 
From  this  time  forth  a  formal  history  of 
the  Median  power,  until  its  amalgama- 
tion or  absorption  in  the  rising  dominion 
of  Persia,  may  be  authentically  con- 
structed. It  is  not  here  that  we  have 
to  do  with  historical  narrative  proper. 
There  is  a  difference  to  be  observed 
between  an  account  of  the  social,  civil, 
and  military  movements  of  nations,  and 
an  ethnic  history  of  mankind.  It  is 
here  essayed  to  develop  the  latter,  and 
we  have  only  to  deal  with  the  race  as- 
pects of  the  questions  arising  before  us. 

Monarchy  came  with  tribal  consolida- 
tion in  Iran.  It  is  fairly  well  established 
that  the  first  authentic  iniler  of  the  king- 
dom   was   Phraortes,   who 

Rise  and  prog- 
reigned    from    about  660  to    ress  of  Iranian 

633  B.  C.  Long  before  this  '"""^'"^^y- 
time  are  seen  the  shadows  of  the  kings 
walking.  Herodotus  accepted  some  of 
them  as  real.  Ctesias  extended  the  list 
backwards,  arranging  a  fictitious  dynasty 
to  the  first  quarter  of  the  ninth  centuiy 
B.  C.     Names  and  dates  are  given.    We 


THE  IRANIANS.— HISTORICAL   DEVELOPMENT. 


609 


are  introduced  to  Arbaces,  Maudaces, 
Sosarmus,  Artycas,  Arbianes,  Artaeus, 
and  finally  Dei'oces,  which  last  stands  in 
the  dawn  of  the  reality.  The  rest  are 
fabulous,  and  are  to  be  ranked  with  the 
mythical  kings  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
From  Phraortes,  however,  monarchy  as 
an  institution  may  be  regarded  as  estab- 
lished among  the  Old  Iranians.  The 
great  reign  of  Cyaxares  followed,  and 
the  civil  power  was  consolidated.  Then 
followed  the  reign  of  Astyages,  593-558 
B.  C,  at  which  latter  date  the  relations 


fact  much  nearer  to  unity  of  character 
than  the  term  Graeco-Italic,  applied  to 
the  two  branches  of  the  Southern  Ar- 
yans in  Europe.  In  Iran  the  language, 
manners,  customs,  and  growth  of  soci- 
ety, civil  and  political,  the  religious  be- 
lief of  the  people,  and,  indeed,  all  the 
elements  of  development  were  the  same 
for  both  jNIedes  and  Persians,  with  only 
such  slight  differences  as  were  incident 
to  territorial  separation  and  environ- 
ment. 

These  historical  references  are  made 


COURT  OF  PKRSIAN   .MONARCH   (ROVAL  PALACb;  l)F  i^l'AHA.Nj. 


previously  existing  between  ]\Iedia  and 
Persia  were  totally  reversed  by  the  gen- 
ius and  warlike  daring  of  the  young 
prince  Cyrus,  who  subverted  the  throne 
of  his  grandfather  Astyages,  and  re- 
moved the  seat  of  government  to  his 
own  capital  in  Persia. 

But  the  race  was  one,  not  two.    Medo- 
Persian  stock  was  not  materially  differ- 
ent in    its    two    branches, 

Order  of  the 

Medo-Persian       the    chief   diversity   being 

development.  .         .,  ,    ,  r       i  i 

m  the  date  of  develop- 
ment. The  Persian  sprang  last  and 
grew  highest.  The  term  Medo-Persian 
must  be  understood  to  express  an  ethnic 


merely  to  impress  the  truth  that  mon- 
archy  was  a    fundamental  „   , ,    , 

■'  _  .  ,    Warlike  form  of 

fact      in     the      evolution     of    Iranian  institu- 

the  Iranian  race.  The  cen- 
tral principle  was  not  only  monarchic, 
but  absolute.  It  was  a  tyranny  on  a 
large  scale,  and  nothing  more  autocratic 
or  cruel  has  been  seen  in  the  way  of 
government  among  men.  The  genesis 
of  the  system  was  military.  It  was  a 
warlike  chieftainship,  grown  great  and 
established  in  a  local  autocracy,  sur- 
rounded with  luxury  and  the  imple- 
ments of  despotism.  It  is  not  intended 
in  this  connection  to  enlarge  upon  the 


610 


GREAT  RACKS   OF  MANKIXD. 


particular  features  of  the  old  Medo-Per- 
sian  imperial  government.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  note  its  existence  as  one  of  the 
striking  aspects  of  ancient  civil  society. 
The  absolute  and  cruel  character  of 
the  institution  had  two  roots  of  bitter- 
ness. The  first  was  in  tribal  warfare, 
War  passion  and  arising  from  leadership  in 
cruelty  the  at-      s,s;\{^^-\\   the  mythical  kings 

tributes  of  the  ■'  " 

race.  gradually    arose    to    wider 

and  still  wider  dominion  until  all  the  Ira- 
nian countries  were  consolidated  in  one. 
The  second  source  of  the  characteristics 


tial  foes,  or   to   conciliate  them,   or   to 

beat  them  by  subtlety  became  a  necessity 

of  the  national  life.     It  was  a  perpetual 

warfare    with    demons,   and    the    actual 

warfare  with  men  soon  gave  the  enemy 

the  character  of  devils. 

The  wild  freedom  of  the  race  during 

its    tribal    stages    of    development,    the 

bloody  conflicts  of  the  chase,  ,  , 

Ferocity  oi  the 

the  reactions  of  the  dreary  Medo-Persiaa 

1  ^    .  1        r    soldiery. 

desert  in  summer   and   oi 

snowstorm  in  winter,  all  intensified  the 

instincts  of  the  people,  and  added  to  the 


■'TliSI 


isii 


A 


1 


\ 


'A 


'^3. 


ymt 


'4vmmm  m- 


rr 


■s\ 


MEDIAN"  SOLDIERS.— Hravure  hy  Bnzin,  after  a  photograph  nf  the  bas-relief  of  Chapotir. 


of  the  Medo-Persian  power  was  deduced 
from  an  inherent  intellectual  and  moral 
quality  of  the  race.  It  had  been  a  cruel 
and  vindictive  race  from  the  time  of  its 
separation  from  the  Indie  family  and 
the  establishment  of  the  principle  of 
dualism  in  the  national  belief.  As  soon 
as  the  Old  Iranian  priests  had  developed 
the  evil  hierarchy  of  Ahriman  and  his 
bad  angels,  the  people  came  to  regard 
themselves  as  in  a  constant  conflict  with 
the  adverse  powers  of  earth  and  heaven. 
To  put  down  these  terrestrial  and  celes- 


vindictive  malevolence  of  their  character. 
The  ferocity  of  the  Median  soldiers  be- 
came proverbial  in  all  nations  where  their 
name  was  known,  and  as  late  as  the  time 
of  Augustus,  Horace,  in  his  Str/i/nr  Hyunt, 
could  find  no  stronger  historical  reference 
in  illustration  of  the  power  of  the  empire 
than  to  cite  the  subjection  of  Iran : 

"Now  by  the  sea,  and  on  the  land.  ///(•  Mede 
Fears  the  strong  squadrons  and  the  ax  of  Rome !" 

While  this    civil    evolution    from  the 
primitive  tribal  condition  of  the  Old  Ira- 


THE   IRANIANS.— HISTORICAL    DEVTLOPMENT. 


611 


mans  into  a  despotic  monarchy  had  been 
in  progress,  a  counterchange  was  occur- 
ring in  the  religion  of  the 
race.  It  was  a  change  to  a 
lower  and  idolatrous  level. 
It  is  easy  to  note  the  process  by  which 


Deterioration  of 
Zoroastriauism 
into  fire  Tvor- 
ship. 


cepts  into  close  affinity  with  the  sun  as 
the  king  of  physical  nature.  His  warmth 
and  radiance  were  qualities  most  sensi- 
ble and  grateful»to  the  bodies  of  men, 
and  it  was  easy  to  ascribe  to  him  the 
attributes  of  a  godhead.     The  Old  Ira- 


i;i™a'!KaiiiW!!7«jB»l»iiP!llllW^^ 


the  high  concept 
of  Ahura-Mazdao 
and  his  court  of 
hierarchs  was 
brought  down 
again  to  a  coinci- 
dence with  ma- 
terial  objects. 
The  first  and 
greatest  of  these 
was  the  sun.  It 
may  be  frankly 
confessed  that  sun 
worship  is  the 
highest  and  most 
rational  form  of 
idolatry.  Even 
modern  science 
has  verified  that 
conception  of  the 
ancients  which 
made  the  sun  the 
lord  of  day  and 
the  origin  of  life. 
As  the  dominant 
object  of  the  ma- 
terial universe,  he 
has  naturall}'  at- 
tracted the  won- 
der, the  awe,  and 
the  reverence 
of  all  primitive  ^g 
peopled. 

In  a  country  such 
as  Iran  the  as- 
cendency of  the  orb  of  day  would  be 
especially  striking.  The  Zoroastrian 
idea  that  Ahura-AIazdao  was  the  living 
one,  and  that  his  prime  angel,  Sraosha, 
was  the  lord  of  light,  brought  both  con- 


rERSO-MOHAMMEOAN'   TYPES — ARAB   CHIEF   IN   THE    HOl'SE   OF   A    SHKIK. 

Draun  liy  K.  Roiijat,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame  I>ieiiIafoy. 


nian  beliefs  took  this  course,  and  the 
next  descent  brought  in  the  element  of 
fire.  It  was  a  symbol  and  analogue  of 
the  sun.  It  was  the  sun  localized  on 
the    hearthstone    and    the   altar.     One 


612 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


may  easily  perceive  the  whole  course  of 
degeneration  from  Sraosha  to  the  flame 
of  fire. 

By  the  time  of  the  Medo-Persian  as- 
cendency under  the  Achaemenian  kings, 
•Wide  preva-  the  transformation  from 
lenceofthesun-  oj-iginal  Zoroastriauism  to 

and  fire-idol-  » 

atry.  fire  worship  was  complete. 

The  great  Persian  armies  which  were 
led  by  Darius  and  Xerxes  to  the  West, 
except  in  so  far  as  they  had  gathered 
out  of  the  .satrapies  on  the  hither  side 
of  Mesopotamia,  were  all  worshipers  of 
fire.  The  religious  ceremonial  of  the 
Persians  had  taken  that  fixed  form  which 
it  has  maintained  to  the  present  day. 
The  Par.see  altars  on  the  hilltops  of  Fars 
and  Yezd,  and  the  smoking  summits  seen 
here  and  there  in  Bombay,  are  at  once 
the  remnants  and  illu.strations  of  the 
striking  but  idolatrous  ceremonial  which 
was  already  establi.shed  when  the  ^ledo- 
Persian  race  was  dominant  throughout 
Western  Asia. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  present  book, 
devoted  to  the  subject  of  ethnic  charac- 


ter, to  note  not  only  the  peculiarities  and 
race  distinctions  of  the  ancient  peoples, 
but  aLso  to  delineate  the  Ancient  iraman 
character  and  peculiarities  ^^^es^n^'e-"'" 
of  their  descendants.  The  scendent  races. 
Old  Iranians  have  their  representatives 
in  the  races  distributed  between  the 
Caspian  and  the  Indus.  If  we  glance 
over  the  whole  field  we  shall  find  that 
the  Western  peoples  of  this  group  have 
best  preserved  the  lineaments  of  the 
ancient  stock,  while  those  of  the  East, 
next  to  India,  are  graded  off  into  the 
Oriental  type.  This  is  true  not  only  of 
physical,  but  also  of  mental  and  moral 
characteristics.  The  Iranian  peoples 
next  to  Hindustan  pass  almost  imper- 
ceptibly into  the  character  of  the  In- 
dian races.  The  religious  propagand- 
ism  of  Islam  has  carried  the  faith  of  the 
Prophet  and  the  institutions  of  his  fol- 
lowers into  these  regions  as  well  as  into 
India,  and  the  result  is  manifest  in  the 
establishment  of  common  customs  and 
in  a  modification  of  the  old  national 
character. 


Chapter  XXXVI.— Ethnic  Divisions  and  Charac= 

TERISTICS. 


F  we  enter  the  west  of 
what  was  ancient  Iran 
and  begin  an  examina- 
tion of  the  present 
representatives  of  the 
primitive  stock,  we 
shall   find   first  of    all 

The  central  locus  of  this 
in   Astrakhan,  that 


the  Armenians. 

race  is  now   found 

The  language       portion  of  European  Rus 


and  literature 
known  as  Hai- 
kanic. 


sia  next  the  Caspian .  Even 
in  this  region  the  ancient 
Iranian  blood  has  been  considerably 
deteriorated  with  Semitic   and   Turani- 


an admixture.  The  language,  called  the 
Haikaiiic,  from  Haiks,  the  name  of  the 
Armenians  in  the  vernacular,  has  been 
developed  into  an  independent  tongue, 
strictly  Iranic  in  its  origin  and  in  most 
of  its  characteristics.  A  literature  of 
some  merit  has  sprung  up,  even  in  the 
absence  of  national  unity.  The  ancient 
writings  have  been  edited  and  translated 
into  the  vernacular,  and  a  considerable 
intellectual  activity  is  otherwise  shown 
by  the  people. 

In   their  complexion  and  person  the 
Armenians  are  not  very  different  from 


THE   IRANIANS.— ETHNIC  DIVISIONS. 


613 


Ethnic  features 
and  off-grading 
of  the  Arme- 
nians. 


Persians,  both  men  and  women,  and  of 
nearly  all  the  peoples  as  far  east  as 
India.  The  outer  garments  of  both  men 
and  women  are  loosely  worn,  and  de- 
scend below  the  knee.  The  men  have 
trousers,  and  are  belted  at  the  waist. 
On  the  whole,  the  effect  of  the  costume 


the  peoples  of  Southern  Europe.     They 
have  fair  features,  and  arc  regarded  as  a 

handsome  race.     Tlie  hair 

is    abundant    in    quantity, 

black  in  color,  sometimes 
straight  and  sometimes  curled.  The 
forehead  is  low,  but  well  shaped,  the 
face  oval,  the  eyes  full  of  expres- 
sion and  prominent,  the  lips  thick, 
resembling  those  of  Afghans. 
What  is  called  the  expression  of 
the  Armenian  face  is  divided  be- 
tween the  features  of  Southern 
Europe  and  those  of  India.  In 
stature,  the  people  are  rather 
above  than  below  the  average  of 
mankind,  are  lithe  in  form  and 
agile  in  action.  The  Armenians 
are  taller  than  the  Afghans  and  t*^  •  Wp  t^^^^P  k^"  H^"  ^pftumn^ 
the  Beluchs.  Here  we  have  again  'libwj  fi^iiuini. .  ^^^  ^/»  ifuuitu^wifubir 
a  grading  down  of  the  physical 
forces  toward  the  east,  the  people 
of  the  Indian  border  being  lower 
and  less  active  than  they  of  the 
west.  The  odd  circumstance  of 
large  and  clumsy  feet  must  not  be 
overlooked  in  noting  the  bodily 
peculiarities  of  the  Armenians. 

This  people  are    peculiarly  te- 
nacious of  ancient  customs.    They 


umhipUknn    Ltuuiiuplilt^  'nnuil;unft     hn 
uijuiLkninn  nuuhi  : 

*\\nLU  ohqfw  ^luJutn  nnn-ykini.  ku , 
liiutT  nUn^nLUhi^  II  LutiT  ^Q-ti  .  Liu  J* 
|^M«i#7tfi/i"  'nhmnbiriL.  bu  ,  U-  LiuiT  uui^ 
tnuiUiuU  :  \\ uintu^bu  nn  litlPtj ItltPH- 
pninpnJpU  utu  anph  ItU  iniuu  ^  U.  uhi 
uif  uiUt/h^uJtkiliU  y    nuiUnft  iJujniinni_bn. 


P~l^  pltuiL    1^2'^^^pb^"    futuniunnLp-bLt/- 


<^uflJi 


vjo'  fiLU       li.     'nLpiulunLfd~bi-U 


lubtnh  jD.  uibuUiuu  y  P^  "P  m-lp"  ^iiH 
Abn-pniln      bplfltUpp     pnJbbi''     Ll    unijM 


AbrLonurL  uM-yfiuuip^Dp  :  [^i/^""  pulu 
Aal^  y  LnpuLantp  ^nt.  ubuthpn.  np 
'Unpl^  nutUuiu  i  (^^buni./i'U  tul^u  pu^  ^ 
*'.  \\uiia     bu      rtL     hiP  uiulUu    \f'^niJujU 

have  preserved,  even  from  remote  mftrnfi  uiui2tnb'l>^  •  "  X\u  bfd^l^  tuu  pU^ 
antiquity,  a  considerable  part  of  ^„„^A^L'>^,  „^/.„^  /bp^y/u  opp  n^ni^U 
the  social  and  religious  life  of  the  i      i'  i         ,   r    ii  i      i  n  i 

Old  Iranians.     Their  laws  are  like  \-P'"lf'    tk*r  ^1^1,    uif^u^l,    pi^^u.*,  ,  ^h 

the  common   law  of  the  English- 
speaking  race,  derived  from  prec- 
edents of  common  life,  reaching  back  to 
the  times  of  tribal  dispersion.    The  pop- 
Armenians  pre-    ular  dresa  preserves  many 

of  the  features  which  were 

peculiar  to  the  age  of 
the  Persian  ascendency.  As  a  general 
fact,  the  Iranians  have  always  been  dis- 
posed to  wear  a  high  dress  for  the  head, 
a  sort  of  tiara,  of  which  illustrations  may 
te  seen  in  the  everyday  costume  of  the 


serve  the  sem 
blance  of  Old 
Iranian  life. 


SPECIMEN   PAGE   FROM    ARMENIAN    BOOK. 

is  rather  Oriental  than  suggestive  of  the 
apparel  of  Western  peoples. 

The   Armenians   are    a   shrewd    and 
rather     intellectual     race.  inteUectuai 
Were  it  not  for  the  effects  re'-.TpMtof' 

of   old  traditions,     religious    independence. 

and  social,  they  would  have  the  capacity 
of  a  good  modern  development.  They  are 
brave  and  adventurous,  good  soldiers, 
and  especially  noted  for  their  ability  in  • 


,1 II ,  1 1   I 


THE   IRAXIAXS.—ETHXrC  DIVISIOXS. 


615 


the  transaction  of  business.  In  general,  |  dividual  in  their  character  and  as  little 
they  present  what  man)'  ethnographers  subject  to  restraint  as  were  their  pre- 
have  chosen  to  call  the  Caucasian  type  of    historic  ancestors. 

mankind  at  its  best  estate.  For    this  reason  it  is  somewhat  diffi- 

In  common  with  the  other  peoples  of    cult  to  generalize  on  the  subject  of  man- 
Western  Iran,  the  Armenians  exhibit  a     ners  and  customs  where  the   same   are 


.ARMENIAN   A  RCHBISHOP— TVPF.-Drawii  by  Y.  Pr.iiU!.hinkoff. 


certain  spirit  of  independence  and  love 
of  liberty.  They  regard  valor  as  the 
principal  virtue  of  life.  In  the  cities  of 
Armenia  society  is  well  organized,  but 
in  the  open  regions,  especially  in  those 
parts  where  the  country  becomes  moun- 
tainous, the  population  con-sists  of  vigor- 
ous shepherd  tribes,  who  are  almost  as  in- 


sb   variable  in  different    districts.     One 
thing  maj'  be  noted  with  peculiar  inter- 
est, and  that  is  the  complete  change  in  the 
change    in   the  method  of  ^^J^^^f^f.^f 
disposing    of     the      dead.  <*®»d. 
Zarathustra  required  that  the  bodies  of 
the  dead  .should  be  expo.sed  on  high,  in 
a  kind  of  tower  or  building  erected  for 


616 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIXD. 


that  purpose,  so  that  birds  of  prey  might 
gradually  devour  them.  It  was  con- 
ceived that  this,  of  all  possible  methods, 
was  least  likely  to  contaminate  the  ele- 
ments. It  was  held  that  earth  burial 
would  pollute  the  ground.  To  submerge 
the  body  in  rivers  would  defile  the 
water,    and    to   consume    them    by   fire 


ARMENIAN   FAMILY — TYPES. 
Drawn  by  A.  Sirouy,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Uieulafoy. 


would  poi.son  the  air,  and  even  heaven. 
The  Zoroa.strian  plan,  finding  as  it  does 
a  strange  reflection  in  the  method  adopt- 
ed by  some  of  the  American  Indians, 
was  thus  produced  as  a  means  of  pre- 
sendng  the  purity  of  the  elements 
against  the  noxious  influence  of  dead 
bodies. 

The  modern  Iranians  have  given  up 


the  old  method  as  no  longer  practicable. 
If  they  are  Mohammedans,  they  employ 
the  plan  in  vogue  among  Mohammedan 
the  followers  of  the  Proph-  ^^^.^^"fiuper. 
et ;  if  Christians,  they  adopt  vened. 
the  Christian  manner.  In  either  case 
the  burial  is  in  the  earth.  There  is 
generally  something  of  Oriental  fantasy 
attending  the  circumstance  of 
death,  something  of  Semitic 
clamor,  and  also  traces  of  abo- 
riginal superstitions.  In  October 
the  Armenians  have  a  festival, 
which  they  call  the  Feast  of  thr 
Dead.  On  such 'occasions  the  cem- 
etery is  lighted  with  fires,  kindled 
here  and  there.  Tapers  are  set  on 
the  graves,  and  the  women  aban- 
don them.selves  to  weeping  and 
wailing. 

Over  the  Armenian  graves  tomb- 
stones, on  which  are  cut  the  effi. 
gies  of  rams,  horses. 

Character  and 
or   lions,   are    set    up,    sense  of  grave- 
,  .        ,    stone  etiigies. 

a  custom  as  ancient 
in  its  origin  as  the  tribal  dispersion 
^f  the  Iranian  race.  It  is  evident 
ihat  such  sepulchral  imagery  pre- 
serves the  primitive  belief  in  sa- 
cred animals  and  their  guardianship 
over  men.  One  of  the  earliest  su- 
perstitions of  the  human  race  was 
that  of  the  power  of  certain  ani- 
mals to  intercede  with  the  gods. 
We  shall  see  that  in  Egypt,  and 
even  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, there  was  a  pi-evalent  sus- 
picion that  the  ram  was  an  efficacious  me- 
diator between  the  deities  and  human 
kind. 

The  ancient   nomadic  life  of  Iran  is 
best  preser\-ed  by  the  Lures, 

Certain  Persic 

another  branch  of  the  race,   types  represent 

h  „.•„•,  ill  the  ancient  race. 

aving    Its    central    locus 

in    Luristan,    but   spreading    therefrom 

northward  and  northeastward,  through 


THE   IRA  XI A  XS. —E  THXIC    DI I VSIOXS. 


617 


modern  Persia  as  far  as  the  Caspian, 
and  into  the  province  of  Mazanderan. 
These  people  are  in  many  respects 
like  the  rude  classes  of  the  Armenians, 
but  are  still  more 
nearly  allied  with  the 
inhabitants  of  Kurdi- 
stan on  the  west.  With 
the  latter  people  the 
Lures  have  many 
things  in  common,  not 
the  least  of  which  is 
the  thieving  disposi- 
tion for  which  the 
Kurds  are  proverbial 
among  all  peoples.  It 
is  noticeable  that 
among  the  Lures  many 
ancient  customs  of  the 
Iranians  are  preserved, 
and  this  in  despite  of 
their  conversion  to  Mo- 
hammedanism. One 
tribe,  called  the  Gu- 
ranes,  are  associated 
with  the  Dushik  Kurds 
as  a  sort  of  peas- 
ant caste  distributed 
among  them.  On  the 
western  coast  of  the 
Caspian  sea  another 
group  of  the  same  peo- 
ple, called  the  Tats,  are 
found.  Indeed,  the 
Lures  are  scattered 
through  the  whole  of 
Northwestern  Persia, 
as  that  empire  is  now 
constituted ,  and  far 
out  into  Kurdistan,  to 
lake  Van  and  the  up- 
per valley  of  the  Tigris. 

One  might  well  suppose,  glancing  at 
the  fruitful  and  luxurious  valleys  of 
Luristan,  that  any  people  long  dwelling 

there  would  abandon  the  nomadic  life 
M. — Vol.  I — 40 


and  settle  into  fixed  pursuits;  but  such 
is  not  the  case.  Wandering  tribes  still 
possess  the  country,  dwelling  in  tents, 
owing    allegiance    only    to    their    own 


„^  ---  i.}i^4^r^ 


TOMB   OX   THE  BORDER   OF  KAROUX. 
Drawn  by  Taylor,  after  a  photograph  by  Madame  Pieulafoy. 


'  chiefs,  and  engaged  in  almost  constant 
j  warfare.     Of  these,  the  most  conspicu- 
ous  example   is   the    ferocious    Bakhti- 
}'ari,  whose  name  is  proverbial  in  West- 
1  em  Asia.     The  only  town  of  any  im- 


618 


GREAT  RACES    OE  ^^ANKIND. 


portance  within  the  limits  of  Luristan  is 

Khorramabad,  which  is  said  to  contain 

a    thousand     huts.       The 

Prevalence  of  .  -,    ■,        r      .■  n     i 

the  wandering      place    IS    ruuely    lortinea, 
BfeinLuristan.     .^^^^^   possesses   the    pakice 

of  the  chieftain  of  the  Lures. 

The  next  great  division  of  the  Iranic 


sivan,  or  Persians.  They  are  the  most 
widely  distributed  of  any  of  the  existing 
Iranic  families.  They  are  even  dis- 
persed into  districts  far  beyond  the  lim- 
its of  their  own  countries.  Their  lan- 
guage is  Persic,  and  is  the  best  repre- 
sentative, or  rather  lineal  descendant,  of 


MOURNERS  Wait. INC.— Drawn  by  V.  PranKhnikofT,  after  a  sketch  of  Madame  Carla  Serena. 


acter  of  the 
Tajiks,  or  Par- 
elvan. 


race,  distributed  eastward  of  the  Lures 
Place  and  char,  and  the  Other  western 
Persian  tribes,  includes  the 
Tajiks.  These  people  are 
spread  from  Kabul  northward  to  Badakh- 
shan,  to  the  table-land  of  Pameer,  and 
into  Bokhara,  in  Central  Turkistan.  On 
the  east  they  lie  against  the  Afghans  and 
Bekichs.  Westward,  they  spread  into 
all  Central  Persia,  and  are  called  Par- 


the  ancient  Iranian  speech.  By  them 
also  was  preserved,  imtil  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  the  ISIohammedans, 
the  deteriorated  or  fire-worship  aspect 
of  the  old  Zoroastrian  faith.  After  the 
conquest  they  became  Mohammedans, 
the  old  religion  being  preserved  only  by 
the  Guebers. 

In    .stature,   person,   and    complexion 
the  Tajiks  are  intermediate  between  the 


THE   IRANIANS.— ETHNIC  DIVISIONS. 


619 


Armenians  and  the  Kurds  un  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Afghans  on  the  other. 
Stature  and  eth-  They    are    not    so    tall    or 

nic  characteris-  •]  ^j  j  ^^ 

tics  of  this  peo-         to  ' 

pie.  dark-skinned  and  (Oriental 

as  the  other.  They  are  comparatively 
small  in  person,  but  heavy  in  build. 
The  limbs,  and  especially  the  feet,  are 
large,  and  the  face  broad.    The  features, 


rior  in  appearance  to  the  intermediate 
race. 

But  the  Tajiks,  perhaps  best  of  all, 
preserve  to  modern  times  the  general 
character    of    the    ancient 

.  rri         \  ■      They  present 

Iranic  race.      IheArmeni-  strongly  the  oia 

,  -,1.1  ■       Iranian  traits. 

ans  compete  with  them  m 
this  respect.    The  old  customs  and  man- 
ners of  Iran  have  come  down  by  wav  of 


BAKHTIYARl  TYPES— Draw 

ln)\vever,  are  good,  if  we  except  the 
mouth,  which  is  large  and  coarse.  The 
type  is  not  by  any  means  so  favorable  in 
the  judgment  of  Western  peoples  as  that 
of  the  nations  of  the  Caucasus.  Even 
the  Kurds  are  larger  and  handsomer  than 
the  Tajiks,  and  some  ethnographers  pro- 
nounce the  Afghans,  who  are  not  in- 
frequently of  good  stature,  to  be  supe- 


n  by  G.  Viiillier,  from  a  photo^i.iiih. 

the  Taiiks  and  Kurds  of  Persia,  and  rep- 
resent to  the  modern  inquirer  a  tolera- 
bly authentic  transcript  of  antiquity.  It 
is  quite  likely  that  many  fcatui-es  of  the 
costume  of  the  modern  Persians,  such 
as  the  old  tiara,  or  high  cap,  which  was 
worn  by  the  subjects  of  Cyrus  the  Great, 
are  more  faithfully  preserved  in  the  cur- 
rent styles  than  is  the  Persian  character 


620 


GREAT  RACES    OE  MANKIND. 


and  person  upon  which   they  are  exhib- 
ited. 

The  cruelty  and  tyrannical  disposition 

of  the  Medo-Persians  in  the  times  of  the 

greatness  of  the   race  has 

Cruelty  and  ,  ,        ,  r  i     * 

fierceness  of  the  alrcadv  been    reierred  to. 

Persic  stock.  g^.^^^  \^^^   ^^^    ^^^^^^^    ^^^ 

suffered    a    terrible    degeneration,    and 
is   more    repulsive    in   the   coarseness, 


to  the  trying  exigencies  through  which 
the  Iranian  peoples  have  passed.  The 
Mohammedan  conquest  was  of  itself  a 
sufficient  shock  to  destroy  nationality; 
and  the  substitution  of  Islam  for  the  Old 
Iranian  faith  aggravated  the  calamity. 

The  modern  Persians  may  be  ranked 
among  the  principal  races  of  Asia.  In 
Western   Asia   they   compete   with    the 


USBEK  AND  TAJIK.  TVPF.S.-Draivn  by  A.  Fcrdinandus, 


treachery,  and  immorality  of  the  mod- 
ern Persian  character  than  in  its  ancient 
aspect  of  fierce  brutality.  The  race  is 
avaricious  and  untruthful.  There  is 
little  intellectual  development;  and  if 
corruption  of  heart  and  life  were  the 
only  term  definitive  of  savagery,  the 
whole  race  might  well  be  dismissed  as 
savages.  Much  of  this  degradation, 
however,  must  undoubtedly  be  attributed 


Turks  and  Russians  for  the  first  place  in 
ethnic  importance.  The  race,  however, 
lacks  homogeneity.      It  is 

,  Race  character 

more  mixed  than  either  of  the  modem 
the  Turkish  or  the  Russian 
stock.  In  Central  Persia  the  ancient  race 
of  Iranians  is  represented  in  tolerable 
purity  in  the  descendent  people.  But 
all  around  the  borders  this  is  not  true. 
On  the  west,  and  particularly  the  south- 


rnil   IRANIANS.— ETHNIC  DIVISIONS. 


621 


west,  there  is  a  strong  admixture  of 
Ti:rkish  blood.  On  the  north  and 
northeast  the  Mongol  stock  of  man- 
kind has  made  itself  felt  and  given  a 
tinge  to  the  race  complexion ;  while  on 
the  side  of  Afghanistan  and  Baluchis- 
tan, Indian  or  Hindu  characteristics  are 
plainly  discoverable. 

The  Persians  at  the  present  time  num- 


nomadic  in  habit.  These  number  hardly 
fewer  than  four  million.  They  consti- 
tute the  great  intermediate  body  of  Per- 
sians, and  are  the  element  upon  whi(;h  the 
Shah's  government  most  relies  in  the 
matter  of  the  Persian  army.  The  national 
forces,  however,  are  recruited  to  an  ex- 
tent from  the  wilder  tribesmen ;  while 
the  official  classes,  commanders  and  the 


KURD  TYPES-— Drawn  by  F.  Courboin,  from  a  photograph. 


ditions  of  the 
Persian  pop- 
ulation. 


ber  approximately  eight  million.  Of 
Classes  and  con-  these  nearly  two  million 
are  townspeople.  About 
an  equal  number  are  Iliyats, 
or  nomads,  of  whom  we  shall  presently 
speak.  Between  these  two  extremes  of 
stationary  citizens  and  wandering  tribes- 
men there  is  a  large  intermediate  class 
of  villagers  who  are  more  sedentary  than 


like,  are  derived  from  the  townspeople 
or  citizens  who  correspond  to  the  aristoc- 
racy of  Western  Europe. 

No  class  of  the  Persian   population  is 
of  greater  interest  to    the  Ethnic  place 
traveler  and  ethnographer  f^^o'^^he"  °^ 
than  the  Iliyats,  or  wander-  lUyats. 
ing   herdsmen.     Of   these,   the  manner 
of  life  is  pastoral  rather  than  agricultural. 


.«S 


■^.•^^ 


FALCONER  OF  THE  SHEIK— Hindu-Pe';5iav  T'Tes  and  Costvmes— Dra-.>n  f>y  A.  Sirouy,  from  a  pV.otojr.iph  '  y  Madame  I)ic;:lafoy. 


THE   IRANIANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 


623 


They  are  organized  into  tribes,  of  which 
the  name  is  legion.  Over  each  tribe  is 
set  a  hereditary  chieftain,  who  commands 
in  war  and  peace.  His  authority  is  quite 
absolute.  The  manner  of  life  has  respect 
to  a  division  of  the  country  into  pastoral 
districts.  Each  tribe  has  its  own  dis- 
trict, and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the 
minor  clans  and  families.  Though  all 
wander  about  with  their  flocks,  obeying 
the  suggestion  of  the  season  as  to  pas- 
turage, the  wandering  is  within  the  lim- 
its of  the  clan  lands.  Each  tribe  has  its 
own  section  in  the  hill-country,  and  to 
this  region  it  betakes  itself  with  the 
coming  of  spring,  and  there  the  tents  are 
pitched  until  with  the  advance  of  the  sea- 
son a  removal  to  better  grounds  is  neces- 
sary. But  each  tribe  in  its  wanderings 
must  confine  itself  to  its  own  section. 

The  .social  and  domestic  life  of  the  Per- 
sians has  been  derived  from  the  institu- 
tional forms  of  ]\Iohammedanism.  Soon 
Social  and  do-  after  the  rise  of  Islam  in 
Sfrf:  M^-  Arabia  and  its  spread  into 
hammedanism.  Syria  the  Crescent  was  car- 
ried victoriously  into  Persia.  A  religious 
conquest  of  the  race  was  soon  effected, 
and  the  faith  of  the  Prophet  was  substi- 
tuted for  the  former  paganism.  It  was 
the  incoming  of  a  Semitic  religion,  and 
of  the  usages  thereto  belonging,  into  an 
Iranian,  that  is,  and  Aryan,  country. 
The  event  was  not  unlike  the  previous 
conquest  of  Europe  by  Christianity.  In 
either  case  we  have  an  Aryan  people  ac- 
cepting from  Semitic  prophets  and  their 
followers  a  new  religious  system. 

Islam  brought  with  it  polygamy.  We 
have  hitherto  remarked  upon  the  fact 
Polygamy  sub-     that   Persia  is  the   line  of 

fnctntm^Lt'  ^^^^"'^  breakage  between 
amy-  the  Orient   and  the  West. 

By  race  the  Persians  were  inclined  to 
the  usages  of  the  Indo-European  family 
of  mankind.      But  by  the   religious  con- 


test they  were  led  to  adopt  the  theory  of 
Mohammedanism.  This  brought,  with- 
in certain  limits,  the  system  of  multiple 
marriage.  Thei'e  is  thus  a  counter  force 
playing  upon  the  domestic  life  of  the 
race.  Polj-gamy,  though  prevalent,  has 
not  been  so  universal  as  in  Arabia, 
Egypt,  and  Turke}'.  The  Persian  fam- 
ily and  household,  however,  are  organ- 
ized on  much  the  same  basis  as  in  the 
countries  just  named.  The  domestic 
usages  are  largely  of  the  Arabian  and 
Eg)-ptian  type ;  but  are  in  part  deter- 
mined b}-  the  ethnic  instincts  and  Old 
Iranian  biases  of  the  race. 

The  Persian  family  is  better  in  most 
of  its  features  than  that  of  the  Turks. 
With   an  equal  degree  of 

^  Character  of  the 

culture  and  refinement  the  Persian  family; 

1  1    1  ,■■,-.    the  women. 

comparison  would  be  still 
more  favorable  to  the  former  people.  In 
the  homes  of  the  better  class  of  Persians 
there  is  elegance  of  manners,  luxurious 
surroundings,  and  many  forms  of  com- 
fort. The  children  are  reared  at  first  by 
nurses,  and  are  afterwards  committed 
to  the  schools  under  charge  of  iloham- 
medan  instructors.  The  women  are  in 
great  measure  secluded,  and  are  partially 
veiled  in  public.  Notwithstanding  the 
serious  and  rather  sinister  expression  of 
the  Persian  face,  the  countenance  of  the 
woman  is  often  regular  and  beautiful. 
The  artist  in  search  of  fine  types  of  beauty 
and  elegance,  even  after  he  has  studied 
the  faces  of  the  women  of  Cashmere  and 
Georgia,  may  well  pause  to  admire  the 
sweetness  and  warm  expression  of  the 
Persian  Avomen. 

Just  as  the  social  system  of  the  Per- 
sians has  been  derived  from  Islam,  so 

also  the  architecture  of  the    Architecture  of 

country   has    been    copied  ^rM^iTr-" 
from     the     Mohammedan  medan  styles, 
countries.     The   original    type   of    this 
manner  of  building  was  arabesque ;   but 


:iv 


MUSSULMAN   NUKSVS  AND  CHILD— TVPKS  AND  COSTUMES. 
Drawn  by  Adrien  Marie,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy. 


THE   IRANIANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 


625 


this  style  has  suffered  considerable  modi- 
fication in  the   hands  of  Persian   archi- 
tects.    In  the  building  of  mosques  and 
tombs  the  Arabian  manner  has  been  well 
preserved.     Indeed,  the  forms  and  cere- 
monial of   Islam    made   this    necessary. 
The  minaret  is  everywhere  a  part 
of   the    Mohammedan   church    and 
religious  establishment.     If  the  cir- 
cular domes  are  not  also  a  neces.sary 
part,  they  are  at  least  a  part  estab-        ^  " 
lished  by  the  usage  of  eleven  cen- 
turies.    These  features  of  building 
assert  themselves   strongly  in   the 
major  architecture  of  the  Persians.   , 
Some  of  the  finest  edifices  of  this  V 
style  are  the  tombs  of  the   Persian   '> 
great,  seen  in  many  cities  and  sacred 
places. 

One   of  the    most  remarkable  of 

these  structures,  typical  of  all,  but 

preeminent  bvits  vast- 

Torab-building       '^  ■' 

of  the  race ;  the    ness  and  elaboration, 

burial  tower.  •       ^i         i         i         jr    t  'x 

IS  the  tomb  of  Iman 
Mousa  at  Kazhemeine.  This  re- 
markable edifice  is  surrounded  with 
buildings  of  stone  or  marble,  but 
rises  above  them  with  its  four  min- 
arets and  two  domes  in  a  manner 
at  once  majestic  and  beautiful. 
Others  of  the  Persian  tombs,  like 
that  of  Zobeide,  are  derived  as  to 
their  style  from  the  building  of  the 
ancient  Iranians.  That  people,  as 
the  reader  knows,  invented  the 
burial  tower  on  the  top  of  which  r> 
the  dead  were  exposed  to  be  de- 
voured by  birds.  This  pagan  form 
of  disposing  of  dead  bodies  was  Zo- 
roastrian  in  its  first  intent,  as  it  is  Par- 
see  in  its  last  evolution.  The  form 
of  the  burial  tower  has  been  transmitted 
to  Persian  architecture,  and  though 
greatly  modified  in  the  hands  of  the 
builders  of  the  last  eight  centuries,  it 
still  reappears  in  tombs.     In  .such  struc- 


tures the  ground  plan  is  hexagonal. 
This  form  is  carried  i:p  sloping 
slightly  to  a  considerable  height,  and  is 
then  surmounted  with  a  sharp  pyramidal 
tower  of  stone  shooting  upwards  much 
in  the  form  of  the  ancient  burial  towers 


\    • 


^1 


YOUNG   I.APY   OF    ISPAHAN — TYPE. 
iVii  by  Adrien  Marie,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Uieulafoy. 

of  the  Zoroastrians.     The  materials  of 
such  building  are  cut  stone  and  bricks. 

The  smaller  ai'chitecture  of  the  Per- 
sians has  but  little  interest  to  the  traveler. 

The    houses    of    the    people    Aspect  of  Per- 
1       1    ^     sian  houses  and 

are  square  m  ground  plan  ^owns;  interior 
and  have  flat  roofs.     This  decorations, 
gives  to  the  structures  the  appearance  of 
cubes.     The  materials  are  wood,  brick, 


AKLlil  1  lie  I  LRIi  UK  THK  PERSIANS.— Tomb  of  Ihan  Molsa,  at  Kazhemeine.— Drawn  by  Barclay,  from  a  photograph. 


THE   IRA  NIA NS.—A  RCHI TEC Ti  'RE. 


627 


and  stone.  White  is  preferred  as  the 
color  of  the  exterior.  The  plan  is  uni- 
formly followed,  and  the  appearance  of 
buildings  is  corresponding-ly  monot- 
onous. The  Per- 
sian town  or  city 
is  unattractive  in 
itself,  though  the 
surroundings  are 
beautiful.  It  is 
the  custom  to 
plant  gardens  and 
orchards  around 
the  towns  in  close 
setting  against 
them.  The  abun- 
dance of  rose 
trees  and  other 
flowering  shnibs 
in  the  gardens 
and  yards  make 
the  towns  to  ap- 
pear embowered. 
Viewed  from  a 
distance  the  pic- 
ture thus  afforded 
is  sometimes  ex- 
quisite. But  with- 
in the  cities  the 
illusion  is  dis- 
pelled.  The 
streets  are  never 
improved.  They 
are  merely  nar- 
row roads  of  clay, 
and  are  always 
either  dusty  or 
muddy.  They  are 
too  narrow  as  a 
rule  to  permit  of 
the  passage  of 
wheeled  vehicles, 
and  are  uneven  for  want  of  paving. 

The  disposition  and  tastes  of  the  Per- 
sians, however,  have  compensated  for 
the  lack  of  beauty  without  by  elaborate 


and  luxurious  furnishings  within.  There 
is  much  that  is  Oriental  in  the  interior 
decorations  and  arrangement  of  the 
houses.       The  tapestries  are    exquisite, 


PERSIAN    STRUCTL'RE. — TOMB   OF   ZOBEinE. 
Drawn  by  D.  Lancelot,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy. 


with  sofas  and  ottomans  on  every  hand. 
Especially  on  the  women's  side  of  the 
court  is  such  richness  displayed.  The 
arrangement  of  the  apartments  betokens 


628 


GREAT  RACES   OF  .VANKIND. 


ease,  indolence,  leisure,  pride,  and  in- 
dulgence. These  arc  the  qualities  of  the 
race. 

The  character  of  the  Persian  language 
has  already  been  indicated  in  the  account 
of  the  parent  Iranian  speech  from  which 


Aiy-V  >;  '>^ 


/' 


r 


i/  >; 


CJ.' 


/  y 


V 


J^  J 


/■ 


W  i 


I  tf -* '  -=- 


SPtXIMKN    PAGE   OF   PERSIAN    BOOK. 

it  is  descended.     The  order  of  linguistic 

development  has  been   from  Sanskrit  to 

Zend,    from    Zend   to  Old 

Liinguistic  evo- 
lution;  influence   Persian,  from   Old  Persian 

to  the  current  speech.  The 

common  features  and  peculiarities  of  the 

Aryan  tongues  are  seen  in  the  decay  of 


the  ancient  grammar  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  prepositional  forms.  The  new 
style  of  speech  began  with  the  national 
poet  Firdusi,  and  has  been  perfected  by 
the  poets  and  romancers  of  the  present 
century.  The  course  of  the  language  is 
in  strict  analogy  with  the  move- 
ment by  which  Latin  has  become 
Portuguese  and  Anglo-Saxon  been 
transformed  into  English.  The 
Arabic  literature  has  meanwhile 
performed  for  Persian  almost  the 
same  office  of  refinement  and  for- 
eign ornamentation  as  that  of 
Xorman  French  interfused  with 
our  own  tongue. 

The    governmental    system    of 
the  Persians  is  the  result  of   an 

evolution  extending    Governmental 

backwards  to  the  ^-.--/-.t:! 
classical  ages.  Per-  ai  ages. 
sia  has  had  a  continuous  civil  his- 
tory for  at  least  twenty-three  cen- 
turies. The  administration  has 
been  many  times  transformed 
with  the  successive  revolutions 
and  changes  of  race  in  the  coun- 
try. Nearly  always  the  govern- 
ment has  been  a  despotism  with 
few  constitutional  checks  or  limi- 
tations. This  was  true  as  far 
back  as  the  ascendency  of  the 
Achaemenian  kings.  The  modern 
system  was  virtually  instituted 
with  the  Mohammedan  conquest 
of  Persia  in  the  eighth  century. 

At  the  head  of  the  government 

stands  the   shah,  who  is   at  once 

emperor   and    vicegerent   of   the 

Prophet.     He  occupies  much  the  same 

relation  to  the  people  as  does  the  sultan 

of   the    Turks   to   his  sub- 

Place  of  the 
jects,  but  is  less  restricted  shah ;  his  ab- 

,1  T  J  -i     i  •  solutisra. 

by   law    and   constitution. 
He  exercises  the  right  of  absolute  gov- 
ernment, and  implicit  obedience  is  ex- 


^j^  W-^ 


u? 


THE   IRA  NT  A  NS.—GO  I  ^ERNMENT. 


629 


acted  so  long  as  his  rule  and  mandates 
do  not  conflict  with  the  Koran  and  its 
interpretation. 

CiviHzation  has  sufficiently  advanced 
in  Persia  to  compel  some  conformity  of 
the  political  system  to  the  usages  of 
modern  governments. 
This  has  resulted  in  a 
ministry  as  a  means  of 
executive  administration. 
The  ministry,  however,  is 
almost  wholly  dependent 
upon  the  will  of  the  shah. 
He  removes  and  appoints 
the  members  of  his  coun- 
cil in  a  manner  arbitrary 
and  capricious.  Some  min- 
isters easily  obtain  the 
royal  favor  and  exercise 
great  power  in  the  state. 
Others  have  little  influ- 
ence, and  are  used  by  the 
stronger  in  the  promotion 
of  their  own  ends. 

The  departments  of 
government  have  been 
organized  with  some 
show  of  regularity.  There 

is  a  ministry 

of  war,  and 

others  of  in- 
teriorand  finance,  foreign 
affairs,  justice,  worship, 
and  telegraphs.  The 
ministers  are  nobles  of 
high  rank,  and  are  set 
around  the  throne  in  a 
way  to  add  to  its  reputa- 
tion and  glory.  Persia,  however,  has  in 
her  governmental  system  hardly  entered 
into  the  family  of  civilized  nations.  The 
skill  of  the  shah  and  his  advisers  in  state- 
craft is  very  limited ;  and  ignorance  and 
passrv.>n  hold  sway  in  high  places. 

Under  the  imperial  administration  the 
army  is  organized  and  is  fairly  efficient. 


It  is  recruited  by  conscription  and  poorly 
paid.  One  of  the  means  adopted  by  the 
shah  to  obtain  continuous  and  faithful 
service  is  to  withhold  the  pay  of  the  sol- 
diers and  to  keep  them  long  in  arrears. 
The  Persian   army   numbers   over    one 


Departments  of 
administration ; 
organization  of 
the  army. 


NASR   ED    DIN    SHAH — ROYAL   TYPE   AND    COSTUME. 
Dr.i\vn  by  H.  Thiriat,  from  a  photograph. 


hundred  thousand  men,  of  whom  about 
a  half  are  infantry,  one  third  cavalry, 
and  the  remainder  artillery,  etc.  The 
system  of  revenue  is  tolerably  well  or- 
ganized, and  the  credit  of  the  govern- 
ment  is  sufficient  to  enable  the  shah  and 
his  ministers  to  make  loans  in  the  money 
markets  of  the  world. 


TYPES  AN-D  COSTL  MES  OF  THE  ZiCROS  HIGHLANDb  -AI,  tchpid  cf  T^       ^       d  ,  i     OFr.cERs.-Drawn  hy  Tofani 


THE   IRANI AXS.— SOCIETY. 


631 


Derivation  of 
manners  and 
customs ;  vary- 
ing character- 
istics. 


The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Per- 
sians have  been  derived  in  part  from  the 
ancient  race  character,  and 
in  part  from  the  institutions 
and  influences  of  Islam. 
From  the  latter  source  has  been  deduced 
the  easy-going  habit  of  the  Persian  in 
his  intercourse  and  manner  of  life.  In 
this  respect  he  departs  greatly  from  the 
habits  of  his  kinsmen  in  Europe. 
Contrary  to  common  report  the  Per- 
sians are  affable  and  polite,  at  least  ,.■■;:: 
such  as  are  refined  by  the  influ-  ••':; 
ences  of  cities  and  the  scholastic  pur- 
suits. The  different  races  inhabit- 
ing Persia  present  types  quite  di- 
verse as  it  respects  manners  and 
usages.  Those  of  the  northern  prov- 
inces and  in  the  northwest,  where 
the  race  spreads  out  to  the  Arme- 
nian highlands,  are  rougher  and 
more  -uncouth  in  person  and  life, 
while  they  of  the  south  and  of  the 
principal  cities  have  been  civilized 
into  forms  of  ethnic  life  much  more 
polite  and  attractive. 

Slavery  is  a  common  form  of  Per- 
sian society,  though  the  institution 
Slavery  and  the  is  not  strictly  based 
on  either  color  or  race. 
The  slaves  vary  great- 
ly in  complexion  and  belong  to  sev- 
eral races.  Those  imported  from 
Abyssinia  are  of  greatest  value. 
Somaliland  has  contributed  to  the 
slave  population,  as  has  also  the 
interior  of  Africa.  The  slave  mar- 
ket is  always  open  and  the  institu- 
tion is  quite  univei-sal,  but  is  less 
barbarous  than  the  corresponding  forms 
of  servitude  in  other  countries.  The 
slaves  are  regarded  as  a  kind  of  pro- 
tected class,  and  to  this  extent  share 
the  common  treatment  which  is  extended 
to  children  and  domestic  animals. 

The    costumes    of   the    Persians    are 


slave  market 
among  the 
Persians. 


picturesque  and  not  unattractive — ac- 
cording to  Eastern  standards.  ^len  wear 
a  cotton  garment  fastened  Materials  and 
in  front  and  falling  below  ^^^^^^ 
the  heels.  It  fits  loosely  dicated  thereby, 
about  the  person,  having  wide  sleeves 
and  no  collar.  Several  colors  are  used 
in  dyeing  such  garments.  Trousers  are 
worn  by  the  higher  classes,  especially  by 


FANATICAI,   TYPE   AND    COSTU.MK. — UERVISII    OF   THE    TIGER- 
SKIN. 
Drawn  by  A.  Ferdinandus,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy. 


the  military  orders,  among  whom  West- 
ern fashions  begin  to  prevail.  The  out- 
side garment  is  a  shawl,  generally  of 
some  fine  material  like  .silk  or  satin. 
The  length  and  quality  of  the  garments, 
particularly  of  the  cloak  worn  by  nobles, 
indicates  the  rank  of  the  wearer.    Priests, 


632 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


merchants,  townspeople,  storekeepers, 
and  professional  men  are  distinguished 
by  the  long  cloak  which  generally  falls 
to  the  heels.  The  costume  of  the  shep- 
herds and  country  people  is  more  simple 
in  structure  and  of  cheaper  materials. 
The  custom  of  shaving  the  hair  at  the 
crown  is  common  though  not  universal. 
The  face,  except  in  the  case  of  ultra 
fa.shionable  men,  is  unshorn,  the  beard 
being  one  of  the  distinguishing  features 
of  the  race. 

The  costumes  of  the  women  are  pretty, 
and  are  Oriental  in  their  main  features. 
The  ladies  of  high  rank  wear  shoes  of 
Apparel  of  worn-  colored  leather,  while  the 
en;annsand        ^gn,   particularly  the 

arm-bearing  of  '    i  J 

the  Persians.  .soldiers,  are  booted  in  the 
manner  of  Ea.stern  Europe.  Arms  are 
permitted  to  the  greater  part  of  the  pop- 
ulation. The  tribesman  of  the  open 
country  generally  go  armed.  ]SIost  of 
them  carry  what  is  called  a  kammah,  or 
dirk,  dangerous  to  the  enemy.  These 
knives  the  wearers  are  said  to  use  in  a 
hacking  manner,  not  stabbing  or  thrust- 
ing as  is  the  usage  of  those  who  kill  in 
the  West. 

Painting  the  face  is  customary  only  on 
important  occasions  or  with  fashionable 
ladies.  The  cheeks  are  painted  and  the 
_  .    .      ^  eyebrows  improved  accord- 

Painling  the  '■ 

face  and  the         ing  to   the    taste  or  whim 

type  of  beauty.         f    ^     i,  •  /t^v        ,  c 

ot  fashion.  Ihe  type  of 
beauty  most  admii-ed  is  the  circular 
countenance  and  complexion.  The  Per- 
sian women  are  much  smaller  than  the 
men,  and  are  noted  for  their  tinv  hands 
and  feet. 

Directly  between  Persia  and  India  lie 
the  Afghans.     They  call  themselves  in 

_,,,    .     ,  the  vernacular,  Pukhtaneh, 

Ethnic  place  ' 

and  character       from    Pukhtu,   the    native 

of  the  Afghans.       ,       .  , .  .        , 

designation  of  the  lan- 
guage. It  is  here  that  the  Iranian  race  is 
graded  off  into  India.   The  most  southern 


division  of  the  Afghans  included  the  Lo- 
hanis,  who  are  distributed  on  the  east  of 
the  Suleiman  range,  where  they  main- 
tain a  nomadic  life  in  tribal  separation. 
The  Eastern  Afghans  are  known  by  the 
name  of  Berduranis.  They  also  have 
tribal  divisions,  and  approximate  the  In- 
dian character.  Southward  of  Cabul 
live  the  West  Afghans,  divided  into  the 
two  principal  tribes  of  Ghilzais  and  Du- 
ranis,  the  latter  occupying  the  south- 
western angle  of  Afghanistan. 

In  person,  the  Afghans  are  described 
as  being  of  medium  stature.    They  have 
short    necks,    making    the  General  fea- 
head  appear  to  rest  upon  'Z7-X^^^ 
the  shoulders.     Their  com-  admixture, 
plexion  is  dark,  and  the  skin   has   that 
glossy,  velvety  character  peculiar  to  the 
Black   races.     In  the  fiat  nose  there  is 
another   hint    of    southern    admixture. 
The  lips  are   thick,  and  the  line  of  the 
eyes  horizontal. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  Afghanistan 
there  is  a  considerable  element  of  for- 
eign population,  and  the  intermixture  of 
this  with  the  native  blood  has  greatly 
modified  the  per.sonal  character  of  the 
race.  The  women  have  handsome  fea- 
tures, suggesting  the  faces  of  Jewesses. 
The}-  are  much  fairer  than  the  men, 
sometimes  rosy,  though  more  usually 
pale.  They  wear  the  hair  braided,  plait- 
ed in  two  long  tresses,  with  silken  tassels 
at  the  ends.  The  influence  of  Moham- 
medanism has  driven  the  women  into 
.seclusion,  but  intrigue  and  violence  fre- 
quently prevail  over  superstition,  and  in 
parts  of  the  country  there  is  much  license 
between  the  sexes. 

The  whole  population  of  the  country 
is  divided  into  about  a  dozen  tribal  or- 
ganizations. These  con-  Tribal  divisions 
form  to  the  clan  in  charac-  °V^^ZIZI^% 

their  manner  of 

ter.     The  Duranis  and  the  i^fe. 
Ghilzais  have  already  been  mentioned. 


-^■J" 


■  ii&  T  '^-  ^r"i~"Sa 


HUZAREH  TYPES.— Afridis  Attacicing  English  Troops.— Drawn  by  Emilc  Bayard. 


634 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MAXKLXD. 


The  Yiisufzais  live  in  a  hill  tract  north 
of  Peshawer,  where  they  maintain  a 
semi-independence.  They  are  regarded 
by  the  Afghan  chiefs  as  among  the  most 
turbulent  race  with  whom  they  have  to 
deal.     The  Kakars,  almoin  Scinthe.T^tern 


1  1   lv.>IAN    SCHOLAR TYPE. llAjl     MiK/.A-l   l,li  A/.ZI. 


Afghanistan,  are  comparatively  inde- 
pendent. Their  country  is  very  difficult 
to  explore,  and  but  little  is  known  of 
their  manner  of  life. 


In  several  parts  of  Afghanistan  wan- 
dering  colonies  of  Persians  known  as 
Kizilbashis    have    settled. 

Distribution  and 

1  hey    bear    the    character  character  of  the 
of  Persian ized  Turks,  and     "^^"^^  ' 
speak  the  Persian  language.     They  are 

found  chiefly  in 
the  towns,  where 
they  maintain 
themselves  as 
merchants,  phy- 
sicians,  and 
scribes.  Many 
of  them  are  en- 
rolled in  the  Af- 
ghan cavalry  and 
in  the  Indian 
regiments  of  the 
English  army. 
The  Huzar  eh 
dwell  in  the 
mountain  coun- 
tr}-,  in  the  north- 
west of  Afghan- 
istan, among  the 
spurs  of  Hindu- 
Kush.  Their 
dwellings  are 
frequently  found 
as  much  as  ten 
thousand  feet 
above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  It  is 
evident  that  the 
tribe  has  been 
infected  with 
Mongolian  influ- 
e  n  c  e  .  It  is 
thought  that 
Jilongoloid  tribes 
came  from  the 
East  with  Gen- 
ghis Khan  and  settled  in  this  region. 

The  Huzareh  are  tributary  to  the 
Afghan  princes,  but  they  rarely  pay 
their  stipend  except  lander  compulsion 


THE   IRA  XI A  XS.  —BEL  UCITS. 


635 


of  arms.    They  are   an  exceedingly  im- 
moral people,  having  many  of  the  vices 
of  ancient  paganism.   They 

Their  immoral-  .  i 

ity;  other  tribes   are,       however,      gOOQ      Sol- 

of  East  Iranians.     -,■  ,  j  i    ^       j- 

diers  when  reduced  to  dis- 
cipline, exhibiting  the  proverbial  cour- 
age of  mountaineers.  Many  of  their 
manners  remind  the  traveler  of  the  ruder 
class  of  Swiss  peasants.  There  is  a 
Huzareh  yodel  sung  by  them,  after  the 
manner  of  the  Swiss.  Other  tribes  are 
called  the  Eimauk  and  the  Hindkis.  In 
the  latter  term  it  is  easy  to  see  the  word 
Hindu  concealed  under  a  vernacular 
form.  They  represent  certain  immi- 
grants from  the  East,  who  are  scattered 
over  Afghanistan,  where  they  form  in 
many  villages  and  towns  quite  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  population.  They 
are  bankers  and  traders  in  lands. 

The  language  and  literature  of  the 
Afghans  have  both  been  infected  b}^ 
many  foreign  influences.  The  Moham- 
T-anguage  of  the  medan  conquest  of  the 
^^''s^^fSry  country  greatly  corrupted 
development.  the  tides  of  the  old  national 
life,  turning  them  into  new  channels. 
The  admixture  of  alien  elements  among 
the  people  and  their  institutions  has  in- 
duced much  uncertainty  even  as  to  the 
etlinic  classification  of  the  race ;  but  the 
language  is  unmistakably  Aryan,  of  the 
Indo-Persian  branch.  The  vernacular 
speech,  or  Pukhtu,  prevails  everywhere 
except  in  Herat.  There  has  been  a  con- 
siderable literary  development  in  mod- 
ern times.  A  history  was  composed  by 
Shaikh  Mali  as  early  as  the  first  quarter 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  Poetry  has 
been  cultivated  by  the  Afghans.  Khush- 
al  Khan,  the  chief  of  the  Khattaks, 
was  recognized  as  a  bard  as  early  as 
the  reign  of  Arungzeebe.  The  foreign 
infection  above  referred  to,  and  traced  to 
the  Mohammedans,  is  noticeable  in  the 
vernacular  Afghan  history,  in  which  the 


people  are  said  to  be  Bani-Israil,  that  is, 
children  of  Israel.  The  tradition  is  so 
elaborated  as  to  give  a  race  descent  from 
the  Hebrew  patriarchs.  This  fiction  is 
intertwined  with  the  oldest  books  of  the 
Afghans,  as  far  back  as  the  sixteenth 
century.  In  one  of  the  histories  Afghan- 
istan is  said  to  have  been  settled  by 
,  King  vSolomon  himself,  who  gave  his 
name  to  the  Suleiman  mountain  ! 

The  manners  and  customs  of  the 
Afghan  race  are  in  most  respects  in 
close  analogy  with  those  of  Western 
Iran.  They  are  the  .same  with  the  Tajik 
customs  and  traditions,  with  such  excep- 
tions and  modifications  only  as  have 
been  imported  by  foreign  influence,  par- 
ticularly by  the  conquest  of  Islam  and 
the  intercommunication  with  India. 

The  next  great  branch  of  the  modern 
Iranians  includes  the  Beluchs,  or  native 
peoples  of  Beluchistan.  Here  again  the 
language  spoken,  called  in  piaceofthe 
the  vernacular  Baluchckcc,  f.tcuo'^jrtle 
indicates  unmistakably  side  of  India, 
the  common  ethnic  descent  of  these 
people  with  the  Persians.  Indeed,  the 
dialect  is  so  much  like  New  Persian  as 
to  point  to  the  fact  of  a  very  late  sep- 
aration of  the  Beluchs  from  the  "West 
Iranians.  Here,  as  in  Afghanistan,  the 
people  have  been  infected  to  a  great 
degree  in  language  and  institutions  by 
contact  with  India.  Indeed,  there  is 
a  dialect  spoken  by  the  Brahoes  which 
is  manifestly  derived  from  the  languages 
of  the  Punjab,  and  not  from  an  Iranian 
source.  All  along  the  border  there  is 
a  great  admixture  of  the  two  races,  and 
the  prevalence  of  a  common  ^Moham- 
medanism  has  tended  to  a  community  of 
institutions  and  ethnic  character. 

In  person,  the  Beluchs  are  of  about 
the  same  stature  with  the  Tajiks.  Many 
of  them  are  above  the  average  height. 
The  prevailing  bodily  form  is  lithe,  and 


NORTHERN'  BELUCHS— TYPES.— Mountaineers  of  tu«  Western  Himalayas.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard,  from  a  photograph. 


THE   IRA  NIA  XS. —BEL  I  'CHS. 


637 


not  suggestive  of  great  physical  strength. 
The  people  are  inured  to  great  and  rapid 
Personal  fea-  changes  of  season  and  cli- 
tures  and  race      niate  peculiar  to  the  coun- 

traits  of  the  ^ 

Beiaohs.  try,  and  are  exposed  by  their 

out-of-door  life  to  many  hardships.  They 
bear  fatigue,  and  are 
capable  of  long 
marches  and  endur- 
ance of  hunger.  They 
are  a  brave  and  pred- 
atory race,  restless, 
and  addicted  to  war. 
The  physiognomy  is 
strongly  marked,  the 
complexion  is  almost 
as  dark  as  that  of  the 
Hindus,  the  nose  is 
broad  and  flat,  the 
forehead  low.  The 
hair  and  beard  are 
abundant  and  coarse ; 
the  hands  and  feet, 
large  and  heavv,  in 
which  feature  they 
are  strongly  discrim- 
inated from  the  Ar- 
yans of  India,  whose 
extremities  are  fine, 
even  to  delicacy. 

The  Beluchs  have 
preserved  in  their 
character,  and  even 
cultivated,  the  ele- 
ment of  cruelty  and 
barbarous  outrage 
which  we  have  noted 
as  peculiar  to  the  Old 
Iranians.  Their  so- 
cial life  is  marked 
with  many  strange  customs.  They  re- 
sociai customs;  gard  hospitality  as  the 
^Ind'i^^^i-  prime  Virtue.  A  stranger 
pations.  calling  at  their  huts  is  sure 

to  be   entertained  as  a  guest,  fed   and 
lodged  with  all  the  care  which  the  family 


are  able  to  afford ;  but  no  sooner  has  he 
left  the  protection  afforded  by  this  tradi- 
tional fiction  of  the  East  than  he  is 
attacked  and  robbed,  or  even  murdered. 
In  all  industrial  pursuits  the  Beluchs 
are  indolent  and  unenterprising,  but  no 


'l^^ 


WOMEN   OF   CHIRAZ — TYPES   AND   COSTUMES. 
Drawn  by  Adrien  Marie,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy. 


sooner  is  war  announced  than  all  the 
latent  energies  of  the  race  are  excited  to 
fierce  action.  In  times  of  peace  they  are 
dissipated,  giving  their  whole  time  to 
gambling,  smoking  tobacco  or  Indian 
hemp-seed,  and  chewing  opium.    The  in.- 


638 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


terdict  of  Islam  keeps  them  from  the  use 
of  spirituous  liquors.  They  are  voracious 
in  appetite,  dcTouring  immense  quanti- 
ties of  flesh,  half  raw,  and  filling  them- 
selves with  other  crude  articles  of  food. 
They  season  their  victuals  with  capsi- 
cum, onions,  garlic,  and  other  strong 
and  stimulating  flavors,  until  one  unac- 
customed to  such  fiery  condiments  could 
in  no  wise  swallow  the  burning  mass. 


a  method  derived  from  the  Levitical  law, 
as  modified  by  the  practice  of  Islam. 
The  old  Hebrew  usage  which  required 
the  widow  to  be  taken  to  wife  by  the 
surviving  brother  is  repeated  in  the 
Beluch  custom.  The  funeral  ceremony 
demands  a  watch  over  the  dead  body  for 
three  successive  nights,  during  which 
the  kinsfolk  and  friends  of  the  deceased 
spend  their  time  in  re\-el  aiid  feasting. 


DOMESTIC  MANNKUS  OF  THE  EELUCHS.— Interior  of  Tent.— Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard,  after  Vambery. 


Llohammedanism  has  g-raduallv  en- 
croached  upon  the  old  instincts  of  the 
Slavery  and  the  Iranian  race.  Slavery  is 
Stlril^elTnd  Universal,  each  petty  chief 
ceremonies.  having  as  large  a  retinue  as 
possible.  Polygamy  prevails.  Even  the 
hill  peasant  will  have  as  many  as  eight 
or  ten  wives,  and  the  number  is  in- 
creased with  the  ascending  rank  of  the 
man.  Young  women  are  obtained  by 
paying  cattle  or  sheep  or  goats  to  the 
father.    The  marriage  is  performed  after 


The  dress  of  the  Beluchs  is  similar  to 
the  Tajik  co.stume  already  de.scribed. 
They  wear  for  under-gar- 

•^  .  •  ^  Dress  ot  the 

ment  a  shirt,  generally  of  Beiuchs;  the 
blue  or  white  calico,  but-  P^^'^^'^'^sar 
toned  at  the  neck  and  reaching  below 
the  knee.  They  have  wide  trousers, 
which  are  open  at  the  ankle.  The  head- 
dress consists  of  a  turban,  which  is 
generally  a  high  silk  or  cotton  cap, 
quilted  and  fitted  to  the  head.  The 
chiefs    and    their    relatives    wear  white 


THE  IRANIANS.— MIXED  PEOPLES. 


639 


tunics  of  chintz,  which  are  lined  and 
padded  with  cotton.  The  peasants  de- 
pend for  warmth  upon  a  surtout,  in 
which  they  envelop  themselves.  The 
cloth  is  manufacttired  coarsely  from  a 
mixture  of  the  hair  of  goats  and  the 
wool  of  sheep.  The  dress  of  women  is 
little  discriminated  from  that  of  men. 
The  trousers  of  the  former  are  very 
wide,  almost  like  a  skirt  around  each 
limb,  and  are  made  either  of  silk  or  of 
a  mixture  of  that  substance  with  cotton. 
The  Brahoes,  or  Hindu  Beluchs,  have  a 
costume  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Bel- 
uchs, but  of  a  poorer  quality  of  material 
and  simpler  in  fabrication. 

Within  the  broad  region  inhabited  by 

the  modern  Iranians  many  subordinate 

races    are    found,    each   with   its    local 

peculiarities    of    character 

Character  and 

ethnic  place  of     and  development.      In  the 

the  Ossetes.  j.  ^      i   •    i  ■        ,^ 

far  west,  high  up  m  the 
passes  of  the  Caucasus,  are  found  the 
Ossetes,  who  call  themselves  Iron,  that 
is,  Iranians.  They  are  so  strongly  dis- 
criminated in  personal  character  from 
their  neighbors  and  from  all  other  of 
the  peoples  of  the  plateau  as  to  suggest 
a  foreign  race  descent;  but  their  lan- 
guage is  Iranian,  and  they  are  evidently 
of  the  same  stock  with  the  other  Arme- 
niaps,  the  Tajiks,  and  the  Kurds.  In 
stature  they  are  below  the  average,  but 
are  very  thickset  and  strong.  The  hair 
is  either  blonde  or  red,  and  the  com- 
plexion is  as  fair  as  that  of  the  Germans. 
In  religious  faith  and  practice  the  Os- 
setes are  associated  with  the  Armenians, 
and  their  habits  of  life  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  peasant  class  of  that  people. 
They  are  mountaineers,  and,  like  all 
races  in  such  situations,  have  a  less  com- 
pact social  development  than  do  the 
races  of  the  lowlands  and  plains. 

We  may  now  glance  for  a  moment  at 
the  geographical  region  over  which  the 


Iranic  Arj-ans  are   distributed  in  their 
modern  estate.     A  line  drawn   from  the 
northwestern  extremitv  of  Geographical 
the  Persian  gulf  into  Syr-  ^If^^^^i™, 
ia,  and  thence  to  the  Black  Aryans, 
sea,  would   mark  the  western  limits  of 
the  dispersion.     On  the  north,  the  range 
of  the  Caucasus,  the  Caspian,  the  north, 
ern  boundary'  of  Turkistan,  and  a  line 
drawn   from   the   ^Middle    Oxus  to  lake 
Balkash,  are  the  boundary.    On  the  east, 
the  general  limit  is  the  Indus,  from  its 
head-waters  to  the   mouth ;  and  on  the 
south,  the  Indian  ocean  and  the  Persian 
gulf. 

The  great  countries  within  these  lim- 
its are  Persia,  Turkistan,  Afghanistan, 
and  Beluchistan.  The  races  inhabiting 
these  are  independent  in  Principal  conn- 
development  and  political  •X'e'n"e°of'^^ 
form,  but  are  all  primarily  islam, 
peoples  of  a  common  origin.  Around 
the  borders,  especially  on  the  east,  the 
admixture  of  foreign  elements  has  been 
so  considerable  as  to  modify,  and  in 
some  parts  reverse,  the  original  ethnic 
character.  The  largest  foreign  force 
which  the  Iranians  of  all  these  regions 
have  suffered  and  the  greatest  modifica- 
tion in  their  national  aspects  have  been 
produced  b}-  the  impact  of  ]\Ioham- 
medanism.  By  this  agency  a  great  part 
of  the  original  traditions  and  ceremo- 
nials of  the  Iranians,  especially  in  Belu- 
chistan, have  been  supplanted  with 
vSemitic  institutional  lorms  of  a  totally 
different  nature. 

Into    some    districts   of   ancient  Iran 
the  lines  of  the  primitive  migration  have 
carried  the  Brown,  even  the  Black  and 
Black,   races  of   antiquity,  fj^e^.l^^" 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Brahoes  Iranians, 
in     Northeastern     Beluchistan,    around 
Kelat,  who   are   a   people  of  Dravidian 
descent.      All  of    these  elements   have 
left  an  ethnic  detritus  in  the  countries 


640 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


over  which  they  have  passed,  and  these 
elements  have  been  absorbed  by  the 
Iranians,  with  a  consequent  change  in 
personal  character  and  tribal  develop- 
ment. 

After  the  Tajiks,  who  are  the  most 
widely  distributed  of  the  modern  Irani- 
ans, the  Afghans  are  next  in  breadth  of 
dispersion  and  in  numbers.  They  are 
estimated  at  about  four  million  nine 
hundred  thousand  souls.  This  includes 
the  inhabitants  of  Turkistan  and  of  sev- 
eral adjacent  provinces,  who  have  a  com- 
mon ethnic  character.  The  Beluchs 
number  about  half  a  million.  They, 
most  of  all,  have  suffered  from  the  in- 


termixture of  foreign  races,  and  are 
most  conformed  to  the  character  of  the 
peoples  of  Hindustan. 

Here,  then,  we  shall  conclude  this  cur- 
sory outline  of  the  race  which  contends 
with  the  Indie  Aryans  for  the  rank  of 
eldest  among  our  ancestral  Asiatic  house- 
hold. We  have  endeavored  in  the  cur- 
rent chapter  to  revive,  as  far  as  possible, 
an  image  of  the  Iranians  in  the  garb  of 
their  ancient  life  and  in  process  of  pre- 
historic evolution.  From  this  we  have 
proceeded  to  the  consideration  of  those 
modern  peoples  who  best  represent  the 
primitive  stock.  We  shall  now  pass  to 
their  kin.smen  in  the  valley  of  the  Indus. 


Plato  n. 


EAST  ARYAN  ART  WORK.  Indican  Designs. 


BOOK  VI.-THE  INDICANS. 


Chapter  xxxvil.— Hotjsk  Peopi^e  ok  ^rya. 

Indian  civilization  was  planned  and  de- 
veloped. We  must  not  depreciate  the 
influence  of  phvsical  nature 

'■  ^  ...  Reactions  of  na- 
Upon  man  and  his  instl-  tureonmanand 
,     ,  .  ,->       ,  1  i  his  institutions. 

tutions.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  frankly  conceded  that  the  reaction- 
ary effect  of  universal  nature  on  the 
senses  and  intellections,  and  even  on  the 
emotions  and  passions  of  mankind,  is  one 
of  the  o-reatest  elements  in  determiningf 
the  course  and  character  of  human  de- 
velopment. 

The  country  in  which  the  house  build- 
ers of  ancient  Arya  were  destined,  most 
of  all,  to  display  their  native  dispositions 
and  acquired  activities,  may  well  serve  as 
an  illustration  of  the  potency,  not  to  say 
domination,  of  nature  over  man. 

The  name  India  is  of  recent  origin. 
If  we  consult  the  native  tongues  of  the 
East,  we  shall  find  no  sin 


iT  is  our  purpose  in  the 
current  chapter  to  pre- 
sent as  much  as  may 
be  gathered  relative  to 
one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting types  in  primi- 
tive civilization.     This 
is  the  method  of  life,  the  structure  of  the 
household,   the   form   of    domestic   and 
social  economy  adopted  by  the  primitive 
Aryans    of    India.      vSince 

Reason  for  the  . 

caption  "House   the  buildmg  of  a  liou.se  for 
eop  e  o     rya.     ^^  abode,  and  the  dwelling 

together  therein  of  one  man  and  one 
woman  with  their  children  in  the  inethod 
of  that  persistent  and  glorious  fact  called 
the  family,  constitute  the  leading  fea- 
ture, the  form  and  substance,  of  the  life 
of  this  far-off  division  of  our  own  race, 
the  caption  employed  for  the  present 
chapter  will  be  the  "  House  People  of 
Arya." 

Before  entering  upon  the  formal  elu- 
cidation of  the  social  life  of  this  people, 
it  is  desirable  to  note  the  features  of  the 
country  in  which  the  great  structure  of 


Derivation  and 

gle  word  sufficiently  com-  sense  of  the 

,  .  ,  -I    ^'         ii        name  India. 

prehensive    to    define    the 
country  which  we  are  now  to  consider. 
The  name  which  in  vSanskrit  would  most 
nearly  describe  the  vast  region  whicb 

641 


642 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


the  modern  nations  call  India,  would  be 
Blidrata-varslia,  signifying  the  land,  or 
kingdom,  of  Bharata.  The  latter  is  the 
name  of  a  legendary  monarcli  of  the 
Lunar  dynasty,  whose  dominion,  ac- 
cording to  the  Indie  mythology  and  tra- 
dition, was  perhaps  as  wide  as  the  aggre- 


of  the  Sanskrit  Sindliu,  or  Hindu,  mean- 
ing rivers;  and  this  is  the  fundamental 
sense  of  the  nomenclature.  "Rivers" 
was  the  name  which  the  primitive  Ar- 
yan folk,  coming  into  the  upper  valley 
from  the  table-lands  of  Iran  and  through 
the  gateways  of  the  Hindu-Kush,  first 


VIF.W  IX  SAI-r  \  SINDHU.-The  Mounchi-Eagh.— Drawn  by  G.  Vuillitr,  f,. 


..l..j,r.ii>h. 


gate  of  countries  now  called  by  the  gen- 
eral name  of  India. 

The  name    Hindustan  has  been  fre- 
quently used  by  geographers  to  desig- 

The sapta  Sind-  "''^^^  ^  '"^-^°'^  "^"^^^  broader 
hu  of  the  Old        than   the    limited    country 

Indicans.  .     .  .  .     ^,         ,-,.      1 

lying  north  of  the  \  md- 
hya  mountains;  but  such  usage  is  no 
longer  warranted.  The  name  India  is 
the  smoothed  and  melodized  Greek  form 


gave  to  the  country  now  known  by  the 
designation  of  Punjab,  or  Five  Rivers. 
It  is  thought,  however,  that  the  very 
oldest  designation  given  by  the  immi- 
grating  tribes  to  this  region  was  Sapta 
vSindhu,  or  Seven  Rivers,  the  two  streams 
additional  to  the  five  of  the  Punjab  being 
the  Indus  on  the  one  side  and  the  Saras- 
wati  on  the  other.  At  any  rate,  it  was 
into   this   country   of    many   rivers — so 


THE  INDICAXS.— HOUSE  PEOPLE    OF  ARYA. 


643 


many  that  they  constituted  the  leading 
geographical  feature,  and  impressed 
themselves  first  of  all  upon  the  imagi- 
nation of  the  new  folk  from  the  north- 
west— that  the  Old  Aryans  came  from 
their  native  seats  at  a  time  far  more  re- 
mote than  we  are  able  to  measure  by 
any  existing  system  of  chronology. 

These  tribal  immigrants  came  ulti- 
mately, as  we  shall  see  in  another  part 
Origin  and  wan-  of  this  work,  out  of  ancicnt 
deringsofthe      Bactria.     For  a  long  time 

Indican  immi-  <= 

grants.  after  their  departure  from 

their  primitive  seats  they  maintained 
a  nomadic,  or  rather  a  sort  of  pastoral, 
life  on  the  broad  plateaus  of  Iran.  Per- 
haps the  extent  of  their  wanderings  in  this 
region  will  never  be  ascertained ;  but  in 
process  of  time,  as  they  made  their  way 
further  and  further  to  the  east  and 
south,  they  descended  into  the  valley 
lands  of  the  Upper  Indus,  and  thence 
made  their  way  down  the  Sapta  Sindliu 
until  the  whole  region  between  the  Pun- 
jab and  the  sea  was  dominated  by  their 
influence. 

Great  were  the  climatic  and  other 
changes  which  they  experienced  in  this 
Aryan  mythoi-  migration  ;  and  it  is  easy  to 
ogy  modified  by    discover,  by  an  examination 

the  new  environ-  '     -' 

ment.  of   the    ancient    Indie  and 

Persic  mythologies  and  by  a  comparison 
of  the  one  with  the  other,  to  how  great 
an  extent  the  mythology  and  tradition 
of  the  migratory  Aryans  was  modified 
by  their  debouclmrc  into  the  valleys  of 
the  east.  The  somewhat  austere  and 
simple  ideas  of  Zoroastrianism  immedi- 
ately broke  out  into  an  inflected  mythol- 
ogy, almost  as  variable  in  its  forms  and 
development  as  that  of  Greece ;  and 
this,  no  doubt,  is  traceable  to  the  multi- 
farious aspects  and  phenomena  of  nature 
as  she  exhibited  herself  in  India,  in 
contrast  with  her  half-desert  singularity 
on  the  Iranian  table-lands  and  deserts. 


India  is  a  country  very  variable  in  its 
climatic  conditions.  The  sky  is  broad 
and     open,     flecked    with  „    .  ^ , 

^  .  .         Variability  of 

clouds,  and  invaded  at  in-  climatic  condi- 

.       1  .  rr:\        tions  in  India, 

tervals  by  storms.  Ihe 
heavens  by  night  are,  at  least  in  the  up- 
lands, almost  as  blue  and  starrj^  as  those 
of  Mesopotamia.  The  rainfall  varies 
with  the  season  and  the  district,  being 
less  than  thirty  inches  in  some  of  the 
drier  parts,  and  much  more  than  sixty 
inches  in  the  lowlands  near  the  sea.  But 
first  of  all,  something  should  be  said  of  the 
general  relations  and  geographical  fea- 
tures of  the  vast  region  stretching  from 
the  borders  of  Afghanistan  to  the  de- 
pendent mountain  spurs  which  divide 
Assam  from  Burmah. 

The  extreme  breadth  of  the  country 
called  India  is  about  twelve  hundred 
niiles,  and  its  extent  from  north  to  south 
fully  fifteen  hundred  miles.  Extent  and 
India  is  the  central  of  the  t^lsti'^^ 
three  great  peninsulas  country, 
which  -drop  from  the  backbone  of  Asia 
into  the  southern  ocean.  It  is  the  Italy 
of  Asia,  but  an  Italy  on  a  vaster  and 
grander  scale  than  that  which  depends 
from  the  Central  Alps  into  the  IMediter- 
ranean.  The  general  shape  of  the  In- 
dian peninsula  is  a  triangle,  having  its 
base  set  firmly  against  the  tremendous 
buttresses  of  the  Himalayas,  and  its  apex 
extending  far  into  the  warm  waters  of 
the  tropics.  The  southern  point  of  the 
country  reaches  to  the  eighth  parallel  of 
north  latitude;  and  its  northern  limit 
lies  under  parallel  thirty-five.  Within 
these  vast  boundaries  there  are  three 
distinct  geographical  areas.  First,  the 
great  uplifted  mountain  region,  from  the 
double  ridges  of  the  Himalayan  summits 
to  the  hill-country  at  their  foot.  Second, 
the  great  river  plains,  embracing  the 
larger  part  of  the  country,  and  bearing 
throuofh  various  channels  the  streams  of 


644 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


tending  to  iso- 
late the  Indican 
race. 


the  Punjab,  of  the  Brahmaputra  valley, 
and  of  the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  Third,  a 
peculiar,  triangular  table-land,  called  the 
Deccan,  rising  from  the  river  plains  just 
mentioned,  and  held  in  place  between 
the  Narbada  and  the  Kistna  rivers  and 
the  range  of  the  Vindhya  on  the  north. 
It  is  not  needed  in  a  history  of  man 
to  enter  into  the  minute  details  of  geog- 
Circumstances  raphy ;  but  the  general  fea- 
tures of  the  country  are  of 
prime  importance  to  the 
understanding  of  human  development. 
It  is  necessary  here  to  note,  first  of  all, 
the  inaccessible  barrier  of  the  Himalayas, 
shutting  off  India  from  connection  with 
the  rest  of  Asia.  The  average  height 
of  these  mountains  is  at  least  nineteen 
thousand  feet,  and  they  have  few  gate- 
ways by  which  the  country  lying  to  the 
south  may  be  approached.  It  is  believed 
that  the  Indie  Aryans  came,  in  part  at 
least,  through  these  mountain  fastnesses 
^vhen  they  first  reached  the  region  of 
their  future  abode  and  development.  If 
so,  however,  the  migration  must  have 
been  one  of  excessive  toil  and  danger, 
and,  the  river  valleys  having  once  been 
reached,  the  mountain  gates  behind 
would  .seem  to  close,  never  to  be  re- 
opened. 

Thus  we  find  that  the  Old  Aryans  of  the 
Ea.st,  having  completed  their  migration, 
found  themselves  isolated  from  the  rest 
of  mankind  and  placed  in  a  region  well 
suited  for  race  development.  It  is  not 
needed,  in  this  connection,  to  dwell  upon 
the  fact  that  these  people  were  the  last 
of  the  tribes  to  leave  their  old  Bactrian 
abode,  and  that  they  had  less  of  the 
migratory  or  roving  disposition  than 
any  of  their  kinsfolk  who  removed 
from  the  same  region,  at  earlier  dates, 
into  the  plateau  of  Iran  or  the  fa- 
European  islands  and  peninsulas  of  the 
West. 


The  instinct  of  remaining — what  the 
philosophers  would  call  the  aiiiniKS  man- 
endi— was       thus      stronger   Thelndicans 

with  the  Indie  Aryans  than  j^^iSh;; 
with  any  other  branch  of  others, 
the  great  family  to  which  they  belonged. 
They  were  more  localized  in  their  dis- 
positions, and  less  adventurous  than  the 
kin.speople  with  whom  they  had  been 
associated  from  the  beginning.  They 
now  found  themselves  in  beautiful  river 
valleys  and  fertile  viplands  backed  by 
mountains,  well  suited  to  promote  the 
growth  and  expansion  of  those  qualities 
which  race  instinct  and  innate  prefer- 
ence had  given  them.  They  were  alone 
among  the  peoples  at  a  date  much  more 
than  two  thousand  j-ears  before  the 
Christian  era.  All  the  circumstances  of 
their  situation  tended  powerfully  to  de- 
veloj?  a  type  of  life  j^eculiar  in  every  fea- 
ture. ^ 

It  is  not  intended  in  this  place  to 
sketch  the  character  of  the  Indie  mind 
and  philosophy,  except  in  so  far  as  the 
.same  may  have  appeared  in  its  most  rudi- 
mentary stages.  The  present  chapter 
is  devoted  to  the  ])riniitive  condition 
of  the  race  as  it  is  revealed  to  us  in 
its  earliest  aspects  and  conditions.  Let 
us,  then,  proceed  to  note  as  much  as 
may  be  authentically  gathered  of  the 
primitive  condition  of  these  old  peoples 
of  the  Indian  valleys. 

On  their  reaching  the  regions  which 
they  were   to  inhabit,   the  Arj'an    folk 
from     the      northwest     found     already 
in  the  countrv  an  aborig-  The  immigrant 
inal     people    which     they  f^f^f^^f^.^^ 
had  to  crowd  out  of  their  country, 
way.     It  is  not  known  by  how  much  ag- 
gression and  force  these  aborigines  were 
driven  from  their  seats.     Nor  can  it  be 
well  ascertained  to  what  extent  the  fu- 
ture race  was  modified  by  the  absorption 
of  the  primitive  tribes  of  the  country. 


846 


GREAT  RACES   OF  .\L\XKIXD. 


Those  who  have  investigated  the  sub- 
ject most  closely  differ  in  their  estimates 
of  the  extent  to  which  the  future  people 
of  India  were  influenced  in  their  blood 
and  character  by  contact  with  the  old 
tribes  whom  they  overcame  and  dispos- 
sessed of  their  native  seats.  Perhaps 
the  best  judgment  is  that  which  assigns 
but  a  small  modification  on  account  of 
the  absorption  of  characteristics  from  the 
primitive  races.  The  situation,  doubt- 
less, was  not  very  different,  in  some  re- 
spects, from  that  which  another  Aryan 
people,  after  nearly  four  thousand  years, 
discovered  by  their  impact  on  the  abo- 
riginal races  of  the  New  World.  The 
great  adventurers  from  Western  Europe, 
precipitating  themselves  upon  the  east- 
ern coasts  of  North  America,  settling 
there  and  planting  a  new  civilization, 
were  not  greatly  modified,  either  at  the 
beginning  or  at  any  subsequent  period, 
by  their  contact  with  the  Red  men  whom 
they  displaced  from  the  country.  In  some 
other  regions  conquest  has  given  a  dif- 
ferent result.  The  Latin  races,  victori- 
ous over  the  provincial  peoples  Avho 
held  Europe  in  the  time  of  the  Roman 
ascendency,  assimilated  freely  with 
those  whom  they  conquered  and  sub- 
dued. As  already  indicated,  it  is  not 
now  possible  to  determine  with  exacti- 
tude how  much  of  the  original  human 
life  of  India  w-as  absorbed  into  the  new 
Aryan  life  which  came  by  migration  and 
conquest. 

The  caption  of  the  present  chapter  has 
already  hinted  at  what  may  be  regarded 
„  as    the   primarv  character- 

House-building      .      .  ■'  ^ 

instincts  of  the     istic  of  the  primitive   Ar- 

East  Aryans.  ^  t      i  •  /tm 

yans  of  India.  ihej'' were 
the  builders  of  houses,  the  makers  of 
homes,  the  organizers  of  families.  This 
is  the  distinctive  feature  of  that  primi- 
tive life  which  we  see  afar  in  the  valleys 
of   the  East,  and  also  of  the  semitribal 


life  which  we  behold  in  process  of  evolu- 
tion among  the  early  ]\Iedes  and  Per- 
sians, the  Greeks,  the  Italic  races,  and 
even  the  Teutonic  tribes  of  the  north. 
They  were  all  makers  of  hou.se.s — houses 
above  ground,  built  from  the  material 
furnished  by  nature,  and  constructed 
with  special  reference  to  the  permanent 
abode  and  comfort  of  a  single  house- 
hold. 

It  may  well  surprise  us  to  reflect  that 
the  primitive  houses  of  the  Indian  valley, 
built  by  a  branch  of  our  an-  sympathy  of 
cestral'  races  long  before  f/eeTIJi'in '^^ 
Sanskrit  was  Sanskrit  or  ■■^°°^  structure. 
Greek  was  Greek,  had  the  same  general 
form  and  substance  and  design  as  the 
houses  built  by  the  wanderers  and  pio- 
neers of  the  New  World  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  of  our  era.  There  has 
always  been  a  close  sympathy  between 
the  man  of  Arya  and  the  tree.  He  has 
always  looked  upon  the  tree  as  his  friend. 
He  has  seen  in  it  the  possibility  of  pro- 
tection and  comfort  and  plenty.  He  has 
used  it  as  the  auxiliary  of  his  develop- 
ment. Already,  on  his  entrance  into 
the  Indian  valleys,  he  knew  how  to 
create  a  house,  to  frame  a  structure  out 
of  the  trunks  of  trees.  The  Old  Medes 
had  learned  this .  lesson  on  the  great 
plateau,  and  it  is  not  a  little  instructive 
to  note  the  fact  that  antiquarian  research 
has  not  until  the  present  day  discovered 
a  single  Median  structure  left  to  us  in 
ruin  or  tradition  which  was  not  made  of 
wood. 

Stone  buildings  and  buildings  of  bricks 
were  things  somewhat  repugnant  to  the 
first  instincts  of  the  East-  Name  of  the 
ern  Aryan  races.  These  ^--;^-^  ^"^^^ 
forms  of  structure  came  therewith, 
only  by  development  and  discipline,  and 
belong  to  the  aesthetic  periods  of 
national  life.  To  fell  the  tree,  to  cut 
and  square  the  trunk,  to  put  it  in  place  in 


THE   IXDICANS.— HOUSE   PEOPLE    OF  ARYA. 


647 


four  solid  walls,  and  put  a  roof  over  the 
space  for  an  abode,  was  the  fundamental 
idea  with  the  Aryan  peoples.  He  called 
it  his  house,  a  word  which  is  common  to 
every  branch  of  the  great  Aryan  speech, 
from  the  oldest  to  the  youngest.  Nor 
are  we  able  to  discover  a  period  of  tribal 
life  so  remote  that  the  house  was  not  the 
tangible  evidence  and  bottom  fact.  Of 
the  exact  forms  which  the  structure 
assumed,  we  have  no  precise  informa- 
tion ;  but  the 
general  nature 
of  the  primitive 
abodes  of  our 
own  race,  as  dis- 
tinguished from 
those  of  the 
Semites  and  Tu- 
ranians, was  as 
defined  above, 
and  its  purpose 
was  to  consti- 
tute a  fixed 
home  for  a  man 
and  a  woman, 
with    their     off- 


singular  core  of  the  household  to  which 
all  the  rest  adheres  and  without  which  it 
falls  instantly  into  disintegration  and 
ruin.  His  life  is  the  constant  barrier  be- 
tween it  and  all  harm.  His  valor  and 
strength  are  the  safeguards  and  guaranty 
of  his  own  place,  which  stands  apart 
from  the  rest  and  holds  his  treasures. 
In  all  the  tribes  which  have  sprung  from 
that  original  Bactrian  fountain,  bubbling 
up  with  human  fecundity  in  remote  pre- 


PRIMITIVE   BUILDING   OF 
Drawn 


The  man  was 

called  pitar ;    in 

Greek,  pater  ;  in 

Anglo-Saxon,    feeder;    that    is,    father. 

^  ,         The  father  was  the  funda- 

Nature  of  the 

household ;  the      mental    fact    of    the    house- 
paternal  name.       .      .  -.  _.,  , 

hold.  ihe  word  means 
the  protector.  And  it  is  upon  this  idea 
that  the  whole  structure  of  Aryan  society, 
ancient  and  modern,  is  founded.  The 
father  protects  his  house  and  household. 
They  are  his.  The  idea  is  that  of  a  nest. 
He  is  the  roof  above  it.  He  defends  it. 
His  arm  is  bared  for  its  protection, 
and  his  faculties  are  all  vigilant  lest 
harm  come  to  his  abode.  He  is  the  stem 
around  which  the  whole  structure  is 
gathered    and    developed.       He  is   the 


THE   INDUS   VALLEY. — HOUSE    I.N   THE   KOULOU. 
by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a  photograph. 

historic    ages,   fatJterltood  and  protection 
have  been  inseparable  synonyms. 

As  a  necessary  adjunct  to  this  central 
fact  called  the  father  in  the  Arj'an 
household,  was  the  institution  of  mo- 
nogamy.    Single  marriage 

^         ^  »  »       The  fact  and 

was  the  rule  from  the  be-  sentiment  of 

rr\^  ■  e  single  marriage. 

ginning.  The  union  of  one 
man  with  one  woman,  perpetually  de- 
voted the  one  to  the  other,  was  the  fun- 
damental concept  of  the  creative  relation 
and  of  the  outward  fact  called  the  home. 
It  appears,  moreover,  that  this  union 
among  the  Aryan  peoples  has  always 
bpftn  based  on  the  sentiment  of  affectio". 


648 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


A  preference,  loving  and  tender,  has 
ahvays  existed,  at  least  a  preferenee  of 
the  man  for  the  woman.  It  is  doubtful, 
indeed,  if  the  preference  of  the  woman 
for  the  man  has  ever  been  wholly  ig-- 
nored  in  any  Aryan  tribe.  It  is  true 
that  the  idea  of  ownership,  the  belief 
and  practice  that  the  man  was  not  only 


strong-  contradistinction   to  the  polyga- 
mous practices  of  the  Semitic  races  and  the 
polyandry  of  many  of  the  The  Aryan 
barbarian  families  of  man-  'Z^^''^::. 
kind,   the   single   marriage  ogamic. 
of  the  Aryan  household  stands  preemi- 
nent.     Further  on  we  shall  see  that  this 
principle  of  monogamy  was    so  strong 


.MODERN   HOUSES  OF  TDK  SAl'TA  SINUUU.— V 


ii.L.\(,ii  IN  THE  KouLOU.— Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a  pliotograph. 


the  possessor  but  the  ozvner  of  the  woman, 
has  prevailed  among  many  of  even  the 
leading  peoples  of  our  race.  But  a 
close  study  of  primitive  conditions  will 
show  that  even  at  the  earliest  emergence 
from  barbarism  some — even  much — def- 
erence was  given  to  the  sentiments  and 
instincts  of  the  woman. 

However  this  may  be,  the  monogamic 
relation    is    certain    and   definite.      In 


am^ng  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  to  be 
by  them  communicated  and  forced  upon 
the  prevalent  social,  political,  and  reli- 
gious systems  of  the  world. 

In  the  valle}'  of  the  Indus  the  primitive 
Ar\'an   household  was   or- 

Institution  of 

ganized  on  these  prmciples.  the  family;  office 
A  house  was  built.      A   fa-  °f  t^«  «'°ti'e'^- 
ther  declared   himself.         He   took    on 
woman    in    marriage.     He    became  her 


THE  INDICANS.— HOUSE   PEOPLE    OF  ARYA. 


649 


protector  and  the  defender  of  the  house 
where  she  dwelt  and  where  he  dwelt 
with  her.  When  the  child  was  born, 
his  fatherhood  was  emphasized.  He 
was  the  protector  also  of  the  child — of 
the  children.  They  grew  around  him. 
He  was  the  center  of  the  primitive 
home,  its  defender  from  harm,  and  the 
fundamental  fact  of  its  existence.  And 
this  brings  tis  to  consider  the  mother  in 
/^^/- office  and  character  as  she  is  revealed 
to  us  in  the  Aryan  dawn. 

The  mother  in  Arya  was  the  pro- 
ducer, that  is,  the  producer  of  life.  She 
was  the  genetrix,  the  wellspring.  When 
the  name  of  mother  (Sanskrit  vidta)  was 
first  given  her,  she  was  thought  of  as 
the  blessed  origin  of  being,  the  bearer 
of  the  new  living  form  which  the 
father  was  to  acknowledge  and  protect." 
As  to  her  own  being,  it  was  wedded  to 
that  of  the  man.  She  lost  her  name 
and  her  family  relationship  by  her  union 
with  the  man.  She  was  taken  oiit  of 
the  household  to  which  she  belonged  in 
girlhood  and  transferred  to  the  man. 
To  this  extent  she  became  his.  At 
least,  she  was  of  Jiim,  and  her  identity 
was  henceforth  merged  with  his  in  the 
household  which  they  had  founded.  But 
the  household  took  its  origin  in  him, 
bore  his  name,  and  was  under  his  pro- 
tection and  sovereignty. 

We  are  able,  by  means  of  linguistic 
study,  to  penetrate  the  inner  life  of  the 
The  son  and  primitive  house  of  Arya, 
sfgr^'canc'e 'oV  ^"^^  to  discover  its  methods, 
their  names.  The  names  given  to  the 
son  and  the  daughter  indicate,  as  clearly 
as  can  be,  the  offices  which  they  held  in 


'  The  fundamenta!  unity  of  the  idea  of  mother 
among  all  the  Aryan  peoples  is  shown  by  the  identity 
of  the  word  in  the  different  languages — thus :  San- 
skrit, 7n&ia  ;  Old  Persic,  mata;  Greek,  initlr;  Latin, 
mater;  Old  Slav,  matt;  O.  H.  Ger.,  jnuotar ; 
Gaelic,  maihair,  etc.,  etc. 
M.— Vol.  I — 42 


the  family.  The  ideas  upon  which  the 
organizations  depended  are  clearly  shown 
by  the  words  employed  to  define  the 
household  relations.  As  for  the  son,  he 
was  called  sunn,  meaning  the  begotten, 
and  the  thought  was  that  as  the  begotten 
of  his  father  he  was  to  be  his  successor 
and  representative.  He  was  named  ac- 
cordingly ;  and  we  are  thus  able  to  see  at 
the  very  foundation  of  Aryan  life  the 
notion  which  the  primitive  father  had  of 
his  male  offspring. 

The  daughter  was  named  on  a  differ- 
ent principle.  They  called  her  at  the 
first  diiliitar,  a  term  of  endearment,  sig- 
nificant in  its  first  intent  of  the  tender- 
ness with  which  the  girl-child  was  re- 
garded. Her  place  in  the  household  was 
affectional.  She  was  the  darling  from 
her  birth,  and  this  relation  of  loving  ten- 
derness she  continued  to  bear  in  the 
family  until  her  transplanting  out  of  it 
to  the  side  of  her  husband.  But  while 
she  continued  to  be  duhitar,  the  daughter, 
she  also,  in  maidenhood,  took  on  another 
name  or  names  significant  of  her  place 
and  duty.  Instead  of  being  called  duhi- 
tar, she  was  nicknamed  milkmaid,  and 
by  this  simple  fact  we  ai-e  let  into  a  sec- 
tion of  the  daily  life  of  the  household. 
It  was  her  duty,  on  arriving  at  mature 
maidenhood,  to  milk  the  cows  and  goats, 
and  her  duty  in  this  respect  was  so  clear- 
ly defined  as  to  warrant  her  nickname 
milkmaid.  By  this  title  she  was  called 
without  disparagement,  and  her  original 
office  has  been  carried  with  the  frag- 
ments of  speech  into  several  modern 
languages. 

If  we  scrutinize  more  closely  the 
method     of    life     pursued  _    ^ 

^  Predominance  01 

at   the  beginning    by    the  the  agricultural 

T     -,.  ,  1      11    instinct. 

Indic     Aryans,     we     shall 
find  them  to  be  a  people  of  the   soil. 
They   lived    from  the  resources  of  the 
earth  produced  by  cultivation.     In  these 


650 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKTND. 


migrating  tribes  the  agricultural  impulse 
was  dominant  from  the  first.  They 
were  peculiarly   a    people    of    ground- 


HOUSE  PEOPLE   OF   ARVA — THE   DUHITAR. 


itive  life  of  the  Aryans  is  so  strongly 
marked  as  to  have  left  its  own  demon- 
stration   and  history  in   the   languages 

spoken  b}-  the 
different  races  of 
this  stock.  Nor 
can  it  fail  of  in- 
terest, even  to 
the  unlearned 
reader,  to  note 
the  proof  and  il- 
lustration of  the 
agricultural  as- 
pect of  Arj^an 
life  by  an  ex- 
amination of 
that  group  of 
words  which  ex- 
hibit the  fact 
most  strikingly. 
The  word  Ar- 
yan is  from  the 
Sanskrit  Arja, 
meaning  "no- 
ble." It  signifies 
thenobilityof  the 
agricultural  caste 
in  ancient  India. 
The  plowmen 
were  the  noble 
people,  and  were 
socalledby  them- 
selves from  the 
begfinning.  The 
root  AR  means 
to  plow,  and  this 
signification  is 
traceable  in 
nearly  every  dia- 
lect of  Aryan 
speech.  In  Latin 
«r-are     Avas      to 


glebe.      It 


julture.  They  plowed  the 
was  their  vocation  to  plant  seeds  and  de- 
velop the  growing  stalk  to  maturity  and 
fruitage.     This  peculiarity  of  the  prim- 


In  Greek  rt'r-oun  had  . 

Meaning  and  ap- 
Even    plication  of  the 

Old    Enoflish    we   have  '^°^ 


plow 

the  same  meaning 

in 

the  expression  to  car  the  ground,  meaU' 


THE  INDICANS.— HOUSE  PEOPLE    OF  ARYA. 


651 


ing  to  plow.  In  the  forty-fifth  chapter 
of  Genesis  occurs  the  expression ,  ' '  There 
shall  neither  be  ^vrring-  nor  harvest." 
This  signifies,  "There  shall  be  neither 
ploiviiig  nor  harvest  time."  Ancient 
geographical  names  in  all  parts  of  the 
Aryan  world  have  preserved  the  traces 
of  this  word.  The  old  name  of  Thrace 
was  Ar-xa..     The  ancient  name  of  the 


vocation  of  the  Aryan  race.  The  names 
of  men  in  various  parts  of  the  world 
have  carried  forward  the  same  noble 
tradition ;  and  that  great  German  leader 
with  whom  Julius  Caesar  contended  for 
the  mastery  of  Europe  was  called  Ar- 
iovistus.  All  these  facts  prove  beyond 
doubt  that  the  vocation  of  this  great 
branch  of  the  human  family  was  agri- 


HOUSE  PEOPLE  OF  ARYA— THE  TILLERS  OF  THE  SOIL. 


Median  and  Persian  plateau  was  /r-an, 
meaning  the  land  of  the  Aryans.  The 
name  of  //-^--land,  formerly  written  Eirc- 
land,  preserves  the  same  root,  and  the 
poetical  name  Er-\n,  sometimes  sup- 
posed to  mean  the  land  of  the  west,  is 
only  the  same  word,  and  signifies  the 
land  of  the  plow.  Aye,  the  very  word 
f^r-th  is  doubtless  the  same,  preserving 
in  its  spelling  and  pronunciation  the  un- 
mistakable   evidence   of    the   primitive 


cultural,  and  this  at  a  period  before  the 
breakup  of  the  ancient  tribes  in  the  orig- 
inal seats  of  Bactria.  Thej'  were  the 
people  of  the  plow  long  before  the  Hel- 
lenes were  known  to  history  or  the  an- 
cient Medes  had  appeared  as  a  power  on 
the  Iranian  plains. 

The  general  character  of  the  earl}' life 
of  man  is  largely  discoverable  by  his  re- 
lations with  the  other  animals.  From 
his   appearance   on    the    earth,   be    the 


652 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKINi. 


mode  and  the  time  of  that  appearance 
whatever  it  may,  he  has  been  in  close 
Relations  of  the  affiliation  with  the  lower  or- 
indicanswith       |  £  being.      The   dis- 

tame  and  -wild  «> 

beasts.  tinction  between  wild  and 

domestic  animals  is  doubtless  fictitious. 
All  animals  at  the  first  were  wild.  vSome 
species  have,  in  process  of  time,  been 
tamed  by  the  superior  wit  and  contriv- 
ance of  man ;  and  the  creatures  thus  do- 
mesticated have  acquired  the  instinct  of 
docility.  The  peculiarities  of  the  Old 
Aryan  life  of  India  are  again  revealed  in 
the  character  of  the  animals  which  they 
succeeded  in  subduing.  They  are  those 
peculiar  to  the  agricultural  life.  The 
horse  was  their  servant  long  before  their 
migration  from  the  Bactrian  uplands. 
Tradition  has  preserved  even  into  the 
dawn  of  authentic  historj'  the  story  of 
the  horses  of  the  Medes  and  Persians. 
The  Indie  Aryans  were  equally  the  mas- 
ters of  this  noble  animal,  but  with  them 
he  was  bred  and  reared  rather  for  the 
service  of  the  field  and  the  household 
than  for  swiftne.ss  in  flight  or  the  charge 
of  battle.  The  horse  in  the  Indian  val- 
le\'s  partook  in  course  of  time  of  the 
mild  and  docile  qualities  of  the  people, 
and  obeyed  somewhat  the  influences  of 
his  environment. 

So  also  of  the  cattle  and  the  sheep. 
Both  were  domesticated  and  drawn 
The  agricultural  around  the  Aryan  house. 
th:dote\"can".  F™"^  the  earliest  days 
imais.  of  the  migration  wild  cat- 

tle still  existed  in  the  uplands  of  Persia 
and  perhaps  in  the  mountain  countries 
of  the  north ;  but  the  kine  of  the  valle3^s 
were  domesticated,  and  were  used  for 
food  and  service  more  than  fifteen  hun- 
dred years  before  the  conquest  of  Alex- 
ander. Likewise,  the  goat  was  among 
the  tamed  animals  of  the  primitive  In- 
dians. He  was  eaten  as  to  his  flesh,  and 
from  the  ewes  was  derived  the  principal 


supply  of  milk,  with  its  secondary  prod- 
ucts of  butter  and  cheese.  So  also  was 
the  dog — but  not  the  cat — the  con'stant 
companion  of  these  people.  Indeed, 
the  whole  life  of  the  Aryan  household 
was  of  the  strictly  agricultural  type  ;  and 
it  may  well  surprise  us  to  find  repre- 
sented in  the  daily  curriculum  of  the 
oldest  tribes  of  our  race  so  many  of  the 
features,  the  methods,  and  characteristics 
of  the  modern  family. 

Strangely  enough,  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  ancient  Aryans  of  India  were 
much  acquainted  with  the  Names  of  wild 
wild  beasts  of  the  woods.  "^^^^^^^ 
At  any  rate,  such  acquaint-  languages, 
ance  as  they  had  seems  to  have  been 
gained  after  the  departure  -from  their 
kinsfolk  of  the  highlands  and  their  com- 
ing into  the  Indian  valleys.  These  facts 
we  know  again  from  the  testimony  of 
language.  The  names  of  the  wild  beasts 
are  generally  different  in  the  different 
Aryan  languages.  If  the  bear,  for  in- 
stance, or  the  wolf  had  been  familiar  to 
the  tribes  before  the  migration  from  their 
original  seats,  they  would  have  given 
him  a  name,  and  that  name  would  have 
been  common  in  the  various  dialects 
arising  from  the  common  source.  So 
also  of  the  other  fierce  beasts  of  the 
woods.  But  we  find  that  the  wild  crea- 
tures have  each  a  specific  name  in  the 
different  Aryan  tongues,  from  which  the 
nonacquaintance  of  the  primitive  folk 
with  such  beasts  is  clearly  inferred. 

If  we  glance  at  the  implements  and 
utensils  of  the  Old  Aryan  household,  we 
shall  find  another  illustra-  Names  of  impie. 
tion  of  the  peaceful  agri-  rhrmanteVo'J-"" 
cultural  life  which  they  led .  life. 
The  various  implements  of  tillage  are 
named  in  common  by  the  different 
Aryan  folk  who  used  them.  The  plow, 
the  rake,  and  the  hoe,  the  iron  ax  and 
sickle,    and  many   other  of    the    imple- 


THE   INDICANS— HOUSE  PEOPLE    OF  ARYA. 


653 


ments  of  husbandry  were  manifestly  in 
use  by  the  immigrants  who  peopled 
ancient  India.  But  here  again  we  find 
a  different  result  when  we  look  at  the 
names  of  the  implements  of  the  chase 
and  of  war.  The  name  of  the  bow  and 
arrow,  the  spear,  the  lance,  and  the 
sword  are  different  in  the  different  dia- 
lects which  sprang  from  the  common 
source ;  and  we  are  able  by  such  means 
to  discover  that  hunting  and  the   still 


at  eventide.  It  is  i:nmistakably  true 
that  the  leading  features  of  the  primitive 
Aryan  home  of  India  had  an  outline  of 
identity  with  those  of  Greece  and  Italy, 
and  even  of  the  Teutonic  fastnesses  of 
the  north  and  the  oak  woods  of  Britain. 
Unto  this  day  many  words  still  live  in 
India  and  in  England  that  had  a  common 
birth  and  common  meaning  before  the 
separation  of  the  ancient  tribes  from  the 
Bactrian  homestead,    and    these    words 


HOUSE  PEOPLE  OF  ARVA— THE  AGRICULTURAL  LIFE. 


more  exciting  vocations  of  war  were 
phases  of  life  comparatively  unknown  to 
the  primitive  Aryans,  and  only  super- 
imposed upon  their  ancient  agricultural 
life  at  a  later  date  and  under  foreign 
influences. 

War  and  the  chase  were  not  the  native 
pursuits  of  these  peaceable  people ;  and 
Indications  of  a  the  Very  nomenclature  of 
their  household  and  garden 
utensils  is  sufficient  of  it- 
self to  establish  their  character  as  men 
of  the  field  by  day  and  the  hearthstone 


peaceable  and 
domestic  race 
character. 


and  forms  of  speech  bear  unmistakable 
evidence  of  the  common  primitive  life 
which  all  these  tribes  inherited  from  a 
common  ancestry.  The  name  for  house 
is  the  same  in  all.  So  also  the  names 
for  father  and  mother,  for  son  and 
daughter,  for  dog  and  cow,  for  heart  and 
tears,  for  ax  and  tree,  for  plow  and 
doorway — all  are  common  in  their  origin 
and  meaning  in  the  whole  group  of 
Indo-European  languages.  And  thus 
are  we  able,  by  linguistic  research  and 
careful  comparison,    to  draw  from   the 


654 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


prehistoric  shadows  a  tolerably  accurate 
outline  of  that  primitive  life  which  was 
led  by  the  Aryans  of  India  before  the 
Veda  was  sung,  and  even  by  their  own 
ancestral  tribes  long  before  the  Zend- 
Avesta  had  taken  form  in  the  minds 
of  the  Iranian  bards  and  philosophers. 

Thus  we  see,  in  a  very  remote  pre- 
historic age,   certainly  as  much  as  two 
thousand  vears  before  our 

Synopsis  of  the 

aspects  of  life      era,  the  incoming  of   cer- 

In  Old  India.  ^    •  .  .    -i  •    .. 

tarn  migratory  tribes  into 
the  great  country  which  we  call  India. 
We  see  them  settling  there  and  develop- 
ing according  to  the  laws  of  their  own 
instinct  and  the  influences  of  their  en- 
vironment. We  see  them  building 
houses  and  organizing  families  on  the 
basis  of  monogamy.  We  see  them 
localized  in  their  abodes  and  in  close 
relation  with  the  soil,  from  which  they 
derived  their  subsistence  by  means  of 
regular  cultivation.  We  see  them  de- 
voting themselves  to  the  pursuits  of 
peace ;  emplo3-ing  the  domestic  animals 
and  using  the  implements  of  husbandry, 


i  driving  the  oxen  to  the  plow  and  bearing 
the  milk  pail  from  the  goatfold  at  even- 

I  ing.  We  see  them  but  little  acquainted 
with  the  chase  and  little  disposed  to  the 
dangers  and  excitements  of  war,  a  pecul- 
iar people,  given  to  peace  and  dreading 
the  hazards  and  alarms  of  conflict  and 
battle.  We  see  them  following  from 
generation  to  generation,  even  from 
century  to  century,  the  same  primitive 
methods  of  life  until,  in  the  process  of 
time  and  with  the  rise  of  more  aggres- 
sive and  adventurous  peoples  in  other 
parts  of  Asia,  their  national  life  is  at  last 
thrust  into  the  faint  dawn  of  authentic 
history.  Then  it  is  that  the  priest  is 
heard  chanting  the  songs  of  the  Veda, 
and  the  old  philosopher  of  Arya  begins 
to  teach  his  mystic  beliefs  to  dreaming 
followers  in  the  valleys  of  the  East. 
When  we  anive  at  this  juncture  in  the 
history  of  the  Indie  races,  it  will  be  time 
for  us  to  pass  from  the  purely  primitive 
aspect  of  Aryan  life  in  India  to  consider 
its  tribal  and  historical  relations — as  will 
be  done  in  the  following  chapters. 


Chapter  XXXVIII.— Relioion. 


N  the  entrance  of  the 
Old  Aryans  into  the 
Indian  valleys  all  the 
ethnic  harmonies  of 
the  race  were  softened 
into  a  minor  key. 
There  was  a  loss  of 
intellectual  force,  with  a  gain  of  imagi- 
nation ;  a  loss  of  bodily  energy,  with  a 
General  effect  of  gain  of  activitv ;  a  loss 
th:E;iXa:s  of  adventure,  with  a  gain 
into  India.  of   dreaming.     Every  ele- 

ment of  the  originally  robust  Aryan 
character,  as  it  had  shown  itself  through 
all  the  stage?   r:  drifting  from  the  Bac- 


trian  homestead  through  the  mountaiti 
passes  into  the  Punjab,  was  toned 
down  and  soon  forced,  by  a  new  disci- 
pline, to  vibrate  to  a  softer  chant. 
Every  force  of  nature  conspired  by  its 
reaction  on  the  faculties  of  man  to 
abridge  freedom,  cool  passion,  assuage 
tribal  heat,  and  diffuse  a  calmer  mood. 

We  come  now  to  consider  the  old  life 
of  India,  always  an  obscure  problem  in 
the  history  of  mankind.  We  have  al- 
ready considered  those  ancient  migra- 
tory movements  which  carried  down  the 
peoples  of  our  ancestral  race,  by  succes- 
sive waves  into  the  Punjab,  and  thence 


656 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


southward  and  eastward  to  the  ocean 
and  the  mountains.  We  have  even 
noted  some  of  the  original  conditions 
which  surrounded  the  immigrants  and 
conduced  to  the  formation  of  a  new  race 
character.  The  attentive  reader  is  by 
this  time  tolerably  informed  with  re- 
spect to  the  ethnic  inheritance  which  the 
Aryans  brought  with  them  into  India ; 
of  their  dispositions  and  peculiarities, 
and  the  beginnings  of  the  institutional 
form  which  they  carried  along  on  their 
way  from  the  highlands  of  Iran  into  the 
lowlands  of  Sapta  vSindhu.  It  shall 
now  be  our  object  to  take  up  the  trans- 
planted life  of  the  Old  Aryans,  and  to 
note  its  evolution  into  new  forms  pecul- 
iar to  the  East. 

We  are  here  on  the  threshold  of  Brali- 
manism.  Perhaps  it  will  be  well  first  of 
indican religious  all  to  notc  the  peculiarities 
Sed  b/tl7''  "f  tl."«  ancient  faith,  and  es- 
Brahmans.  peciallv  its  divergence  from 

the  system  of  Zoroaster.  The  term  is 
derived  from  the  Brahmans,  the  sacer- 
dotal caste  of  the  Hindu  family,  who 
have,  from  the  most  ancient  times,  been 
the  custodians  of  the  national  faith,  pre- 
serving its  dogmas  and  directing  its 
ceremonial.  In  their  hands — such  is 
their  antiquity  and  such  their  influence 
over  the  destinies  of  Indian  civilization 
— both  the  linguistic  and  the  religious 
development  of  the  Indian  race  have 
been  determined,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
note  the  almost  perfect  parallelism  of 
the  changes  from  the  Old  Aryan  tongue 
to  the  modern  languages  of 'Hindustan, 
and  the  corresponding  inflections  of  the 
old  religious  beliefs  into  the  forms  and 
ceremonials  of  the  existing  races  of 
India. 

The  doctrines  of  Brahmanism  are 
summed  up  and  contained  in  a  body  of 
sacred  writings,  under  the  collective 
name  of  the  Veda.     The  word  signifies 


"knowledge,"  or  "  revelation."  Perhaps 
the  older  portions  thereof  are  the  oldest 
written   compositions   now 

'■  Nature  and 

in    possession   of   the    hu-  extent  of  the 
man  race,  unless  we  should 
except  certain  parts  of  the  Chinese  liter- 
ature, concerning  the  antiquity  of  which 
the    Western  peoples   are  not  well  in- 
formed. 

The  Veda  consists  of  four  parts,  or 
collections  of  sacred  texts,  called  San- 
hitas,  or  IVIantras.  The  texts  include 
not  only  expositions  of  doctrine  and 
revelations  of  the  gods,  but  also  hymns 
and  incantations  and  prayers  and  sacri- 
ficial forms  peculiar  to  the  national  re- 
ligion. The  first  major  division  of  the 
whole  work  is  known  as  the  ^/(7^-Veda, 
commonly  written  Rig- Veda ;  the  second 
is  the  Sainan-'W&AdL,  or  Sama-Veda ;  the 
third  is  the  Frt/>/j//-Veda,  written  Yajur- 
Veda;  and  the  fourth,  the  AtJiarvan- 
Veda,  or  Atharva-Veda.  Each  of  these 
greater  parts  has  its  i^eculiarities,  and 
the  whole  covers  a  vast  epoch  as  it  re- 
lates to  the  time  of  composition. 

In  addition  to  the  sacred  texts  proper, 
there  is  a  large  mass  of  prose  writings 
attached  thereto  called  the  Additional  writ- 
Brahmanas.  The  subject-  ^f^ThTsal^fd 
matter  of  these  relates  to  text. 
the  ceremonial  application  of  the  sacred 
texts,  the  proper  method  of  conducting 
the  rites,  and  other  practical  and  exposi- 
tory matters.  There'  are  two  other  kinds 
of  commentaries  or  appendages  to  the 
Vedas,  called  the  Aranyakas  and  the 
Upanishads,  the  former  of  which  are 
analogous  in  subject  to  the  Brahmanas, 
being  in  the  nature  of  a  comment  and 
explanation  upon  the  sense  and  proper 
usage  of  the  sacred  books.  The  Upani- 
shads, however,  are  more  philosophical 
in  their  character.  They  contain  the 
great  body  of  speculations  on  the  prob- 
lems of  life  and  of  destiny,  particularly 


THE   IN  Die  A  NS. —RELIGION. 


657 


that  part  of  philosophy  which  relates  to 
the  universe  and  its  religion.  These 
commentaries  and  expositional  parts  of 
the  Hindic  Bible  come  down  to  a  com- 
paratively recent  date,  from  which  cir- 
cumstance the  sacred  language  of  India 
may  be  studied  entirely  from  the  reli- 
gious texts.  Nearly  every  inflection 
and  linguistic  development  which  has 
taken  place  from  the  most  ancient  vSan- 
skrit  to  Hindustani  niay  be  gathered 
and  understood  from  an  examination  of 
the  Vedas,  with  their  accompanying 
gloss  and  commentaries. 

It  is  the  Rig- Veda  which  constitutes  the 
essence  of  the  whole.  It  corresponds 
with  the  Gathas  of  the  Avesta,  contain- 
Essenceofthe  ing  the  hvmns  and  other 
t^ineTin' the  ly^^al  cffusions  of  the  carli- 
Rig-Veda.  gst  Aryan  settlers  in  India. 

It  is  clear,  however,  that  these  most  an- 
cient songs  differ  greatly  among  them- 
selves in  date  of  composition.  Some  of 
them  represent  the  language  in  its  old- 
est aspect,  and  others  are  of  a  later  date ; 
but  all  are  ancient,  and  belong  to  that 
primitive  period  of  religious  and  linguis- 
tic history  in  which  the  thought  of  the 
ancestral  race  was  still  in  native  efflo- 
rescence, freeing  itself  from  the  bosom  of 
man  in  ejaculatory  expressions,  apostro- 
phes, and  hymns  of  praise  to  the  gods. 
Quite  unlike  the  Rig- Veda  are  the  three 
other  divisions  of  the  sacred  books. 
The  Sama-Veda  and  Atharva-Veda  are 
ritualistic  in  character.  They  either 
explain,  illustrate,  or  apply  the  doctrines 
of  the  older  hymns,  or  repeat  them  in 
more  modern  phraseology. 

Much  has  already  been  said  relative  to 

the  bottom  character  of  the  Old  Aryan 

worship.   It  was  based  upon 

Vedaism  based  ,  '■ 

on  the  adoration  a    reverential    regard    for 
na  ure.  ^^  powers  of  nature.     The 

grand  and  striking  phenomena  of  the 
physical  universe  struck  upon  the  con- 


sciousness of  this  early  race  with  peculiar 
power,  and  the  heart  of  the  people  burst 
out  m  adoration  and  praise.  Doubtless 
in  its  very  earliest  aspect  the  religious 
system  thus  produced  was  merely  a  na- 
ture worship,  having  for  its  objective  re- 
alities the  sublime  aspects  and  processes 
of  the  material  world. 

Generally,  the  vision  of  this  early  peo- 
ple was  lifted  to  the  air  and  sky.  At- 
mospheric phenomena  particularly  af- 
fected the  sen.ses  and  attracted  the  rev- 
erence of   the  Old  Indians,    Natural  rever- 

Higher  still  were  the  heav-  Zl^Zt:.^.. 
enly  bodies.  The  efiful-  ly  bodies. 
gence  of  the  sun  poured  down  upon  a 
sensitive  race  and  warmed  them  into 
gratitude  and  devotion.  There  was  in  a 
very  early  age  a  division  of  the  powers 
of  the  universe  similar  to  that  discerned 
and  developed  by  the  Greeks.  There 
were  powers  of  the  earth,  powers  of  the 
air,  and  powers  of  heaven.  For  a  long 
time  the  polytheistic  aspect  of  the  sys- 
tem was  maintained,  and  it  is  not  until 
we  reach  the  tenth  book  of  the  Rig- Veda 
that  we  find  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
worshiper  to  elevate  one  particular  deity 
to  the  rank  of  an  omnipotent  God. 

We  have  already  called  attention  to 
the  mode  by  which,  in  the  worship  of 
the  powers  of  nature,  the 

'-  .  The  mind  seeks 

mind,  ever  in  process  of  ex-  to  separate  mat- 

1    ,  ,  .       te'r  from  spirit. 

pansion,  labors  to  separate 
the  force  behind  the  phenomenon  from 
the  phenomenon  itself.  This  happened 
in  the  case  of  the  Indians.  Their  sys- 
tem was  elevated  from  the  merely  phys- 
ical aspects  of  the  universe  to  the  invis- 
ible powers  which  control  and  direct. 
These  were  henceforth  worshiped. 
Names  were  given  to  them,  and  a  hier- 
archy was  established,  having  a  supreme 
head  in  the  sky  god  called  Dyaus  Pitar, 
or  Heaven  Father.  We  thus  see  in  the 
extreme  East  a  religious  evolution  which 


658 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


The  prayerful 
element  in  the 
Vedic  worship. 


reached  the  same  result  as  that  which 
was  subsequently  attained,  without  his- 
torical contact,  by  the  kindred  Aryans  of 
the  Grseco- Italic  race.  Dyaus  Pitar  is 
the  same  as  the  Greek  Zeus  and  the  Ro- 
man Jove. 

The  system  of  worship  adopted  by  the 
Indie  Aryans  was  noted  for  what  may 
be  called  its  praycrftil  character.  Its  es- 
sence was  invocation,  and 
even  the  gloss  and  commen- 
tary, so  abundantly  elab- 
orated in  the  books  accompanying  the 
Veda,  are  nearly  all  devoted  to  the 
proper  exposition  and  form  of  prayer. 
The  whole  system  presents  man  in  a 
reverential  attitude  toward  the  gods, 
pouring  out  his  devotions,  sometimes  in 
praise  and  what  may  be  narrowly  defined 
as  worship;  but  generally  the  substance 
of  the  devotional  act  was  an  appeal  to 
the  powers  above,  a  prayer  for  benefit, 
for  grace,  for  wisdom.  The  word  Brah- 
ma is  said  to  signify  "devotion,"  or 
"  prayer." 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  this 
simple  and  essential  element  in  the  the- 

T,       ,  ,    Ology  of  India  was  not  sub- 

Development  of     , 

■worship  and  use  ject  to  development,  in  the 

of  sacrifices.  ,  ,  /•    . , 

hands  of  the  priests,  into 
a  vast  and  incomprehensible  formulary. 
On  the  contrary,  the  inflection  of  cere- 
mony was  never  carried  to  a  higher  de- 
gree than  by  the  priests  of  the  Old  Indie 
faith.  Not  only  was  the  form  of  the 
prayer,  its  subject,  and  its  method  to  be 
carefully  defined,  but  the  philosophical 
concepts  of  the  worshiper  must  be  regu- 
lated and  mingled  with  his  devotion,  in 
order  that  a  true  religion  might  be  illus- 
trated in  his  life. 

The  second  idea  was  that  of  the  effi- 
cacy of  sacrifices.  The  earnest  prayer 
properly  expressed  could  hardly  fail  to 
bring  to  the  worshiper  an  answer  from 
the  gods,  but  the  pleasure  of  the  latter 


was  enhanced  and  their  purposes  toward 
men  made  more  auspicious  by  the  giving 
of  gifts  on  the  altar.  Thus  a  sacrificial 
system  was  demanded  to  supplement 
the  system  of  prayers ;  and  for  the  con- 
duct of  the  ceremonies  and  sacrifices 
orders  of  priests  became  necessary,  who, 
by  the  multiplication  of  their  own  func- 
tions and  dignities,  increased  tl\e  num- 
ber and  reputation  of  their  caste.  Pro- 
fessor Wax  ^MLiller  has  enumerated  four 
classes  of  priests  required  in  the  conduct 
of  solemn  sacrifices : 

1.  The  officiating  priests,  manual  la- 
borers, and  acolytes,  who  have  chiefly  to 
prepare  the  sacrificial  ground,  to  dress 
the  altar,  slay  the  victims,  and  pour  oiit 
the  libations. 

2.  The  choristers,  who  chant  the  sa- 
cred hymns. 

3.  The  reciters,  or  readers,  who  repeat 
certain  hymns. 

4.  The  overseers,  or  bishops,  who 
watch  and  superintend  the  proceedings 
of  the  other  priests,  and  ought  to  be  fa- 
miliar with  all  the  Vedas. 

It  is  the  purpose  in  the  present  work 
to  make  as  few  excerpts  as  possible  from 
existing  writings.     It  has 

^  °  Kxtracts  from 

been  the  plan  rather  to  sum-  the  veda;  hymn 
marize  and  to  place  in  the  °  '^  ''^ 
best  light  the  substance  of  such  docu- 
ments as  would  most  demand  attention  in 
the  course  of  an  ethnic  history.  At  this 
point,  however,  it  seems  fitting  to  pre- 
sent some  examples  of  the  Vedic  hymns 
in  English.  Only  so  much  will  be  given 
as  may  familiarize  the  reader  with  the 
phraseology  of  these  ancient  songs  and 
with  the  worshipful  spirit  in  which  they 
were  chanted,  in  the  faint  dawn  of  his- 
tory, by  the  old  bards  of  India.  The 
selections  are  made  from  Miiller's  trans- 
lation of  the  Vedas.  The  first  is  from 
the  fifty-third  chapter  of  the  first  book 
of  the  Rig- Veda. 


THE  INDICANS.—RELIGIOX. 


659 


SAKYA   MUM. 


I.  Hymn  to  Indra. 

I.  Keep  silence  well !  We  offer  praises  to  the  great 
'.udra  in  the  house  of  the  sacrificer.  Does  he  find 
treasure  for  those  who  are  like  sleepers?  Mean 
praise  is  not  valued  among  the  munificent. 

2.  Thou  art  the 
giver  of  horses,  Indra, 
thou  art  the  giver  of 
cows,  the  giver  of 
corn,  the  strong  lord 
of  wealth;  the  old 
guide  of  man,  disap- 
pointing no  desires,  a 
friend  of  friends ;  to 
him  we  address  this 
song. 

3.  O  powerful  In- 
dra, achiever  of  many 
works,  most  brilliant 
god  —  all  this  W'eallh 
around  here  is  known 
to  be  thine  alone  :  take 
from      it      conqueror, 

bring  it  hither!  do  not  stint  the  desire  of  the  wor- 
shiper who  longs  for  thee  ! 

4.  On  these  days  thou  art  gracious,  and  on  these 
nights,  keepihg  off  the  enemy  from  our  cows  and  from 
our  stud.  Tearing  the  fiend  night  after  night  with  the 
help  of  Indra,  let  us  rejoice  in  food,  freed  from  haters. 

5.  Let  us  rejoice,  Indra,  in  treasure  and  food,  in 
wealth  of  manifold  delight  and  splendor.  Let  us 
rejoice  in  the  blessingof  the  gods,  which  gives  us  the 
strength  of  offspring,  gives  us  cows  first,  and  horses. 

6.  These  draughts  inspired  thee,  O  lord  of  the 
brave !  these  were  vigor,  these  libations  in  battles, 
when  for  the  sake  of  the  poet,  the  sacrificer,  thou 
struckest  down  irresistibly  ten  thousands  of  enemies. 

In  the  following-  hymn  the  invocation 

is  to  Ag-ni,  the  god  of  fire.     As  we  have 

seen,  this  deity  was  perhaps 

■VTorship  of  ,     1  •  1       i  j 

Agnijhymn  the  most  lineal  aescend- 
lahis praise.        ^^^  ^^  ^^^  ancient  Aryan 

Mazdao,  being  the  earthly  representative 
of  the  sun,  shining  on  the  hearthstone 
and  from  the  altar  place.  Agni  was 
regarded  as  the  guardian  of  the  house 
and  the  messenger  of  intercourse  be- 
tween gods  and  men,  having  thus  the 
character  of  the  Hermes  of  the  Greeks. 
Since  flame  was  the  devouring  element 
in  the  offering  of  sacrifices,  Agni  was 
regarded   as   the   divinity  of  the  altar. 


The  following  invocation  is  from  the 
sixth  chapter  of  the  second  book  of  the 
Rig- Veda. 

II.  Hymn  to  .Vcxi. 
:.   Agni,  accept  this  log   which   I  offer  to  thee, 
accept   this   my   service  ;    listen   well  to  these  my 
songs. 

2.  With  this  log,  O  Agni,  may  we  worship  thee, 
thou  son  of  strength,  conqueror  of  horses  !  and  with 
this  hymn,  thou  highborn  ! 

3.  May  we  thy  servants  serve  thee  with  songs,  O 
granter  of  riches,  thou  who  lovest  songs  and  delight- 
est  in  riches. 

4.  Thou  lord  of  wealth  and  giver  of  wealth,  be 
thou  wise  and  powerful;  drive  away  from  us  the 
enemies! 

5.  He  gives  us  rain  from  heaven,  he  gives  us 
inviolable  strength,  he  gives  us  food  a  thousand- 
fold. 

6.  Youngest  of  the  gods,  their  messenger,  their  in- 
voker,  most  deserving  of  worship,  come,  at  our 
praise,  to  him  who  worships  thee  and  longs  for  thy 
help. 

7.  For  thou,  O  sage,  goest  wisely  between  these 
two  creations  [heaven  and  earth,  gods  and  men],  like 
a  friendly  messenger  between  two  hamlets. 

8.  Thou  art  wise,  and  thou  hast  been  pleased ; 
perform  thou,  intelligent  Agni,  the  sacrifice  without 
interruption  ;  sit  down  on  this  sacred  grass ! 

The  worship  of  storm  was  a  peculiar 
feature  of  the  religion  of  Old  Arya.  It 
can  not  be 
said  that 
this  phase 
of  the  orig- 
inal cult  re- 
appeared in 
the  mythol- 
ogy of  the 
Greeks  and 
Romans,  at 
least  in  a 
distinct 
form ,  but 
storm  wor- 
ship was  a 
conspicuoits 

element  in  the  devotions  of  India,  as  it 
had  been,  to  a  certain  extent,  among 
the    Iranians.      The    storm  gods  were 


GOD   OF   FIRE. 


660 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


known  as  the  Maruts,  and  the  following- 
hymn,    from    the     thirty-ninth    chapter 
of    the    first    book  of    the 

Cult  of  the  .^ .      _.,     -,  .ii  m    •       ii 

Btorra;hymn  Rig-\  ecla,  Will  Sufficiently 
to  the  Maruts.  in^strate  the  nature  of  the 
adoration  which  was  paid  to  them  : 

III.  Hymn  to  the  jMaruts. 
I.  When  you   thus  from   afar  cast  forward  your 
measure,  Uke  a  blast  of  lire,  through  whose  wisdom 


5.  They  make  the  rocks  to  tremble,  they  tear  asun- 
der the  kings  of  the  forest.  Come  on,  Maruts  ;  like 
madmen,  ye  gods,  with  your  whole  tribe. 

10.  Bounteous  givers,  ye  possess  whole  strength, 
whole  power,  ye  shakers.  Send,  O  Maruts,  against 
the  proud  enemy  of  the  poets,  an  enemy,  like  an 
arrow. 

One  of  the  tenderest  aspects  of  the 
natural  world  is  the  dawn  of  the  day. 
This  phenomenon  appears   to  have  im- 


SCUI.riURlS  IROM  A  I'dRCH  AT  KARIT 


\'\  H.  Catenacci,  after  r.ran.lsire. 


is  it,  through  whose  design?     To  whom  do  ye  go, 
to  whom,  ye  shakers? 

2.  May  your  weapons  be  firm  to  attack,  strong 
also  to  withstand  !  May  yours  be  the  more  glorious 
strength,  not  that  of  the  deceitful  mortal  I 

3.  When  you  overthrow  what  is  firm,  O  ye  men, 
and  whirl  about  what  is  heavy,  ye  pass  through  the 
trees  of  the  earth,  through  the  clefts  of  the  rocks. 

4.  No  real  foe  of  yours  is  know-n  in  heaven  or  in  earth, 
ye  devourer  of  enemies !  May  strength  be  yours,  to- 
gether with  your  race,  O  Rudras,  to  defy  even  now. 


Myth  of  the 
da'wn;  hymn 
to  Ushas. 


pressed  itself  upon  the  senses  of  all  early 
races  of  men.  In  the  Greek  mythol- 
ogy Daphne,  the  "dawn," 
was  chased  a  r  o  u  n  d 
the  earth  by  her  lover 
Apollo.  In  the  Indian  system  the 
myth  reappeared  tinder  the  name  of 
Ushas,  first  adored  as  a  visible  aspect  of 
nature,  and   afterwards  elevated  into  a 


THE   INDICANS.— RELIGION. 


661 


living  being  and  impersonated  as  one  of 
the  gods.  From  the  seventy-seventh 
chapter  of  the  seventh  book  of  the  Rig- 
Veda  the  following  hymn  to  Ushas  is 
presented : 

IV.  Hymn  to  Ushas. 

1.  She  shines  upon  us,  like  a  young  wife,  rousing 
every  living  being  to  go  to  his  work.  When  the  fire 
had  to  be  kindled  by  men,  she  made  the  light  by 
striking  down  darkness. 

2.  She  rose  up,  spreading  far  and  wide,  and  mov- 
ing everywhere.  She  grew  in  brightness,  wearing 
her  brilliant  garment.  The  mother  of  the  cows  [the 
mornings],  the  leader  of  the  days,  she  shone  gold- 
colored,  lovely  to  behold. 

3.  She,  the  fortunate,  who  brings  the  eye  of  the 
gods,  who  leads  the  white  and  lovely  steed  [of  the 
sun],  the  dawn  was  seen  revealed  by  her  rays,  wiih 
brilliant  treasures,  following  everyone. 

4.  Thou  art  a  blessing  where  thou  art  near;  drive 
far  away  the  unfriendly ;  make  the  pasture  wide, 
give  us  safety  !  Scatter  the  enemy,  bring  riches  ! 
Raise  up  wealth  to  the  worshiper,  thou  mighty  dawn. 

5.  Shine  for  us  with  thy  best  rays,  thou  bright 
dawn,  thou  who  lengthenest  our  life,  thou  the  love  of 
all,  who  givest  us  food,  who  givest  us  wealth  in 
cows,  horses,  and  chariots. 

6.  Thou  daughter  of  the  sky,  thou  highborn 
dawn,  whom  the  Vasishthas  magnify  with  songs, 
give  us  riches  high  and  wide  :  all  ye  gods  protect  us 
always  with  your  blessing. 

We  will  conclude  these  extracts  from 
the  oldest  division  of  the   Indie   scrip- 
tures   by  presenting  two  hymns  to  Va- 
runa,  from  the  eie'hty-sixth 

Theory  of  Va-  ,       .    ,  ■ 

runa,  andhis        and  eighty-nintli   chapters 
ymns.  ^^    ^^^    Seventh    book    of 

the  Rig- Veda.  This  deity  was  the  god 
of  the  waters,  or  of  the  "Western  world, 
as  it  was  understood  in  the  Hindu  myth. 
In  the  philosophical  imagery  of  the 
Brahmans,  Varuna  was  represented  as  a 
four-armed  man,  riding  on  a  fabulous 
sea  monster,  bearing  in  his  right,  hand 
a  rope  and  in  his  left  a  bludgeon : 

V.  Hymn  to  V.\ru.\a. 

1.  Let  me  not  yet,  O  Varuna,  enter  into  the  house 
of  clay;  have  mercy,  almighty,  have  mercy! 

2.  If  I  go  along  trembling,  like  a  cloud  driven  by 
the  wind  ;  have  mercy,  almighty,  have  mercy ! 


3.  Through  want  of  strength,  thou  strong  and 
bright  god,  have  I  gone  wrong ;  have  mercy,  al- 
mighty, have  mercy ! 

4.  Thirst  came  upon  the  worshiper,  though  he 
stood  in  the  midst  of  the  waters ;  have  mercy,  al- 
mighty, have  mercy  ! 

5.  Whenever  we  men,  O  Varuna,  commit  an  of- 
fense before  the  heavenly  host,  whenever  we  break 
the  law  through  thoughtlessness,  punish  us  not,  O 
god,  for  that  offense. 

Second  hymn : 

1.  Wise  and  mighty  are  the  works  of  him  who 
stemmed  asunder  the  wide  firmaments.  He  lifted 
on  high  the  bright  and  glorious  heaven  ;  he  stretched 
out  apart  the  starry  sky  and  the  earth. 

2.  Do  I  say  this  to  my  own  self  ?  How  can  I  get 
unto  Varuna?  Will  he  accept  my  offering  without 
displeasure.'  When  shall  I,  with  a  quiet  mind,  see 
him  propitiated  ? 

3.  I  ask,  O  Varuna,  wisliing  to  know  this  my  sin. 
I  go  to  ask  the  wise.  The  sages  all  tell  me  the 
same  :  Varuna  it  is  who  is  angry  with  thee. 

4.  Was  it  an  old  sin,  O  Varuna,  that  thou  vvishest 
to  destroy  thy  friend,  who  always  praises  thee? 
Tell  me,  thou  unconquerable  lord,  and  I  will  quickly 
turn  to  thee  w'ith  praise,  freed  from  sin. 

5.  Absolve  us  from  the  sins  of  our  fathers,  and 
from  those  which  we  committed  with  our  own  bod- 
ies. Release  \'asishiha,  O  king,  like  a  thief  who  has 
feasted  on  stolen  o.xen  ;  release  him  like  a  calf  from 
the  rope. 

6.  It  was  not  our  own  doing,  O  Varuna,  it  was 
necessity,  an  iiito.\icating  draught,  passion,  dice, 
thoughtlessness.  The  old  is  there  to  mislead  the 
young;  even  sleep  brings  unrighteousness. 

7.  Let  me  without  sin  give  satisfaction  to  the  an- 
gry god,  like  a  slave  to  his  bounteous  lord.  Ths 
lord  god  enlightened  the  foolish ;  he,  the  wisest, 
leads  his  worshiper  to  wealth. 

8.  O  lord  A'aruna,  may  this  song  go  well  lo  thy 
heart  !  May  we  prosper  in  keeping  and  acquiring ! 
Protect  us,  O  gods,  always  with  your  blessings! 

The  foregoing  examples  will  be  suflfi- 
cient  to   illustrate   the  spirit   in  which 
some  of  the  earliest  apostrophes  of  man- 
kind   to  the  immortal   gods   Mutter's  views 
were  uttered.     It  is  denied  'IZTXiZ^' 
by  the  translator  that  the  vedic  hymns, 
system  of   religion  whose   fundamental 
ideas  are  expressed  in  these  prayers  is 
polytheistic.      He  also  wotild  den}-  that 
they  are  an  expression  of  monotheism. 


d62 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


As  a  term  definitive  of  their  real  nature, 
he  suggests  Kathcnotluisiii,  which  would 
imply  that  the  deities  of  the  Indie  race 
were  the  personified  attributes  of  a  single 
godhead,  that  is,  several  under  one. 
This,  however,  is  to  enter  into  the  nice- 
ties and  hair-splittings  of  that  theological 
and  philosophical  controversy,  the  re- 
finements of  which,  even  when  most 
carefully  expressed,  have  proved  of  but 
little  advantage  to  the  human  race.  It 
will,  however,  be  a  fitting  conclusion  to 
these  extracts  from  the  Indie  Bible  to 
repeat  some  verses  from  another  part  of 
the  same  translation.  They  correspond 
to  the  Hebrew  Book  of  Genesis  rather 
than  to  the  Psalms,  as  do  the  Vedic 
hymns  already  quoted : 

Rig-Veda,  Book  X,  Chapter  121. 

1.  In  ihe  beginning  there  arose  the  golden  Child — 
be  was  the  one  born  lord  of  all  that  is.  He  estal)- 
lished  the  earth  and  this  sky.  Who  is  the  God  to 
whom  we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ? 

2.  He  who  gives  life,  he  who  gives  strength ; 
whose  command  all  the  bright  gods  revere ;  whose 
shadow  is  immortality,  whose  shadow  is  death. 
Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  sac- 
rifice "> 

3.  He  who  through  iiis  power  is  the  one  king  of 
the  breathing  and  awakening  world ;  he  who  gov- 
erns all,  man  and  heast.  Who  is  the  God  to  whom 
we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ? 

4.  He  whose  greatness  these  snowy  mountains, 
whose  greatness  the  sea  proclaims,  with  the  distant 
river ;  he  whose  these  regions  are,  as  it  were,  his  two 
arms.  Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our 
sacrifice  ? 

5.  He  through  whom  the  sky  is  bright  and  the 
earth  firm  ;  he  through  whom  the  heaven  was  estab- 
lished,  nay,  the  highest  heaven  ;  he  who  measured 

.  out  the  light  in  the  air.   Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we 
shall  offer  our  sacrifice  } 

6.  He  to  whom  heaven  and  earth,  standing  firm 
by  his  will,  look  up,  trembling  inwardly ;  he  over 
whom  the  rising  sun  shines  forth.  Who  is  the  God 
to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ? 

7.  Wherever  the  mighty  water  clouds  went,  where 
they  placed  the  seed,  and  lit  the  fire,  thence  arose 
he  who  is  the  sole  life  of  the  bright  gods.  Who  is 
the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ? 

8.  He  who  by  his  might  looked   even   over   the 


water  clouds,  the  clouds  which  gave  strength  and  lit 
the  sacrifice  ;  he  who  alone  is  God  above  all  gods. 
Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  sac- 
rifice ? 

9.  May  he  not  destroy  us.  he  the  creator  of  the 
earth,  or  He,  the  righteous,  who  created  the  heavens ; 
he  also  created  the  bright  and  mighty  waters. 
Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  saci 
rifice  ? 

vSjDace  would  fail  to  extend  these 
quotations  from  the  ancient  religious 
writings  of  the  Indie  Ar-  Brahmanism  be- 
yans.     It  can  not  be  known  ""^^^  an  incom- 

-*  prehensible 

to  what  extent  the  same  mythology. 
were  originated  after  the  incoming  of 
the  immigrant  peoples  into  India,  or 
to  what  extent  they  had  already  been 
formulated  at  an  earlier  period.  As 
frequently  happens  in  the  case  of  reli- 
gions, the  old  system  of  nature  worship, 
spiritualized  and  elevated  in  the  hands 
of  the  primitive  seers  of  the  East,  soon 
fell  into  degeneration  in  the  hands  of 
the  Brahmans.  A  volume  could  not 
contain  an  account  of  the  changed  and 
changing  aspects  through  which  Brah- 
manism passed  from  its  old  form,  as  ex- 
pressed in  the  Vedic  hymns,  to  its  later 
inflections  and  incomprehensible  refine- 
ments, as  elaborated  by  the  Brahmani- 
cal  priesthood.  It  became  a  mythology 
rather  than  a  religion.  The  old  spiritual 
concepts  gave  place  to  vague  and  even 
ridiculous  myths,  irrational  in  their  sub- 
ject-matter and  preposterous  in  their 
application.  The  old  religion  grew  into 
the  most  enormous  body  of  ceremoni- 
als and  formalities  which  were  ever, 
perhaps,  devised  by  the  ingenuity  of  a 
priestly  order. 

We  have  accepted  Max  Miiller's  view 
that  the  original  faith  of  India  was  Kath- 
enothei.sm,'    that  is,  a  system  of  many 


'  The  word  kathenotheism  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  kata,  "under,"  henos,  "one,"  and  iheos, 
"  god;  "  that  is,  a  pantheon  of  many  gods  under  one 
supreme  godhead. 


THE   INDICANS.— RELIGION. 


663 


deities  tinder  one,  the  latter  being  the 
supreme  being  of  the  universe,  and  the 
Meaning  of  former  his  impersonated  at- 

Kathenotheism;  ^j.-l3^j^^.^_  In  the  hands  of 
nature  of  tne 

Trimurti.  the  Brahmans,  this  concept 

finally  took  the  form  of  a  godhead,  com- 
posed of  a  triune  person,  or  persons, 
called  the  Trimurti,  the  first  of  whom 
was  Brahma,  the  creator  ;  the  sec- 
ond, Vishnu,  the  preserver;  and  the 
third,  Siva,  the  destro3'er  of  all  things. 
This  trinity  was  represented,  not  as 
a  single  person,  as  in  the  Christian 
theology  but  as  three  deities,  in  in- 
timate union  of  relationship.  They 
presided  gloomily  and  in  a  fatalistic 
sense  over  the  destinies  of  human 
life. 

While  the  concept  of  Brahma  as 
the    supreme    deity    of    the    Indian 
pantheon  was  evolved,  another  no- 
tion,   of    a    philosoph- 

Wliat  brahma 

was  and  what       ical   rather    than    reli- 

it  became.  .  ^  i       i 

gious  nature,  had  ap- 
peared. The  word  brahuia,  as  a  neu- 
ter noun,  became  impersonal,  and 
was  used  by  the  philosophers  to  de- 
note the  sum  of  all  nature,  the 
germ  of  everything  that  is,  the  one 
thing  that  embraces  everything. 
The  idea  is  especially  difficult  to 
grasp.  The  incisive  intellect  of  the  _ 
Western  nations,  requiring  clear 
definition  in  everything,  does  not 
readily  apprehend  the  meaning  of  this 
brahma,  and  when  we  attempt  to  clear  our 
understandings  by  an  examination  of  the 
Vedic  commentaries,  such  as  the  Upani- 
shads,  we  are  generally  confused  rather 
than  enlightened.  The  book  known  as 
the  Kena-Upanishad  says  of  this  imper- 
sonal brahma:  "Eye,  tongue,  mind 
can  not  reach  it ;  we  comprehend  it  not, 
we  can  not  teach  it  to  anyone ;  it  is  other 
than  all  that  is  known  and  all  that  is  un- 
known." 


The  speculations  of  the  Brahmans  rela- 
tive to  the  meaning  of  the  term  would, 
in  their  turn,  demand  volumes  of  expli- 
cation.    They  have  a  mys-  speculations 

.       •  11    ui„      •■         ,,.!-,  ;«l,    and  refinements 

tenons  .syllable,  om,  which  respecting  the 
contains  a  peculiar  trinity  °™- 
of  sounds,  and  by  this  they  symbolize 
the  brahma.    This  inexplicable  explana- 


KAMl-RATI. 

tion  is  in  its  turn  made  the  subject  of 
commentary,  and  the  Mandukya-Upan- 
ishad  is  wholly  devoted  to  explanations 
of  the  sense  of  om.  As  illustrative  of 
the  abstruse  and  involved  ideas  after 
which  the  authors  .seem  to  .struggle,  the 
following  paragraph  is  quoted:  "  Om  is 
immortal.  Its  unfolding  is  this  universe ; 
is  all  that  was,  is,  and  .shall  be.  Indeed, 
all  is  the  word  om ;  and  if  there  is  any- 
thing- outside  of  these  three  manifcsta- 
tions,   it    is   also    6m.     For    this   all   is 


664 


GREAT  RACES 

This 


Brahma;   this    soul  is   Brahma, 
soul  has  four  existences." 

Having  once  developed  the  notion  of 
this  neuter  brahma,  as  an  expression  for 
the  sum  of  all  nature,  the  concept  soon 
became  the  end  of  the  religious  system. 
This  is  to  say  that  while  the  original 
system  was  active  in  its  character,  the 


BRAHMA   AS   THE   FOUR-FACED    BUDDHA. 
Drawn  by  F..  Tournois,  after  a  sketch  of  Delaporte. 


degenerate  form  was  passive.  The 
mind,  instead  of  resting  upon  Brahma, 
as  the  creator  of  the  imiverse,  came  to 
rest  upon  brahma  as  the  end  of  the  uni- 
verse, including  man. 

The  early  Aryans  of  India,  in  common 
with  all  their  related  peoples  in  the 
West,  gave  themselves  to  speculations 
about  the  origin  of  things,  how  it  was 


OF  MANKIND. 

that  nature  came  into  her  present 
forms,  the  agencies  by  which  the  world 
was  made,  and  man,   and  ^        ^   ^ 

Later  Brahman- 

everything  that  is.     It  was  ism  puts  the  end 

,  ,  ,  r  .■  for  the  cause. 

the  problem  or  active 
creation,  of  the  invisible  effort  by 
which  universal  nature  was  reared  into 
its  present  form.  But  with  the  latter 
Brahmanism,  this 
kind  of  speculation 
was  supplanted  by 
another  directly  the 
reverse.  The  ques- 
tion now  became, 
not  in  what  manner 
and  by  what  agency 
nature  was  reared, 
but  to  what  end  the 
universe  is  tending, 
into  what ,  state  all 
the  material  aspects 
of  animate  and  in- 
animate nature  will 
fall  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  universal 
career. 

This  species  of  in- 
quiry at  length  pre- 
dominated over  the 
other,  and  the  Brah- 
mans  began  to  teach 
the  final  condition 
of  the  universe,  in- 
cluding man.  They 
called  it  brahma, 
using  the  same  term 
that  they  had  em- 
ployed as  the  name  of  the  creator  of 
all  things,  but  in  another  The  believer 
sense.  Henceforth  the  aim  raL^wI.lh'is 
and  endeavor  of  the  wor-  to  receive  him. 
shiper  must  be,  not  so  much  to  acquaint 
himself  with  this  creator  and  his  will,  as 
to  know  that  other  brahma  which  stands 
in  shadowy  outline  at  the  further  verge  of 
nature,  ready  to  receive  and  swallow  up 


THE   INDICAXS.— -RELIGION. 


665 


all  forms  and  aspects  of  the  visible  uni- 
verse. 

No  contrast  can  be  stronger  than  that 
which     is    thus    offered     between    the 


into  moods  of  meditative  gloom  and 
sheer  brooding  over  the  desperation  of 
human  life.  A  sort  of  astrology'  sprang 
up  in  place  of  the  vivid  concepts  which 


CYCLE  OF  TRANSMIGRATIONS  ACCORDING  TO  A  THIBETAN  IMAGE. 


bright  and  happy  Vedic  religion  as   it 
existed  in  the  days  of  the 

Contrast  of  the 

old  and  the  new-    old      pOCtS     who      Sang    the 

er  Brahmanism.  ■      -i-         i  /■      \ 

primitive  hymns  of  Arya, 

and  that  fatalistic  spell  which  has  fallen 

upon  the  mind  of  India,  transforming  it 
M. — Vol.  I — 43 


the  old  bards  had  had  of  the  visible 
powers  of  nature.  The  whole  spirit  and 
genius  of  the  Indie  race  were  turned  to 
the  darkest  problems  and  most  inscru- 
table mysteries  of  destiny  and  fate. 
As    a    natui-al    consequence    of    this 


666 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIXD. 


brooding  over  the  transmutation  of  one 
form  of  visible  nature  into  another,  and 
Source  of  the  SO  on  and  on  to  the  final 
f™Tgrtio:  plunge  into  that  brahma 
of  souls.  which  they  regarded  as  the 

end,  even  as  the  other  Brahma  was  the 
beginning  of  all  creation,  there  arose 
the  notion  of  the  transmigration  of  the 
human  soul.  The  concept  of  a  grada- 
tion up  and  down  through  all  animate 
nature  took  firm  hold  of  the  mind,  al- 
ready bound  in  fatalism.  The  human 
race  was  divided  into  castes,  and  these 
became  a  part  of  the  system  of  the 
world.  All  living  creatures  were  the 
progeny  of  Brahma,  and  they  must  pass 
through  the  intermediate  forms  of  life 
in  order  to  be  resolved  into  brahma 
again.  Brahma  is  the  origin,  and 
brahma  is  the  destiny  of  all,  but  the 
stages  through  which  each  living  crea- 
ture must  pass  are  as  various  as  the 
forms  of  life. 

Each  living  thing  is  born  according  to 
the  deeds  of  that  from  which  it  is 
Theory  of  descended,  and  each  living 

STd^autf  thing  fixes,  by  its  deeds, 
of  living  forms,  the  State  of  that  future  liv- 
ing thing  which  is  to  be  born  therefrom. 
Animate  nature  has  its  orders  through 
which  the  souls  of  men  must  pass  in 
their  ascending  and  descending  stages  of 
transformation.  The  lowest  order  of 
living  things  includes  insects,  fishes, 
serpents,  tortoises,  dogs,  and  asses. 
The  next  order  has  elephants,  horses, 
lions,  boars,  Sudras,  and  other  races 
not  speaking  the  sacred  language  of 
India.  The  third  grade  of  creatures  in- 
cludes thieves,  actors,  Rakshasas  and 
Pigachas.  The  fourth  order  comprises 
athletes,  dancers,  armorers,  drunkards, 
and  the  Vaisyas.  The  fifth  includes  the 
Kshatriyas,  kings,  great  soldiers,  speak- 
ers, the  Gandharvas  and  the  Asparases. 
The  sixth  class  has  the  Brahmans,  dev- 


otees, gods,  and  the  great  Rishis.  The 
seventh  has  only  Brahma  himself.  Such 
are  the  several  orders  of  living  things. 

Brahmanism  recognizes  the  sinfulness 
of  man.  For  this  sin  there  must  be 
expiation.  No  such  thing  as  redemp- 
tion is  recognized.  All 
sin  is  balanced  against  so  andofexpfatlon. 
much  punishment,  and  the 
expiation  must  be  by  the  sinner  himself. 
Man,  however,  may  do  something  to 
free  himself  from  the  consequences  and 
tendencies  of  his  actions ;  either  put  him- 
self in  the  ascending  scale  of  transmi- 
gration, or  in  the  descending  scale  which 
leads  to  the  condemnation  of  his  life  to 
some  of  the  lower  orders  of  being  in  his 
next  existence.  Thus  the  soul  may 
make  its  way  upward  until  it  is  taken 
back  into  brahma,  or  may  descend  into 
insects,  worms,  and  reptiles. 

The  Brahmanical  theory  of  sin  is  very 
different  from  that  of  the  Western  na- 
tions.    It  is  essentially  un- 

Notion  that  sin 
cleanness,   as  dlStmgUlshed    and  uncleanness 
J.  1  ,   .    ,       .      are  one. 

irom  cleanness,  which  is 
righteousness.  Pollution  is  the  funda- 
mental concept  of  offense  against 
Brahma.  Things  are  holy  or  unholy  in 
proportion  as  they  are  clean  and  unclean, 
but  the  definitions  of  that  which  is  clean 
or  unclean  sounds  strangely  to  the 
understanding  of  the  West.  The  high- 
est notion  of  defilement  is  that  which 
comes  from  the  touch  of  the  dead,  the 
excretions  of  the  body,  the  circumstances 
of  birth,  and  of  everything  relating  to 
the  sexual  life.  The  cleanest  of  living 
creatures  is  the  cow.  She  is  not  only 
clean,  but  holy,  and  is  incapable  of 
defilement.  The  remedy  for  sin  is  pen- 
itence, fasting,  mortification  of  the  body, 
prayer,  and  recitations  of  the  Veda. 
One  of  the  greatest  pollutions  is  drunk- 
enness. He  who  so  sins  is  compelled  to 
drink  boiling  rice  water  unto  death. 


THE  INDICANS.— RELIGION. 


667 


So  far  as  earthly  punishments  are 
concerned, they  are  adjusted  to  the  prev- 
Punishments  alent  false  theories  of 
sin.  Offenses  done  against 
the  holy  things  are  pun- 
ished in  the  highest  degree.  The  mur- 
der of  a  person  belonging  to  a  lower 
caste  may  pass  with  slight  retribution, 
but   the   killing   of   a  cow   is  a   mortal 


adjusted  to  the 
false  theory  of 
sin. 


One  of  the  concepts  peculiar  to  Brah- 
manism  is  that  of  the  incarnation  of  the 
deities.      It   is   known   by 

Doctrine  of  the 

the    name   or    avatar.     On  incamation,  or 

J 1  ,    the  avatars. 

many  occasions  the    great 
gods  of  the  Indie  pantheon  have  passed 
into    the     form     of    animals    or   men. 
Vishnu,  the  "preserver,"  has  had  ten 
avatars  assigned  to  him,  following  each 


THE  SACRED  COW  OF  INDIA. -Drawn  by  A.  de  Neu 


crime.  One  who  kills  a  Brahman  with 
intent  must  thrust  his  own  head  three 
times  into  the  fire,  until  he  die.  If  the 
killing  is  unintentional,  he  shall  build  a 
hut  in  the  woods  and  live  alone  for 
twelve  years,  carrying  the  skull  of  the 
slain  man  in  his  girdle.  So  throughout 
the  whole  list  of  human  misdeeds  the 
same  irrational  and  ill-adju.sted  methods 
of  punishment  are  employed. 


other  in  an  ascending  scale.  In  the 
first  three  instances  he  was  incarnated 
in  the  form  of  animals,  namely,  as  a 
fish,  as  a  tortoise,  and  as  a  boar.  In 
the  fourth  earthly  revelation  he  was  the 
Manu  lion.  Then  began  the  human 
avatars.  In  the  fifth  estate  Vishnu  was 
a  dwarf;  in  the  sixth,  a  hero;  and  in 
the  seventh,  a  Ramchandra  and  a  Krish- 
na.     Buddha  him.self  was  an  incarna- 


668 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXK/XD. 


tion.  It  is  also  believed  that  Vishnu 
will  ultimately  appear  on  earth  in  his 
own  person.  This  will  happen  when 
the  highest  age  of  man  has  been  re- 
duced to  twenty-three  years.  When 
\'ishnu  shall  come  he  will  be  called 
Kalki.and  will  possess  eight  supernatural 
powers  on  the  earth.     This  great  avatar 


equal  with  Brahma  and  Vishnu.  Siva 
was  identified  with  Rudra,  god  of  the 
storm,  iust  as  Vishnu  took 

-'  Place  of  Siva 

the  place  of  Indra  in    the  in  the  Indian 
older     mythology.        The  ^^" 
Brahmanic    systein    represents   Siva   as 
dwelling  at  times  with  the  human  race, 
but   never   as    incorporated    in    earthly 


VISHNU  IN  THE  FORM  OF  A  BOAR, 


is  to  occur  at  the  end  of  three  hundred 
and  sixty  thousand  years,  as  time  is 
reckoned  by  men,  or  one  thousand  two 
hundred  years  as  it  is  reckoned  by  the 
gods. 

It  appears  that  Siva,  the  third  person 
of  the  Brahmanical  trinity,  was  an  old 
god  of  the  Dra vidian  race  before  the  in- 
coming of  the  Arj-ans.  By  them  this 
divinity  was   raised  to  the  rank  of  co- 


form.  His  place  in  the  mythological 
system  is  that  of  destroyer,  and  hence 
his  genesis  from  the  storm  god  of  the 
Old  Dravidians.  His  power  is  symbol- 
ized by  the  trident,  while  in  his  hands 
he  bears  a  lasso  or  sling,  an  antelope, 
and  sometimes  a  ilame  of  fire. 

Ethnic  history  does  not  demand  more 
than  an  outline  of  the  religious  beliefs 
which  the  ancient  kindreds  of  mankind 


THE   IXDICANS.— RELIGION. 


669 


adopted  for  themselves  and  their  pos- 
terity. It  is  only  while  religions  are  ex- 
To  what  extent  pressive  of  the  subjective 
religions  are         states  of  the  mind  that  they 

part  of  ethnic  -' 

history.  are   really  an  ethnic   con- 

dition. When  they  pass  into  objective 
ceremonies  and  institutional  forms,  they 
become  a  part  of  the  subject-matter  of 
general  history.  In  this  connection,  as 
in  the  account  of  the  Iranians,  we  offer 
no  more  than  a  sketch  of  that  primal 
faith  which  was  developed  by  the  early 
bards  and  rhapsodists  who,  with  up- 
turned faces,  chanted  the  praises  of  the 
gods  in  the  valleys  of  India.  In  course 
of  time,  both  in  Iran  and  in  India,  an 
age  of  commentators  and  mere  gram- 
marians succeeded  to  the  age  of  poets, 
and  lifeless  ceremony  took  the  place 
of  living  inspiration.  From  this  time 
forth  the  ethnologist  has  but  little  con- 
cern with  the  inflected  forms,  the  mere 
outer  garb  which  the  Brahmans  flung 
around  the  ancient  religion  of  the 
East. 

One  other  topic  remains  to  be  consid- 
ered before  the  Vedic  system  of  religious 
evolution  is  dismissed.  The  spirit  of  the 
old  faith  had  died  out  many  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era.  On  the  tongues 
of    the    priests    even    the 

Apparition  of 

sakya  Gautama   apostrophcs  of  the  old  rhap- 

the  Buddha.  j .    ,  ,  i.    j    -u 

.sodi-sts  and  seers  had  be- 
come an  echo  and  a  mockery.  It  was 
under  such  circumstances,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  .sixth  century  B.  C,  that  the 
great  reform  was  instituted  which  was 
destined  to  carry  on  its  tide  more  than 
thirty  per  cent  of  the  human  race.  It 
originated  with  Sakya  Gautama,  com- 
monly called  the  Buddha,  Prince  of 
Kapilavastu,  in  Northern  India.  But 
the  reform,  like  that  of  Luther  in  the 
West,  was  already  prepared,  in  its  ele- 
mentary' conditions,  by  a  reaction  in  the 
mind   of  the  upper  clas.ses  again.st  the 


absolutism  and  uselessness  of  the  Brah- 
manic  order. 

The  career  of  Gautama  is  now  accessi- 


SIVA    AS   MAN    AND    WOMAN. 

ble  in  many  forms  to  English  readers, 
and  need  not  be  repeated,   career  and  e van- 
It    was.    in    general,    that  P^'^iTght^L'd 
of  a  sincere  and  elevated  one." 
mind,  highl\-  sensitive  in  its  organiza- 
tion  and   in.spired  by  philanthropy,  re- 


670 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MA.VAVXP. 


belling  against  the  current  religious  sys- 
tem of  his  country  and  people.  He  re- 
tires, as  if  into  the  desert.  He  muses 
long  on  life  and  destiny.  He  communes 
with  himself  and  with  the  invisible 
Spirit.  He  struggles  and  writhes  in 
anguish  and  despair.  Light  breaks  into 
his  understanding.  He  becomes  the 
Buddha,  the  ••  I^nlightened    One."'     He 


NEPAL   BVDDHA   IN   BRONZE. 
Drawn  by  P.  Sellier,  from  the  collection  of  Le  Bon. 

takes  that  name  and  returns  to  his 
people  as  a  teacher.  He  would  substi- 
tute for  the  intolerable  mass  of  formali- 
ties and  philo.sophical  dogmas  of  the 
Brahmans  a  new  code  of  thought  and 
morality.  He  would  teach  the  living 
way.  First  a  few,  and  then  multitudes, 
follow  him.  He  becomes,  even  in  his 
life,  a  great  leader.  His  work  is  well 
begun.  The  burden  is  upon  him.  He 
leaves  to  others  what  he  could  not  him- 


self accompli.sh  within  the  limits  of  a 
mortal  life.  He  goes  again  alone  to  the 
woods  and  de.serts.  He  journeys  on, 
and  at  last,  wearied  with  the  burden  of 
thought  and  oppressed  perhaps  with 
the  sorrows  of  the  race,  he  sits  down  by 
the  root  of  a  tree,  and  there,  alone,  gives 
up  his  spirit  and  enters  into  Nirvana. — 
Such  is  the  origin  of  that  great  system 
called  Buddhism,  which  is  now  professed 
by  31.2  per  cent  of  the  human  family. 

The  reform  thus  instituted  was  almost 
identical  in  its  nature  with  the  Protes- 
tant   revolt    which     roused    Parallel  of'Bud- 

Europe  from  her  stupor  ^llZTr^Trotes. 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  tantism. 
Buddhism  is  essentially  the  Protestant- 
ism of  the  East.  It  is  to  the  older  Brah- 
manism  what  Protestantism  is  to  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, If  we  look  at  India  the  parallel 
may  be  carried  still  ftirther.  Buddhism 
did  not  achieve,  or  at  least  maintain,  a 
great  success  in  the  country  where  the 
older  system  of  faith  prevailed.  Brah- 
manism  had  taken  too  deep  root  in  the 
.soil  of  India  to  be  exterminated  by  a 
counter  revolt.  Just  as  in  Italy  the  as- 
cendency of  Rome  has  ever  been  main- 
tained, so  in  its  central  seat  the  power 
of  Brahmanism  remains  to  the  present 
day. 

While  Buddhism  had  temporary  and 
local  success  in  the  land  of  its  origin, 
its  great  triumph  was  achieved  by  its 
dissemination  in  foreign  lands.  It  swept 
eastward  and  northward  to  the  limits  of 
the  furthest  oceans,  carrying  with  it  a 
great  proportion  of  the  Mongoloid  races 
of  mankind,  but  the  elder  faith  held  its 
own  against  the  innovation  in  the  valleys 
of  India,  and  continued  to  bear  up  its 
vast  system  of  inane  speculation  as  the 
better  theor}-  of  life  and  destiny. 

It  is  impossible  to  convey  to  one  who 
has   not   personally  acquainted    himself 


THE   IN  Die  A  NS.—RELIGIOX. 


671 


with  the  degradation  of  the  Brahmanical 
faith  and  practice  an  adequate  idea 
Debasing  char-  of  its  debasing  character. 
Brahj^anicai  '^^^  ceremonies  are  not  only 
ceremonies.  offensive     to     the    human 

understand- 
ing,  irrational 
and  foolish  as 
expressions  of 
religious  faith, 
but  they  are  dis- 
gusting to  taste 
and  indecent  to 
the  eyes  of  mo- 
rality. The  de- 
generation of  the 
system  is  com- 
plete, its  ruin 
overwhelm- 
ing.  Whatever 
potency  it  may 
have  had  in  for- 
mer centuries  to 
purify  the  theory 
and  practice  of 
human  life,  or 
even  to  control 
its  violence  or 
moderate  its  ex- 
cesses, has  long 
since  passed 
away,  and  inane 
ceremonies  and 
ridiculous  dog- 
mas are  all  that 
remain.  These, 
however,  are  suf- 
ficient to  uphold 
the  Brahmanical 
ascendency   in 

India,  and  until  this  is  broken,  neither 
Buddhism  nor  an}'  other  system  of  faith 
can  penetrate  the  gloom  and  despair  of 
the  Indian  mind. 

A  few  instances  of  the  external,  visi- 
ble aspect  of  Brahmanism  may  prove  of 


interest.     The  usage  until  recently  much 
in  vogue  was  sutteeism,  or  the  devotion 
to  death  of  the  widow  of  a  dead  husband 
on  his  funeral  pyre.    This  was  regarded 
and   is   still  regarded,  as  an  act  of  the 


INDICAN    Fl'NF.RAI.   PYRE   AND   SUTTEE. 
After  a  Persian  miiiiiliire. 


highest  merit.     The  woman  was  taught 
to  believe  that  bv  immolat-  „      .      ,     . 

Practice  of  sut- 

ing  herself  in  this  manner  teeism;  the  rite 

,  1         u  •  ii  •    i         not  obligatory. 

she     shoiild   enjoy   thirty- 
five  million  of  years  with  her  husband 
after  thev  had  both   gone   to   Brahma. 


672 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


For  the  credit  of  humanity,  the  system 
was  never  obligatory.  The  sacrifice  was 
voluntary;  but  the  superstitious  despot- 
ism over  the  mind  of  the  victim  was 
sufficient  to  enforce  it  with  more  energy 
than  might  have  been 
expected  even  of  civil 
authority. 

India  is  full  of  dev- 
otees. In  every  popu- 
lous district  and  even 
in  waste  places  the  tra\-- 
eler  will  find  them.  The 


from  sin  or  impurity  rests  iipon  the  soul 
of  India  like  a  pall.  The  space  of  a 
chapter  would  not  be  .sufficient  to  enu- 
merate all  the  forms  of  bodily  degrada- 
tion and  mutilation  which  the  depraved 
ingenuity  of  the  devotees  has  invented 
wherewith  to  mortify  themselves  and 
prepare  for  happiness  hereafter.  One 
superstitious  wretch  will  sit  starv- 
ing in  the  dirt,  or  will  take  only 
so  much  food  as  barely  to  feed 
the  fire  of  life.  Such  emaciation 
and  wretchedness  are  not  to  be 
seen  otherwhere  in  the  world. 
Another  .stands  and 
repeats  senseless 
mutterings  out  of  the 


INDIAN  DEVOTEES.— Jc.iGEES  Wolnding  Themselves. — Drawn  by  Emile  B.^yard,  from  a  photograph. 


idea  is  similar  to  that  which  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  drove  the  monks 
isola- 
The 

notion  that  the  mortification  of  the  body 
is  meritorious  as  a  means  of   salvation 


Usages  and  self- 
inflicted  torture    and  anchorites   into 

of  the  devotees.    ..  , 

tion    and    poverty. 


.sacred  books.  A  third  goes  about  with 
a  living  .snake  drawn  through  a  slit  in 
his  tongue.  Another  hangs  a  weight 
to  some  bodily  organ  until  it  is  drawn 
out  of  all  semblance  to  nature.  Another 
thrusts  an  arrow  or  a  sword  through  his 


THE   INDICANS.— RELIGION. 


673 


limbs,  and  still  another  holds  up  his 
hands  with  nails  and  spikes  driven 
through  them. 

The  distortion  of  the  body  into  some 
Belief  that  bod-  horrible  and  repulsive  form 
iiy  distortion       j    thousjht  to  be  most  effi- 

IS  efficacious  ^ 

against  sin.  cacious.       Many    devotees 

take  a  strange 
attitude  and 
hold  it  by  force 
of  will  until 
the  freedom 
of  the  given 
organs  is  de- 
stroyed. vSome 
will  hold  up  an 
arm  straight 
above  the  head 
for  days  and 
weeks  and 
months,  until  it 
becomes  wasted 
away  and  rigid 
as  bone.  Others, 
by  contortion, 
twist  their  mus- 
cles out  of  shape 
until  they  are  no 
more  able  to  re- 
turn to  symme- 
try or  perform 
their  office.  And 
so  on  and  on 
through  an  end- 
less variety  of 
tortures  and  tor- 
ments self  -  in- 
flicted by  a  su- 
perstition which 
admits  of  no  limit 
or  palliation. 

Not  only  has  the  Brahmanical  system 
fallen  into  this  degraded  aspect ;  it  has 
sunk  to  absolute  immorality  and  inde- 
cency. Perhaps  no  single  ceremony  bet- 
ter illustrates  the  debasing  level  to  which 


the  national  religion  has  descended  than 
does  the  ceremony  of  Juggernaut.  This 
is  primarily  the  name  of  a 

'■  City  and  annual 

town     of      Bengal,     on      the    ceremonial  of 

northwest  coast  of  the  bay    "seemau  . 
of  that  name.     The  true  word,  however, 
is  Jagannatha,  meaning  "  the  lord  of  the 


CAK    Oc    JUGGERNAUT, 
by  A.  d  •  Neuville,  from  a  photoj^raph. 

world,"  which  was  the  descriptive  epi- 
thet of  Vishnu  when  he  was  incarnated 
as  Krishna.  This  gave  the  name  to  the 
Brahmanical  temple,  and  finally  to  the 

.town. 


674 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Juggernaut  became  a  city  of  temples. 
The  principal  street  is  for  the  most  part 
filled  on  both  sides  with  religious  es- 
tablishments. At  the  further  end  of  the 
main  avenue,  where  it  widens  out  to 
rather  grand  proportions,  is  situated  the 
famous  temple,  most  holy,  perhaps,  of 
all  the  shrines  of  Hindustan.  More  than 
a  million  of  pilgrims  come  annually  to 
say  their  prayers  and  make  their  offer- 
ings at  this  spot.  Around  the  temple  is 
a  lofty  inclosure  of  solid  stone,  six  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  square,  covering  an 
area  of  nearly  ten  acres.  In  the  eastern 
wall  is  a  great  gate,  through  which  the 
pilgrims  ascend,  by  stone  steps,  to  the 
terrace.  The  latter  is  four  hundred  and 
forty-five  feet  square,  and  on  this  the 
great  pagoda  rises.  It  is  thirty  feet 
square  at  the  base,  and  the  pinnacle  is 
two  hundred  feet  above  the  ground  level. 
The  structure  tapers  from  bottom  to  top, 
and  is  rounded  off  on  the  summit  after 
the  Oriental  manner. 

Siva  and  Subhadra  are  next  in  emi- 
nence among  the  deities  who  are  wor- 
shiped in  this  city.  Of  these  gods  there 
are  wooden  images  painted  blue,  which 
are  regarded  with  extreme  veneration. 
Each  idol  has  a  "chariot,"  so  called, 
consisting  of  a  lofty  platform  on  wheels, 
upon  which  the  effigies  of  the  deities  are 
mounted.  The  chariot  of  Juggernaut  is 
thirty-four  and  a  half  feet  square  and 
forty-three  and  a  half  feet  high.  It  is 
supported  on  sixteen  wheels,  which  are 
six  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter.  The 
great  festival  of  the  deity  occurs  in 
March  of  each  j-ear,  and  is  governed  in 
the  date  of  its  return  by  the  phase  of 
the  moon,  like  the  Christian  feast  of 
Easter. 

At  this  time  the  city  is  thronged  with 
pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  India.  The 
cars  of  the  different  idols  are  drawn  by 
the  multitude  through  the  city  and  for  a 


short  distance  into  the  country,  where 
the  idols  have  what  may  be  called  a  sum- 
mer home.     In  the  case  of  ^ 

Scenes  at  the 

Tusrsrernaut,  a  Ions:  cable  is  procession  of  the 

,       ,  1  ,    tower  chariot. 

attached  to  the  car,  and 
tens  of  thousands  of  pilgrims  and  wor- 
shipers take  hold  with  their  hands  and 
draw  the  idol  through  the  streets.  On 
the  platform  about  the  effigy  are  the 
priests,  who,  while  the  procession  is  un- 
der way,  perform  with  great  activity  the 
ceremony  prescribed  for  the  occasion. 
This  consists  of  what  may  be  called  the 
abandonment  of  humanity.  The  priests 
go  through  with  a  series  of  bodily  atti- 
tudes utterly  disgusting  and  obscene, 
during  the  performance  of  which  vulgar 
gymna.stics  the  multitude  witnessing 
the  same  are  in  the  highest  glee  of  wor- 
.ship. 

This  shameless  exhibition  of  depravity 
is  the  essence  of  the  ceremony,  which  is 
here  cited  in  proof  of  the 

\  .  Question  of  im- 

utter  degradation  to  which  moiation  under 
Brahmanism  has  descend- 
ed. About  the  chariot  the  throng  is  so 
great  and  the  enthusiasm  so  high  that 
rarely  does  the  procession  reach  its  end 
without  some  of  the  multitude  being 
crushed  to  death  under  the  wheels  of 
the  car.  It  is  said — though  the  evidence 
is  not  definite — that  devotees  sometimes 
throw  themselves  under  the  wheels  and 
are  purposely  crushed  to  death.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  at  the  present 
time  this  does  not  occur.  The  popular 
belief  that  mothers  are  in  the  habit  of 
throwing  their  children  under  Jugger- 
naut, that  they  may  thus  be  sacrificed  to 
the  god,  is  proved  to  be  entirely  erro- 
neous. 

The  ceremony  above  described  is 
illustrative  of  many  peculiar  to  modern 
Brahmanism.  One  of  the  mo.st  wide- 
spread superstitions  of  the  present  day 
is  that  relating  to  the  Ganges.     This  is 


SACRIFICE  TO  THE  GANGES.— Drawn  by  Emile  bavar, 


676 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


regarded  as  the  sacred  river  of  the  coun- 
try.    The  belief  extends,  indeed,  to  the 
whole   system  of  streams, 

■Worship  of  the 

Ganges  and  sac-  nmetccn  or  twenty  in  num- 
rifice thereto.  ^^^^  ^x\v\i:\^  descend  from 
the  spurs  of  the  Himalayas  and  combine 
their  waters  in  the  principal  river.  Per- 
haps the  superstition  is  very  ancient. 
The  Nile  was  worshiped  in  like  manner. 
A  great  and  tractable  river  in  a  primi- 
tive country  thickly  peopled  must  always 
have  been  regarded  as  an  incalculable 
blessing. 

In  an  epoch  of  the  nature  worship  it 
is  natural  that  the  adoring  instincts  of 
men  .should  turn  to  the  visible  source  of 
their  blessings.  It  may  be  thus  that  as 
early  as  the  composition  of  the  Veda  the 
Ganges  was  looked  upon  and  adored. 
At  the  present  time,  and  for  some  cen- 
turies in  the  past,  the  waters  of  the  great 
stream  ai-e  regarded  as  holy.  They  are 
dipped  up  and  carried  into  all  parts  of 
India  that  they  may  contribute  a  purify- 


ing element  in  the  sacrifices  and  ablu- 
tions of  the  altar.  He  who  pos.ses.ses  a 
bottle  of  the  sacred  water  carries  with 
him  a  talisman  against  impurity  and 
sin.  At  many  places  the  river  is  made 
accessible  to  pilgrims  and  other  worship- 
ers by  flights  of  stone  steps  going  down 
to  the  water's  edge,  and  on  these  the 
Brahmans  and  devotees,  and  often  the 
common  people,  may  be  seen  standing 
and  worshiping  the  river  as  it  flows.  If 
the  ceremonies  stopped  with  the  dipping 
up  and  bearing  off  of  the  waters  for 
purposes  of  purification,  or  even  with  the 
idolatrous  worship  of  the  stream,  there 
might  be  less  cause  for  repugnance  to 
the  Brahmanical  formula,  but  to  be 
drowned  in  the  holy  river  is  in  the  nature 
of  a  blessing.  From  time  immemorial 
.sacrifices  of  human  life  have  thus  been 
made,  especially  by  mothers,  who  bring 
their  children  and  commit  them  to  the 
oblivion  of  the  floods.  Civilization  stands 
against  it,  but  the  usage  still  exists. 


Chapter  XXXIX.— Castes  axd  Kace  Divisions. 


E  come  now  to  consider 
the  greatest  single  fact 
which  the  Brahman- 
ical system  has  trans- 
mitted from  ancient  to 
modern  times.  It  is 
the  system  of  Caste. 
The  fact  expressed  by  this  term  is  not 
well  apprehended  by  the  Western  na- 
Origin  and  evo-  tions.  It  .signifies  the  nat- 
ural and  fixed  classification 
into  which  the  vast  and 
growing  populations  of  India  fell,  under 
the  influences  of  the  Aryan  conquest,  the 
Yedic  institutions,  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Brahmans.  Caste  as  it  ex- 
ists in  India  extends  downwards  through 


lution  of  caste 
among  the 
Hindus. 


all  Brahmanism  into  the  Vedic  epoch, 
and  has  its  roots  in  the  profoundest  soil 
of  the  prehi-storic  ages.  Given  the  ex- 
isting conditions  in  the  time  when  the 
Aryan  race  was  flung  upon  the  aborig- 
inal peoples  of  India  and  began  by 
conquest  to  possess  the  land,  and  under 
the  influences  of  the  Vedic  poets  to 
organize  their  natiire  worship  into  in- 
visible institutions,  and  the  whole 
system  of  caste  ensues.  It  is  our  pur- 
pose, then,  at  this  point  to  trace  the 
course  of  events  by  which  the  great  fact 
of  caste  was  built  up  into  the  social 
structure  of  India. 

In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered  that   when    the    nature   worship 


THE   INDICANS.— CASTES. 


677 


expressed  in  the  Vedas  was  given  forth , 
it  was  done  in  a  preliterary  age  by  a 
Division  of  the  class  of  poets.  It  was  the 
v^hTsht^rtrd  language  of  rhapsody, 
visvamitra.  poured  forth  in  verse  and 
committed  to  memory.  The  poem,  or 
hymn,  thus  composed  was  taught  by  the 
rhapsodist  to  his  son  and  to  other  bards. 
A  body  of  Vedic  psalms  was  thus 
produced  and  transmitted  orally 
from  generation  to  generation. 
There  were  great  singers  who  knew 
many  hymns  and  others  who  could 
chant  but  a  few.  It  was  in  this  sit- 
uation of  affairs  that  the  famous 
quarrel,  the  shadow  of  which  is  seen 
in  the  Vedic  worship,  arose  between 
the  two  rival  sages  Vashishtha  and 
Visvamitra.  They  disputed  with 
each  other  the  poetical  and  religious 
leadership  of  the  Indie  race. 

Around  Vashishtha,  the  success- 
ful contestant,  and  his  followers 
others  who  learned  the 
hymns  were  gathered. 
A  clan  of  singers 
Some  hymns  were  po- 
tent to  give  victory  in  battle.  The 
singers  of  these  were  specially  hon- 
ored. The  prevailing  prayer,  or 
hymn,  was  called  braJniia,  and  the 
singer  of  it  was  a  Braluuaii.  ' '  Who- 
soever," says  the  Rig- Veda,  "  scoflts 
at  the  Brahma  which  we  have  made, 
may  hot  plagues  come  upon  him; 
may  the  sky  burn  up  the  hater  of 
Brahmas."  Such  was  the  origin  of  the 
Brahmanical  caste,  highest  in  rank  of 
the  four  in  which  Indian  society  is 
divided. 

In  the  age  of  conquest,  when  the 
Aryan  immigrants  were  making  their 
way  by  war  from  the  valley  of  the  Indus 
to  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  the  success- 
ful chieftain  was  next  in  honor  to  him 
who  chanted  the  praises  of  the  gods  and 


prayed  for  victory.  Around  each  chief- 
tain would  gather  a  certain  number  who 
devoted   themselves   espe- 

Development  of 

cially  to  war.   Such  leaders  the  Kshatriyas, 
took  the  better  portions  of  "    a-JP'^t^. 
the  land  and  soon  established  themselves 
apart  from  the  body  of  the  tribes  as  an 
independent  class.     They  were  known 


Rise  and  as- 
cendency of  the 
Brahmanical 
caste. 

sprang  up. 


the 


A   SIVAITE    BRAHMAN — TYPE. 
Drart'n  by  F.  Regamey. 

as  Kshatriyas,'  or  "companions  of  the 
king,"  and  they  presently  constituted  the 
second  caste  in  the  system  of  India. 

The  weaker  portions  of  the  immigrant 
tribes  settled  on  the  soil  and  became  hus- 
bandmen.    They  received  vaisyas,  or 
the  name  of  Vaisyas,  signi-  ^Sti^eTtod 


fying  simply  ' 
Without   the 


'  the  people." 
adventurous 


caste. 


spirit  requi- 


'The  modem  name  of  the  Kshatriyas  is  Rajputs. 


678 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


site  for  war, 'they  chose  to  arrange  them- 
selves in  secluded  places  and  village 
communities,  where  safety  was  the  chief 
consideration.  Whnevcr  in  the  chaos  of 
a  half-barbarous  age  chooses  safety, 
chooses  subordination.  The  class  of 
husbandmen  became  subordinate  to  the 
Kshatriyas,  as  the  latter  were  in  some 
sense  inferior  to  the  Brahmans. 

Caste  always  implies  a  conquered  as 


A    SECOND    CASTE    PAN'DIT— lYPE. 

well  as  a  conquering  race.  The  abo- 
riginal peoples  of  India,  especially  the 
Thesudras;  Dravidians,  were  brought 
possibility  of       into    complete   subjection. 

caste  promotion,    r^i  ,  , 

i  hey  were  reduced  to 
.servitude.  They  were  called  "  once- 
born  "  slaves,  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  noble  "  twice -born "  Aryan  con- 
querors. These  subjugated  aborigines 
were  known,  and  are  .still  known,  by  the 
name  of  .Sudras,  between  whom  and  the 


three  superior  classes  of  Aryan  descend- 
ants there  is  nothing  in  common. 
Among  the  other  three  castes  there  is 
some  degree  of  mutation.  Sometimes 
the  Kshatriyas,  by  learning  the  hymns 
and  ceremonies  of  the  national  faith,  may 
pass  into  the  rank  of  Brahmans.  An 
aspiring  Vaisya,  or  husbandman,  may 
throw  off  his  peaceful  dispositions,  go 
to  war,  and  possibly  make  his  way  to  a 
place  among  the  Kshatriyas,  or 
warrior  caste.  But  the  Sudra  is  a 
Sudra,  a  slave  of  slaves,  fixed  by 
the  fate  of  birth  to  unalterable  .sub- 
jection and  isolation. 

In  the  cour.se  of  this  outline  of 
the  religious  system  which  has  con- 
stituted one  of  the  essential  ele- 
ments   of    the   Indian 

Summary  char- 

character  from  the  i"e-  acterof  the 

,       ,  1         i       ii        present  view. 

motest  epoch  to  the 
present  day,  it  has  been  necessary 
to  neglect  all  time-relations  and  to 
bring  together  parts  which  are  sep- 
arated by  centuries.  The  aim  has 
been  to  present  distinct  images  by 
gathering  certain  leading  features 
and  setting  them  in  relation  the 
one  with  the  other.  It  has  been 
necessary,  in  so  doing,  to  express 
important  facts  in  a  single  word  or 
reference,  and  to  cover  the  chasm 
of  ages  with  a  clause.  It  will  now 
be  our  purpose  to  look  in  upon  the 
India  of  modern  times  and,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Iranian  nations,  to  de- 
lineate the  character  of  the  multifarious 
peoples  classified  as  the  descendants  of 
those  ancient  Indie  Aryans  who  drifted 
by  migration  through  the  passes  of  the 
Hindu-Ku.sh  in  an  epoch  below  the 
morning  twilight  of  history. 

Within  the  limits  of  India,  as  defined 
in  a  former  book,  dwell  about  one  sixth 
of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe.  Un- 
til within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century 


THE   INDICANS.—RACE   DIl'ISIOXS. 


673 


but  little  was  known  of  the  multiplied 
millions  populating  these  vast  and  un- 
Efforts  of  Great  traversed  regions.  The 
Britain  in  the       ascendencv  of  Great  Britain 

census  01  ■' 

1871-72.  in  the  East  suggested,  and 

the  facilities  of  her  government  in  India 
encouraged,  an  effort  to  make  an  actual 
enumeration  of  the  almost  limitless  na- 
tions under  her  sway.  Not,  however, 
until  1871-72  was  an  effort  actualh^ 
made.  It  was  attended  with  unusual 
success.  The  whole  work  was  done  in 
its  principal  parts  concurrently  in  a 
single  night.  The  ofhcers  of  the  gov- 
ernment had  arranged  that  every  village 
and  district  in  British  India  .should  re- 
turn its  own  numbers  to  the  registrars, 
and,  with  very  few  exceptions,  this  was 


Teutonic  race  had  reached  back  mort 
than  ten  thousand  miles  into  the  East, 
had  lifted  up  over  one  of  the  vastest  ana 


THIRD   CASTE   TYPE — LANDOWNER    OF   KOUMAN. 
Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a  photograph. 

done.  The  spectacle  itself  was  worthy 
of  commemoration.  Out  of  the  British 
islands  in  the  West  the  strong  arm  of  a 


LOW   CASTE   TYPE — DANl.  LVG   WOMAN,    OR    BAYADERE. 


richest  regions  of  the  earth  the  rod  of 
authority,  and  had  now,  by  a  single 
effort,  accomplished  what  had  never 
been  accomplished  before,  an  enumera- 
tion of  the  peoples  under  English  do- 
minion. 

The  result  has  been  a  better  knowl- 
edge of  the  extent  and  variety  of  the 
Indian    populations.      The 

^  _  '■  Aggregate  re- 

enumeration    showed   that  suits ;  density 

_    .    .    ,        T     1  ■  1  of  population. 

British  India  alone  con- 
tained a  population  of  a  little  more  than 
a  hundred  and  ninetj^-one  million, 
while  the  native  states  increased  the  ag- 
gregate to  two  hundred  and  forty  million 
nine  hundred  and  thirty-one  thousand 
five  hundred  and  twenty-one.  This  gives 
an  average  of  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
three  to  the  square  mile  throughout 
India.  The  aggregate  is  twice  as  great 
as  that  which  Gibbon  gives  for  the  pop- 


680 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


ulation  of  the  Roman  empire  at  its  best 
estate,  under  the  Antonines,  in  the 
second  century  of  our  era. 

Not  only  do  we  have  thus  an  astound- 
ing total  for  the   peoples  of  India.     In 


SdXTAI.S   OF   BEHAR — TVPF.S. 
Drawn  by  Emile  B.iyard,  from  a  photograph. 

some  districts  the  density  of  the  popula- 
tion is  almost  inconceivable,  reaching 
the  limit  of  six  hundred,  or  even  more, 
to  the  square  mile.  It  has  generally 
been  agreed  among  Western  statis- 
ticians   that    any   people   who    surpass 


two  hundred  to  the  square  mile  must 
sustain  themselves  by  manufacturing 
interests,  by  mines,  and  by  the  com- 
mercial industries  of  great  cities.  In 
India,  however,   this  rule   is   turned  to 

naught  by  the 
existence  of 
purely  agricul- 
tural populations 
three  t  ivies  as 
dense  as  the  pre- 
scribed limit  for 
^  Western  peoples. 
"L^  The  province  of 
.Saran,  in  North 
^"  Behar,  has  an 
area  of  two  thou- 
.sand  six  hundred 
and  fifty -four 
square  miles,  and 
no  city  with  a 
population  great- 
e  r  t  h  a  n  fifty 
thousand,  and 
yet  the  average 
is  seven  hundred 
and  seventy- 
eight  people  to 
the  square  mile, 
and  in  one  place 
the  maximum 
rises  to  nine  hun- 
dred and  eighty- 
four.  A  careful 
estimate  places 
the  average  for 
the  whole  valley 
of  the  Ganges, 
from  Saharunpur 
to  Calcutta,  at  five 
hundred  to  the  square  mile,  or  nearly 
double  the  rate  for  the  population  of 
England,  including  her  cities. 

The  general  feature  of  modern  India, 
as  it  relates  to  population,  is  the  absence 
of  great  cities.     There  are  in  the  whole 


^>^ 


THE   INDICANS.—RACE   DIVISIONS. 


681 


of  the  British  Indian  empire  only  eight- 
een cities  of  the  first  class,  that  is, 
Distribution  of  having  over  one  hundred 
the  people ;  ab-    thousand  inhabitants  each, 

sence  of  great  ' 

cities.  and    of    these    only    two, 

Bombay  and  Calcutta,  exceed  half  a  mil- 
lion respectively.  This  will  appear  an 
astonishing  fact  when  we  reflect  that  in 
the  United  States  of  America,  after  only 
a  century  of  national  development,  there 
are  twenty-six  cities  of  the  first  class' 
in    a    popuation    of   only  sixty  million. 


tion  of  fifty  thousand.  Nowhere  on  the 
globe,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
China  and  Japan,  is  there  so  vast  and 
dense  an  agricultural,  or  country,  people 
as  in  the  provinces  of  India. 

If  we  look  at  the  distribution  of  this 
great  mass  of  human  beings  according 
to  the  religions  which  they  proportion  of 
profess,  we  shall  find  first  ^^fthe 
of  all  the  prevailing  Hin-  castes, 
duism,   or   Brahmanism,  which  has   its 
basis  ultimately  in  the  Veda  and  in  the 


VIEW  IN  THE  PUNJAB,  SHOWING  THE  HOVERNOR'S  RESIDENCE  AT  SIMLA.— Drawn  by  G.  Viiillier,  fiom  a  phologiaph. 


The  disproportion  thus  expressed  be- 
tween the  agricultural  distribution  of 
the  ancient  peoples  of  India  and  the  city 
aggregations  of  Europe  and  America  not 
only  surprises  the  statistician,  but  affords 
the  elements  of  a  profound  problem  in 
the  progress  of  civilization.  The  census 
of  1871-72  shows  four  hundred  and 
ninety-three  thousand  four  hundred  and 
forty-four  towns  and  villages  in  British 
India,  bitt  of  this  number  there  are  only 
forty-four  that  have  reached  a  popula- 


'  Census  of  1880. 
M. — Vol.  1—44 


bards  of  the  Aryan  immigration.  Of 
these  Hindus  there  are  over  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty -nine  million.  They 
are  di.stributed  in  general  throughout 
Southern  India  and  in  the  upper  valley 
of  the  Ganges.  The  student  of  history 
will  revert  readily  to  the  many  Mo- 
hammedan invasions  and  conquests  that 
have  been  made  in  different  parts  of  the 
countries  now  dominated  by  England  in 
the  East.  Next  after  Hinduism  is  Islam, 
whose  followers  in  Sindh,  the  Punjab, 
Eastern  Bengal,  and  the  Northwest 
provinces  number  over  forty  million. 


682 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


In  the  Central  provinces,  in  Bomba)% 

and  sparsely  scattered  in  other  districts 

is  a  large  element  derived 

Ethnic  and  reli-  "  ^,  i      t^         •  t 

gious  elements     from    the    Old    Dravidian 

in  the  census.         p^p.^lj^tion ,  which  Still  pro- 

fesses  various  forms  of  religion  of  the 
Mongoloid  character  quite  unlike,  in 
ceremonials  and  superstitions,  to  the 
other  faiths  of  India.  These  aborigi- 
nals number  about  five  and  a  half 
million.  Fourthly,  the  Buddhists  and 
Jains  who  are  confined  to  British  Bur- 
mah  number  over  two  million  eight 
himdred  thousand.  The  sect  called  the 
Sikhs  are  found  only  in  the  Punjab, 
and  number  a  million  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five  thousand.  The  Christians, 
who  are  as  yet  confined  to  the  coast 
cities  and  a  few  isolated  spots  in  the  in- 
terior, number  eight  hundred  and  ninety- 
seven  thousand,  while  certain  unclassi- 
fied clans,  professing  peculiar  beliefs 
here  and  there,  are  registered  at  ov'er 
half  a  million.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that 
the  Hindus  proper,  or  Brahmans,  if  we 
use  the  religious  term  by  whicti  they  are 
distinguished,  are  more  than  three  times 
as  numerous  as  all  the  other  religious 
divisions  of  the  Indian  races. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  ethnic  classi- 
fication of  the  peoples  of  modern  India, 

,     ,      it  will  be  of  interest  to  no- 
Excess  of  males 

in  the  Indian  tice  a  peculiar  general  fea- 
ture relative  to  the  propor- 
tion of  the  sexes.  Of  the  hundred  and 
ninety-one  million  of  people  in  British 
India  there  is  an  excess  of  males  over 
females  of  nearly  .six  million.  The 
proportion  is  about  one  hundred  to 
ninety-four.  In  the  province  of  Oudh 
the  males  are  seven  per  cent  in  excess 
of  the  females,  and  in  Bombay  eight 
per  cent.  In  the  Northwestern  prov- 
inces the  excess  rises  to  twelve  per 
cent,  and  in  the  Punjab  as  high  as  six- 
teen per  cent.      It  has  been  currently 


believed  that  the  practice  of  female  in- 
fanticide so  much  in  vogue  among  abo- 
rigines and  in  the  Oriental  countries  has 
produced  this  result.  There  are  places 
in  India,  .such  as  the  Meerut  district,  in 
which  there  have  been  found  as  many  as 
seven  boys  to  one  girl,  and  in  other 
provinces  the  disproportion  is  almost  as 
great. 

We  pass  on  to  consider  the  true  eth- 
nical  classification  of  the  peoples  of  In- 
dia. The  grouping  of  Five  principal 
these  races  is  most  largely  t^^!^^^^ 
effected  on  the  basis  of  re-  tions. 
ligion  and  caste.  Of  these  there  are 
five  principal  divisions,  each  of  which  is 
widely  distributed  and  numerous.  In 
noticing  these,  we  will  proceed  accord- 
ing to  antiquity  of  occupancy  in  the 
country ;  that  is,  we  will  notice  the  old- 
est Indian  races  first  and  the  more  re- 
cent afterwards.  There  is,  of  course, 
some  obscurity  in  determining  the  rela- 
tive antiquity  of  ancient  peoples,  but 
linguistic  science  is  generally  a  sufficient 
evidence  of  priority  and  order  of  devel- 
opment. Glancing,  then,  at  the  ethnic 
divisions  of  the  Indian  stocks,  we  find : 

I.  TIic  Old  Dravidians  and  tluir  Dc- 
sccndaitls. — The  derivation  of  these  from 
the    Mongoloid   stem    has 

Distribution 

already  been  noticed  m  a  and  tribes  of  the 

J.  '-Li.  T  Old  Dratidiaus. 

former  chapter.  In  gener- 
al, the  peoples  of  this  stock  are  found  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  but 
branches  of  the  family  extend  as  far 
north  as  Chuta-Nagpur.  The}'  are, 
doubtless,  the  oldest  race  in  India.  Most 
of  the  Dravidian  tribes  are  associated 
in  tolerably  compact  settlements,  but  in 
some  parts  of  the  countr}^  especially  to- 
ward the  north,  they  are  sparsely  scat- 
tered among  the  other  races.  Twelve 
distinct  Dravidian  languages  have  been 
examined  and  classified.  These  are  the 
Tamil  dialect,  theMalayalim,  theTelugu, 


THE  JNDICAXS.—RACE   DIVISIONS. 


683 


the  Kanarese,  the  Tulu,  the  Kudugu, 
the  Toda,  the  Kota,  the  Gond,  the 
Khond,  the  Uraon,  and  the  Rajmahal. 
Each  of  these  tongues  has  its  peculiar 


with  the  Bhils  of  Bombay  on  the  west, 
and  extending  to  the  Sontals  of  Bengal 
in  the  east.  The  race  characteristics  of 
these  peoples  are  thought  by  some  eth- 


OLD  DRAVIDIAN  TYPES-KHOND  CHIEFTAINS. 


vocabulary  and  grammatical  structure, 
all  different  by  a  wide  departure  from 
the  other  languages  of  India. 

2.    The  Hill   Tribes  of  Central  India. — 
These  are  the  upland  races,  beginning 


nographers   to   be    in   affinity  with   the 
Negroid     family    of    man- 

,   .     J     -  .  Kolarians,  or 

kind,  but  this   is,  perhaps,  hiu  populations 
incorrect.     They,   like  the  °f  "'«'"*«"-• 
Dravidians,  are  of  Mongolian  extraction. 


684 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


and  belong  to  an  original  stock  derived 
from  the  same  stem  with  the  Dravidians 
themselves.  All  these  hill  tribes  are  as- 
sociated together  by  a  linguistic  classifi- 
cation, and  are  known  by  the  name  of 
Kolarians.     They  appear  to  have  entered 


P 


and  the  Dravidians  is  the  difference  be- 
tween a  more  ancient  and  a  less  ancient 

stock    of    people   migrating   Difference  be- 
.     .  •  *•    -.1  ,  „    fween  the 

into  regions  of  the  same  Koiarianand 
country  by  different  routes.  Dravidian  races. 
In  Central  India  the  two  families  have 
— I  had  considerable  contact  and  inter- 
CBCGtr  LccBT^  LSsQi(^(2ffirLc>uec,rtiS!Tf,eSeBrp,  fixture,  and  in  these  provinces  the 
^.  ^^^<F(?,?:(rLc.t_i«S@jj5iLQ6.^a/g«(_/Qt_/ff0„-ifl    Dravidians   have   given  character  to 

luececir^  ipQh  jS&i'BRu^iunS^  (tpeesn—iieiMnil. 

^eaeiuirfi-OLjcr0enirs!,ffQiuei)ei)ir^^^u    ^^^^^.^    ^^    ^^^^    Comorin,    Avhile    the 


race.  The  latter  are  much  the 
more  numerous,  and  are  massed  to- 
ward   the    south,    extending   as    far 


Kolarians  are  scattered  through  the 
northern  region  in  isolated  tribes. 
The  vSontals,  who  are  the  eastern- 
most representatives  of  the  race,  oc- 


emuiu  <sirec!!tl  ^!J}j5«sr^iuei?sirjs^^.  j^juOurr    ^^p^.  ^|^g  extreme  eastern  edge  of  the 


es>&i sQ p ^  n: (^Q Siiem L^uj    ^^i—lBsoSsoGiu.  ^nesr 
eree'es'GfFiuiUeisiru:,!  weaf    me^i^&ujmje^siT isneer 


table-land  of  Central  India,  next  to 
the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  On  the 
west,  at  a  distance  of  four  hundred 
miles,  dwell  the  Kurkus,  separated 
from  their  kinsmen  by  mountain 
ranges,  great  forests,  and  interven- 


descendants. 

In    Northern    India,    Madras,    and 


^ene'SeriLjLa^.wQeGs'ffp^enieuds  §^iliuL^ff    i^g  tribes  of  Dravidians  and  Aryan 

(i^eirserrsi?QjesLjLJL^L^(TF,iiQs<5'j}:)^    ^srosiuceo    Orissa  are  found  the  remnants  of  the 

eieOirVu:>m(Tr^eei .  LJsrirLjaGm)  ^eu^cGst^Q^ir 
ewswjg,  t^^^iSestGecul     §)pp  ^an  s-^-MSGei 


Savars,  a  degenerate  and  „         ,  , 

°  Place  of  the 

mendicant    people,     re-  Savars;Koia- 

T  1  ,      .  ■!  1       r  rian  languages. 

duced  to  the  rank  of  serv- 
ants, yet  their  name  was  known   in 
the  earliest  ages    of   history,  and    is 


B<BQ&nenenLJu®La,  ^uOljitq^^  ^  Gff'&S^    mentioned   by    Pliny    and    Ptolemy 
afiibj&^eire'Gff^£>£peu^£^  ^ui-iUiXeUJ  ^u>u 


hl'KCIMEN   PAGE  OF  TAMIL   BOOK. 

India,  especially  Bengal,  by  the  north- 
east passes  of  the  mountains.  Their 
habitation  geographically  is  along  the 
northern  and  eastern  edges  of  the  trian- 
gular table-land  constituting  the  south- 
ern half  of  India. 

The  difference  between  the  Kolarians  ! 


The  Kolarian  languages  are  divided 
into  nine  principal  groups:  the  San- 
tali,  the  Mundari,  the  Ho,  the  Bhu- 
mij,  the  Korwa,  the  Kharria,  the 
Juang,  the  Kurku,  and  the  Savar. 
There  is  a  marked  difference  between 
the  vocabulary  of  the  Kolarians  and  that 
of  their  race  kinsfolk,  the  Dravidians 
on  the  south,  and  the  grammars  of  the 
two  peoples  are  as  distinct  as  those  of 
German  and  Greek. 

3.    T//r  ludo-Cliincsc  Races. — These  be- 


bito/^f'i  If 


686 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


long  geographical!)''  to  the  slopes  of  the 
Himalayas,  to  the  valley  of  Assam,  and 
Tribal  and  lin-  to  Burmah.  The  latter 
country  is  wholly  occupied 
by  people  of  this  stock.  In 
Northern  Bengal  there  are  certain  low 
castes,  half  Hindu  and  half  Kolarian  in 
their  characteristics,  who  are  also  thought 
to  be  Indo-Chinese.   It  is  evident  that  this 


guistic  divi- 
sions of  the 
Indo-Chinese 


HIGH-CASTK   HIXDU    (aNANT  RAM,    PRIME   MINISTER)- 
Drawn  by  E.  Ronjat,  from  a  photograph  by  Burke. 

race  came  into  Burmah  and  Assam  by  the 
northeast  passes  of  the  Himalayas.  They 
have  clearly  had  an  original  common 
home  with  the  Chinese  and  other  Mon- 
golians of  Central  Asia.  There  is  a 
similarity  of  dialect,  in  some  instances  so 
marked  that  particular  expressions  might 
be  understood  alike  in  Bengal  and  Can- 
ton. The  linguistic  designation  of  the 
Indo-Chinese  group  of  nations  is  Thibeto- 
Burmese.     Of  this  family  of  languages 


there  are  more  than  twenty  dialects :  the 
Cachari  or  Bodo,  the  Garo,  the  Tripuara 
Mrung,  the  Thibetan  or  Bhutan,  the  Gu- 
rung,  the  Murmi,  the  Newar,  the  Lepcha, 
the  Meri,  the  Aka,  the  Mishmi,  the  Dhi- 
mal,  the  Kanawari,  the  Mikir,  the  Sing- 
pho,  the  Naga  dialects,  the  Kuki,  the  Bur- 
mese, the  Khyeng,  and  the  Manipuri. 
These  twenty  dialects  are  allied  in  their 
_,„_,  grammatical  formation  and  vocab- 
ularj-  like  the  Romance  languages 
of  Europe.  The  affinities  of  the 
Italian,  French,  Spanish,  and  the 
Portuguese  may  well  illustrate  the 
analogies  of  Thibetan,  Dhimal,  and 
liurmese.  The  names  of  numerals, 
of  common  objects  of  sense,  the 
organs  of  the  body,  and  common 
actions  are  usually  expressed  by 
root  words  which  are  essentially 
\  the  same  in  all.  No  accurate  enu- 
meration of  the  numbers  speaking 
the  Thibeto-Burmese  languages 
has  been  made.  It  is  estimated 
that  fully  forty  million  of  people 
speak  the  Kolarian  tongues  in  the 
several  dialects,  and  doubtless  the 
Indo-Chinese  group  is  much  in  ex- 
cess of  the  Kolarian. 

The  three  principal  Indian  races 
which  we  have  here  mentioned, 
the  Dravidians,  the  Kolarians, 
and  the  Indo-Chinese,  may  all  be 
defined  as  non-Aryan  peoples  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  domi- 
race.       They    do   not,    therefore, 

come    distinctly  within   the    Dravidians, 

range  of  the  present  dis-  f^^tSesf 

CUSSion,    which  is    intended    are  non-Aryan. 

to  cover  the  Aryan  peoples  of  India. 
But  the  presence  of  the  above  races 
among  the  Hindus  proper,  and  the  large 
degree  of  ethnic  admixture  which  has 
occurred  along  all  the  lines  of  contact, 
make  it  desirable  to  refer  in  this  con- 
nection to  the  aboriginal  races,  although 


nant 


THE  INDICANS.—RACE   DIl'ISIONS. 


687 


they  have  been  deduced  from  a  Mongo- 
lian rather  than  an  Aryan  stock. 

4.    The  High-Caste  Hindus. — These  are 
the  dominant  nations  of  India.     In  num- 
bers they  probably  surpass 

Dominant  Indi-         , ,         ,  ,  .        , 

cans  are  wgh-      all     the     rest      Combined, 
caste  Hindus.       Li].g^.ise  ^^  influence  they 

are  superior.  Their  intellectual,  and 
perhaps  we  should  say  their  moral, 
development  greatly  surpasses  that 
of  any  other  Indie  people,  unless 
we  should  except  the  Christian  col- 
onies, and  doubtfully  the  iMoham- 
medans.  Generally  speaking,  the 
Hindus  are  the  lineal  descendants 
of  the  Old  Aryans  who  came,  in 
prehistoric  times,  into  the  Indian 
valleys  and  conquered  and  over- 
ran the  aboriginal  inhabitants.  At 
what  date  this  occurred  it  is  not 
possible  to  determine.  The  Hin- 
dus themselves  believe  that  the 
Vedic  hymnal  was  composed  at  or 
before  the  beoinning  of  time.  Some 
of  their  philosophers,  more  moder- 
ate in  their  estimates,  place  the 
date  at  3001  years  before  our  era. 
The  best  estimate  which  modern 
scholars  have  been  able  to  make 
fixes  the  minimum  of  1900  B.  C. 
as  the  date  for  the  composition  of 
the  older  hymns  of  the  Veda. 

It  is  not  possible  to  make  the 
ethnic  line  which  defines  or  in- 
cludes the  Hindus  proper  corre- 
spond with  the  caste  lines  which 
we  have  already  drawn.  Of  course, 
the  Brahmans  are  all  included  in  the 
ethnic    class    of     Hindus. 

Ethnic  and  t-   i 

caste  Unas  do       The     Kshatriyas    likewise 

not  coincide.  11  x       ii   ■  1 

belong  to  this  race;  also 
the  Vaisyas,  or  at  least  the  greater  por- 
tion of  them.  But  at  this  point  the  in- 
termingling of  races  begins  to  show  its 
effects,  for  the  Vaisyas  have  in  many 
parts  of  India  absorbed  a  considerable 


amount  of  foreign  blood  from  the  Dra- 
vidians  and  Kolarians.  In  some  parts 
the  Kolarians  have  made  their  way  into 
the  Vaisyas  caste,  so  that  at  this  point 
the  ethnic  line  can  no  longer  be  made 
coincident  with  the  caste  line  between 
the  Vaisyas  and  the  Sudras. 

5 .    The  Mohammedans. — These  came  by 


MUSSULMAN  OF  CASHMERE — TYPE. 
Drawn  by  E,  Zier,  from  a  photograph  by  Burke. 

conquest.     They  were  originally  Arabs, 
Afghans,      Mughals,     and  piaceofthe 
Persians.     In  successive  in- 


occurring  at  inter- 


Mohammedans 
among  the 
Indian  races. 


vasions, 

vals  sometimes  of  centuries,  the  followers 
of  the  Prophet  have  thrown  themselves 
from  the  west  into  Sindh,  the  Punjab, 
and  all  the  Northwest  provinces.  On 
some   occasions  the  impact  has  carried 


THE  LYDICAXS.—RACE   DIVISIONS. 


689 


bands  of  invaders  as  far  east  as  Bengal. 
These  conquests  have  always  been  ac- 
companied with  religious  propagandism. 
Islam  has  borne  the  sword  in  one  hand 
and  the  Koran  in  the  other.  Indeed, 
the  impulse  which  has  carried  the  armies 
of  the  Prophet  north,  south,  east,  and 
west  from  the  original  seat  in  Arabia 
has  always  been  rather  the  spread  of 
Islam  than  the  mere  conquest  of 
nations. 

On  the  whole,  the  }*Iohammedan  in- 
vasions in  India  have  by  this  criterion 
been  attended  with  success,  ilore  than 
forty  million  of  people  have  adopted 
the  Arab  faith,  and  we  thus  have  an- 
other remarkable  example  of  the  inter- 
fusion of  a  Semitic  religion  among  the 
Aryan  races.  Next  to  the  Hindus  them- 
selves the  ^Mohammedans  are  the  most 
populous  division  of  the  Indian  nations. 
The  difference  in  numbers,  however, 
between  them  and  the  non-Aryan  Kola- 
rians  and  Dravidians  is  not  great,  but  in 
respect  of  spirit  and  power  the  !Moham- 
medans  are  infinitely  above  the  aborigi- 
nal peoples  of  the  south.  Indeed,  if  we 
regard  the  Islamites  as  a  caste  in  Indian 
society,  it  would  hardly  be  an  exagger- 
ation to  say  that  in  pride,  arrogance,  ex- 
clusiveness,  and  bigotry  they  are  fairly 
the  rivals  of  the  Brahmans  themselves. 
The  great  mass  of  Mohammedan  popu- 
lation is  distributed  in  Bengal,  in  West- 
em  and  Northwestern  India,  and  along 
the  borders  of  those  Iranian  countries 
where  the  faith  of  the  Prophet  has  long 
been  in  the  ascendant.       - 

We    must    now,    however,    omit    the 


non -Aryan  populations  of  India  as  the 
same  belong  to  other  parts  of  this  work. 

We  shall  attempt  to  fix  our   The  Bralimans 
"■  .  represent  the 

attention  more  exclusively  inteUectaai 

.1         J  T       ^  r    forces  cf  the 

upon  the  descendants  of  Hindus, 
the  dominant  race  known  by  the  eth- 
nic name  of  Hindus,  but  classified  reli- 
giously as  adherents  of  Brahmanism.  It 
is  among  the  Hindus  that  the  real  power 
and  intellectual  forces  of  the  native  races 
of  Hindustan  are  found.  The  Brah- 
mans have  in  their  possession  not  only 
the  sacred  books  in  which  the  faith  of 
the  Indians  is  recorded,  but  also  the 
philosophy,  the  science,  and  the  juris- 
prudence of  the  Hindu  race.  In  like 
manner  they  have  been  the  creators  and 
the  custodians  of  the  secular  literature, 
such  as  it  is,  and  of  the  educational 
forces  existent  in  Indian  society.  Their 
exclusive  claims  in  all  of  these  partic- 
ulars amount  to  a  monopoly  of  the  real 
life  of  the  Indian  races. 

The  Brahmans  are  close  alongside  the 
native  Hindu  princes,  and  are  their 
counselors  and  teachers.  Locally,  they 
have  the  center  of  their  power  in  the 
great  middle  region  of  India,  just  as  the 
southern  triangle  has  an  excess  of  the  Old 
Dravidian  populations,  and  as  the  slopes 
of  the  Himalayas  are  occupied  by  the 
Indo-Burmese.  The  Brahmans,  as  the 
spokesmen  of  this  dominant  Hindu  race, 
represent  not  only  the  mind,  the  will, 
the  purpose,  and  the  native  power  of 
modern  India,  but  also  the  continuity 
of  the  Aryan  race  and  the  institutions 
of  that  race  from  the  earliest  epoch  of 
human  history  to  the  present  day. 


690 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Chapter  XL.- 


-Anuvtal  and  Vegetable  Resources 

OE    INDIA. 


HE  Aryans  began  in  In- 
dia as  poets  and  war- 
riors, and  have  ended 
as  priests  and  peasants. 
The  primitive  aspect 
was  one  of  aggres- 
sion, conquest,  ener- 
getic activity  ;  the  present  aspect  is  one  of 
submission,  quiescence,  passivity.  There 
is  only  one  point  of  \-iew  from  which  the 
energies  of  the  race  may  be  said  to  be 
unabated,  and  that  is  in  the  perpetual 
but  timid  industry  of  the  people.  It  is 
now  proper  to  review  briefly  the  condi- 
tions of  environment  under  which  the 
transformation  of  the  India  of  antiquity 
into  the  India  of  modern  times  has  been 
effected. 

This  vast  region,  a  peninsula  in  its 
general  form  and  relations  to  the  sea, 
Slight  changes  has  perhaps  been  less  af- 
fected in  its  original  condi- 
tions of  climate  and  phys- 
ical character  under  the  great  and  con- 
tinuous burden  of  population  than  has 
any  other  country  of  like  extent  on  the 
globe.  The  traveler,  the  ethnographer, 
the  historian,  is  to-day  able,  as  in  the 
times  of  Alexander  or  in  the  times  of 
the  Vedic  bards,  to  scrutinize  the  move- 
ments and  products  of  physical  nature 
essentially  unchanged  and  but  slightly 
varying  from  what  they  Avere  in  the 
time  of  the  prehistoric  Mongolian  abo- 
rigines. 

India  has  always  been  a  land  of  vast 
.„,  ,     .         ,    and   varied  resources.     In 

vast  and  varied 

resources  of  the    the   earlier  ages  of  Aryan 
domination    the     conquer- 
ors   were   brought   into  relation   rather 
with   the  animal   life  of   the  peninsula 


in  the  environ^ 
ment  ol  the  In 
dicans. 


than  with  the  products  of  the  soil.  In 
the  beginning  all  people  must  be  hunters, 
warriors,  adventurers  of  the  hill  and 
jungle.  Here  in  the  valleys  of  the 
rivers,  in  the  wooded  uplands,  and  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  steep-up  to 
the  clouds,  they  foiind  a  variety  and 
abundance  of  animal  life  unequaled  in 
any  other  part  of  the  earth.  It  is  now 
recognized  as  a  fact  by  zoologists  that  a 
majority  of  all  the  animals,  great  and 
small,  common  to  the  north  temper- 
ate belts  of  the  earth  have  their  origin, 
or  at  least  a  native  place,  in  India. 
Nearly  every  species  of  creature,  from 
the  domestic  fowl  to  the  elephant,  may 
be  found,  with  its  pristine  habits  and  in 
its  original  abode  in  the  vast  wilds  of  the 
Indian  jungles. 

To  note  particularl}'  the  principal  ani- 
mals of  this  great  region  would  require 
a  separate  treatise.     Here 


Animal  life  of 

from  the  earliest  ages  the  India;  tigers  and 
has    flourished,     and    ®°p^^  ^* 


lion 


from  hence  the  striped  tiger  has  carried 
the  name  of  Bengal  to  every  spot  on  the 
planet  where  a  collection  of  wild  beasts 
has  been  established  or  a  traveling  men- 
agerie has  pitched  its  tents.  To  the 
present  day  the  people,  even  in  thickly 
settled  districts,  are  in  mortal  dread  of 
this  formidable  beast,  who  from  the 
days  of  the  beginning  has  been  known 
as  a  man-eater.  Within  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century  a  single  tiger  has  killed 
hundreds  of  people  before  he  could  be 
de.stroyed.  In  one  instance  a  country 
having  an  area  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
square  miles  and  thirteen  villages  was 
thrown  out  of  cultivation  and  abandoned 
from  the  ravages  of  one  tiger! 


THE  INDICANS.— ANIMAL   LIFE. 


691 


Leopards  also  are  found  in  all  parts  of 
India,  and  being  much  more  numerous 
than  tigers,  are  on  the  whole  more 
destructive  of  life  and  property.  One 
variety,  known  as  the  Cheetah  leopard, 
has  been  domesticated  and  trained  to 
hunt.  In  the  chase  of  the  antelope  this 
creature  is  used,  and  by  its  speed  and 


considerably  troubled,  with  wolves.     01 
old  time  the  antelope,  the  wild  goat,  and 
the  hare  were  their  prey,  country  in- 
but    with   the   increase   of  I'^^Jl^^ 
population  and  the  spread  jackals, 
of   the  pastoral  life  they  turned  to  the 
sheepfold.    Sometimes  they  attack  man. 
As  late  as   1827  a  single  neighborhood 


VIEW  IX  THE  HIMALAYAS.— A  Mountajn  Village.— Drawn  by  G.  Vuillier,  from  a  photogr.iph  by  Baker. 


activity  is  a  powerful  auxiliary  to  the 
hunter.  It  is  said  to  .surpass  in  swift- 
ness of  flight  any  other  wild  beasts  in 
India.  Its  peculiarity  of  habit  is  that  if  it 
misses  its  prey  at  the  first  bound,  it  will 
make  no  second  attempt,  but  return  ap- 
parentl}-  mortified,  to  its  master. 

All  the  open  countrj'  between  the 
Indus  and  the  Ganges  was  originalh-  in- 
fested, and  is  to-day  in  wooded  districts 


lost  thirty  children  by  the  ravages  of 
wolves.  Next  in  order  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Indian  fox  and  the  jackal, 
whose  hideous  yell  by  night  may  be 
heard  in  most  of  the  country  districts  of 
India.  The  latter  animal  is  sought  by 
the  European  huntsmen  who  are  settled 
here  and  there  in  the  country,  for  whom 
the  jackal  takes  the  place  of  the  fox  in 
the  hunt  of  the  "Western  nations. 


692 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKfXD. 


Dogs,  wild  and  tame,  are  numerous. 

The  Cniiis  dhola  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 

wildest    jungles.       These, 

The  Canis  dhola,    .  .  .         ,    ■ 

the  sloth  and  indeed,  are  his  native  laii, 
the  snn  bear.       ^nd  have  been  SO  from  the 

prehistoric  ages.  Of  bears,  there  are 
many  varieties  throughout  all  India. 
The  black,  or  sloth,  bear  is  found  in  the 
forests  and  on  the  mountains.     This  is 


the  other  almost  as  large  as  the  grizzly 
of  the  Sierras. 

The  elephant  is  native  to  all  parts  of 
the  country  except  the  Northwest  prov- 
inces.    His  native  abode  is  ^^^^^^^^^^^ 
the  hill-country  rather  than  immemorial iu 

<  -,  ,     India. 

the   plains.      He   does  not 

much  descend  into  the  river  valleys,  but 

takes  to  the  higher  ridges.    In  the  south- 


.ANl.MAL  LIKE  OF  INUl.-^.— Siag  Slai.-j  uv  a  Tiger.— Dfawn  by  A.  de  XeuviUe,  after  Llelapurlc. 


the  creature  so  strangely  marked  with  a 
white  horseshoe  on  his  breast.  The 
Thibetan  sun  bear  is  found  along  the 
mountain  spurs,  all  the  way  from  the 
Punjab  to  Assam,  but  never  at  a  lower 
level  than  five  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  Malayan  sun  bear  inhabits 
British  Burmah,  along  with  two  other 
species,  one  of  which  is  quite  small  and 


ern  peninsula  the  elephant  has  been 
nearly  exterminated,  but  a  few  are  still 
found  in  the  forests  of  Coorg  and  ]\Iy- 
sore,  and  in  the  states  of  Orissa.  It  was 
out  of  India  that  the  elephants  were 
drawn  in  the  classical  ages  and  trained 
for  the  shock  of  battle.  From  this  source 
Hannibal  drew  his  supply  when  Rome 
trembled  under  the  march  of  his  armies. 


THE  INDICANS.— ANIMAL   LIFE. 


693 


Four  varieties  of  rhinoceros  are  found 
in  India.     Two  of  the  species  are  uni- 
corns,   and     two     have    double    horns. 
They  most  abound  in  the 

The  principal 

pachyderms         Valley  of  thc  Brahmaputra 

and  ruminants.  j      •  ,  i  o        j      i_ 

and  m  the  bundarbans. 
Its  habitat  is  mostly  in  swampy  places, 
and  its  manner  of  life  like  that  of  swine, 


on  the  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  where 
some  of  them  range  as  high  as  twelve 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Here  also  is  found  the  ibex,  even  on  the 
highest  ranges  of  the  mountains;  also 
the  chamois,  in  the  Himalayas,  from 
Assam  to  Burmah. 

It  would  be  vain  to  enumerate  the  an- 


KHINOCEROS  FIGH  l'  AT  BAKOOA. -Drawn  by  E mile  liayard. 


or  even  the  hippopotamus.  From  the 
earliest  times  the  wild  hog  has  abounded 
in  the  Indian  jungles.  Its  habit  is  to 
hover  along  the  edges  of  settlements 
and  to  gratif}'  its  predatory  habits  by 
plunging  into  fields  and  villages.  In 
the  deserts  of  Sindh  and  Kachheh  the 
wild  ass  still  exists,  as  in  the  times  of 
the  Aryan  migration.  Many  varieties 
of  wild  sheep  and  wild  goats  are  found 


telope  and  the  deer,  with  its  many  spe- 
cies,  the   bi.son,   from    the  „ 

Habits  and  size 

gaur  of  the  Western  Ghats  of  the  Indian 
to  the  gayal  of  the  north- 
eastern frontier.  In  the  latter  region 
the  bison  has  been  domesticated,  and  is 
used  by  the  aboriginal  tribes  in  their 
sacrifices.  In  Burmah  the  buffalo  is 
found,  large  and  fierce.  The  heads  of 
some  bulls   captured   in   modern  times 


694 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


have  been  as  much  as  thirteen  feet  six 
inches  in  circumference  and  fully  six 
feet  and  a  half  between  the  tips  of  the 
horns.  The  animal  reaches  a  height  of 
six  feet,  and  compares  favorably  in  mag- 
nitude with  the  tremendous  creatures 
formerly  inhabiting  the  great  American 
plains  of  the  West. 

Of  birds,  tlicrc  arc  an  endless  variet\-. 


generally  innocuous.  The  inhabitant  of 
the  safe  countries  of  Europe  has  little 
apprehension  of  the  deadly  work  of  those 
Indian  serpents,  of  which  the  cobra  de 
capello  is  the  imperial  and  venomous 
king.  The  fatality  from  snake-biting  is 
everywhere  increased  by  the  supersti- 
tion of  the  people,  who  generally  re- 
gard  the  snake   with   veneration.     The 


INDIAN   l;UKFALOES.-Drawn  by  Mesvel, 


The  reptiles  of  India  have  been  known 

Prevalence  of      ^''^"^  ^^^  earliest  ages  for 
reptues;  lossof    their  tremendous  size  and 

life  thereby.  .  ,   .  ,^ 

poisonous  bite.  The  most 
deadly  serpents  to  be  found  in  any  part 
of  the  world  lurk  in  the  dank  jungles, 
along  the  river  banks,  and  even  in  the 
uplands  of  the  Deccan.  It  is  said  that 
all  the  salt  water  snakes  of  India  are  poi- 
sonous, while  those  of  fresh  waters  are 


census  of  1877  returned  a  total  of  six- 
teen thousand  seven  hundred  and  sev- 
enty-seven persons  killed  in  a  single 
year  by  the  bites  of  serpents. 

It  is  against  this  great  phalanx  of  an- 
imal life,  fierce  and  malign,  that  the  In- 
dian races  have  flung  themselves  for 
thousands  of  years.  It  has  been  a  war 
at  once  offensive  and  defensive,  and  the 
battle  has  not  infrequently  gone  against 


THE  INDICANS.—AXIMAL   LIFE. 


695 


the  man.  In  no  other  quarter  of  the 
habitable  globe  does  the  wild  animal 
life  peculiar  to  the  primeval  world  stand 
forth  against  the  human  race,  even  to 
the  present  day,  in  such  fierce  and  de- 
fiant antagonism  as  in  this  thickly  popu- 
lated India. 

It  is  a  strange  reflection  that  after 
fully  four  thousand  years  of  conflict, 
during  which  the  great  peninsula  reach- 


a  stronger  arm  and  better  prospect  of 
victory  than  does  his  timid,  light-limbed, 
brown-bronze  descendant. 

In  course  of  time,  no  doubt,  every 
species  of  savage  creature  will  be  exter- 
minated   from    the    world,    civilization  ex- 

The  multiplication  and  ex-  ^^^:^::^^,, 
pansion  of  the  human  fam-  ''fe- 
ily  will  carry  the  abodes  of  man  into  the 
reclaimed   fenlands,  to  the  river  brink. 


DEADLY  SERPENTS  OF  INDIA.— The  Bunjaris  Kasciatus.— Drawn  by  K.  Kretstlmer. 


ing  into  the  Indian  ocean  and  embraced 
by  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  has  never 
wanted  for  multitudes  of  inhabitants,  the 
The  Indian  man  lias  not  on  the  whole 

surdu'^e7t\r  held  his  own  against  the 
wild  beasts.  beast.  It  is  likely  that  the 
primitive  Aryan  adventurer  who  pene- 
trated the  jungles  while  the  earliest  poet 
of  the  Vedas  was  still  chanting  his  hymns 
in  Sindh  and  the  Punjab,  met  the  fierce 
creatures  of  the  woods  and  marshes  with 


through  the  wild  morass  and  woodland, 
and  up  the  mountain  slopes  beyond  the 
line  of  snow.  The  spread  of  civilization, 
as  exemplified  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
soil,  in  the  improved  means  of  defense, 
in  the  scientific  mastery  over  every  ele- 
ment in  the  environment,  will  demand 
and  accomplish  the  extinction  of  all  the 
hurtful  races  of  lower  animals.  In  some 
parts  of  the  earth  poisonous  reptiles  and 
savage  beasts  have  already  disappeared. 


696 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


Even  in  the  New  World  the  rattlesnake, 
the  viper,  the  panther,  and  the  bear 
have  either  totally  vanished  or  maintain 


maintain  and  perpetuate  the  wilder  and 
more  dangerous  varieties  of  animal  ex- 
istence, but  this  condition  could  soon  be 


THK  Th.ER   HUNT.-Ur.iwn  by  T.uiley  Berkeley,  from  nauire. 


a  precarious  existence  among  the  moun- 
tains or  inaccessible  ledges  of  rock. 
The  same  thing  will  happen  in  India. 
Doubtless  the  countrv  is  well  situated  to 


changed  by  a  larger  expenditure  of  gim- 
powder  and  a  less  supply  of  Brahman- 
ism.  Both  of  these  modifications  in  the 
existing   status   of   India  will  occur   in 


THE  INDICANS.— ANIMAL   LIFE. 


697 


time,  but  perhaps  the  day  will  never 
come  when  the  tradition,  and  even  the 
historical  record  of  the  fierce  conflict 
between  human  and  mere  animal  life 
in  this  region  of  the  world  will  pass 
away. 

There  is  no  more  spectacular  display 
of  man's  activity  than  in  the  tiger  and 
elephant  hunts  of  Hindustan.  For  how 
many  centuries  such  exhibitions  of  nat- 
ural combat  have  occurred 
Spectacular  ...  .,  - 

character  of  the    it     IS     impossible     to     say. 

in  •  ^\\Q  defensive  fight  for  life 

with  the  tremendous  beasts  of  the  Indian 
jungle  must  have  begun  with  the  appari- 
tion of  the  human  race  in  the  valley  of 
the  Indus.  Not  only  the  battle  to  the 
uttermost  has  been  perpetually  reneAved 
for  thousands  of  years,  but  the  fight  for 
capture  has  brought  out  the  ingenuity 
and  daring  of  the  native  races,  and  even 
taxed  the  skill  and  courage  of  foreigners 
dwelling  in  the  land.  The  census  of 
1877  showed  the  destruction  of  a  thou- 
sand five  hundred  and  seventy-nine  tigers 
in  a  single  year. 

The  character  of  the  tiger  hunt  has 
taxed  the  descriptive  pen  and  the  artist's 
Useoftheeie-  brusli.  The  favorite  mode 
gjrtil^t'lg^r-s  is  fi-om  the  back  of  the 
habits.  elephant.     The   scene  has 

been  many  times  described.  The  hunt- 
ers fix  themselves  with  their  spears 
and  javelins  and  guns  on  the  back  of 
the  huge  beast  and  enter  the  jungle. 
The  tiger  is  roused  from  his  lair,  and 
the  battle  begins.  The  elephant  is 
trained  to  perform  his  part  of  the  con- 
flict. With  his  tusks  and  huge  trunk 
made  into  a  flail  of  destruction  he  lays 
about  him  in  what  is  many  times  a  vain 
endeavor  to  strike  the  terrible  cat  that 
springs  about  him.  The  weaponry  of 
the  Indian  hunters  is  generally  ineffi- 
cient. Many  lives  are  lost  in  the  con- 
flict, and  the  battle  is  usually  long  and 

M. — Vol.  1—45 


evenly  contested  before  the  tiger  is  slain. 
Another  method  is  the  construction  of 
elevated  platforms,  framed  of  the  boughs 
of  trees  in  a  jungle,  from  which  height " 
the  hunters  fight,  as  from  the  elephant's 
back.  The  tiger,  until  he  is  wounded 
or  has  had  a  taste  of  human  blood,  will 
escape  from  the  presence  of  man ;  but  if 
he  is  hungered,  or  has  sufi'ered  pain  at 
his  enemy's  hand,  or  particularly  if  he 
has  wet  his  pink  tongue  with  a  drop  of 
human  blood,  he  will  never  desist  until 
he  has  devoured  his  enemy,  or  is  himself 
slain  or  captured.  In  Assam  the  tiger 
hunt  is  conducted  in  boats  on  the  rivers. 
The  spearmen  thus  gain  a  great  advan- 
tage by  being  out  of  reach  of  the  bound 
of  their  enemy  and  having  his  move- 
ments impeded  in  the  water. 

In  all  parts  of  India,  except  in  the 
Northwest  provinces,  the  elephant  either 
abounds  or  may  be  discov-  Native  land  of 
ered  for  the  seeking.  That  ^j^^h^P.^rni. 
part  of  India  which  fur-  ™g- 
nishes  the  best  suppty  is  the  hill-country 
forming  the  northeastern  boundary  be- 
tween Hindustan  and  Assam  and  Bur- 
niah.  Here  the  monster  not  infrequently 
reaches  the  height  of  twelve  feet,  and 
but  for  his  clumsiness  he  would  be  the 
most  formidable  natural  foe  that  man 
has  found  on  the  earth.  The  hunters 
must  approach  him  on  foot.  Horses  are 
generally  an  impediment.  Several  meth- 
ods have  been  adopted  of  taking  the 
elephant  alive.  The  hunt  to  the  death  is 
not  only  dangerous  in  the  last  degree, 
but  difficult  on  account  of  the  invulnera- 
bility of  the  animal.  Nearly  all  parts  of 
his  anatomy  are  proof  against  the  bullet 
of  even  improved  firearms.  In  a  few 
spots  the  well-directed  ball  may  reach 
the  seat  of  life. 

Generally  the  killing  of  an  elephant  is 
a  tedious  and  barbarous  work.  This  is 
now   forbidden   by  the  government   of 


THE  INDICAXS.— RESOURCES. 


699 


British  India  except  in   cases  of   neces- 
sity, but  the  capture  alive  of  elephants 
is    much  practiced.       The 

Capture  alive ;  . 

methods  of  tak-   taking,  however,   IS  under 
mgau    aming.    ^^^^^^    regulation    of    law. 

In  1887-88  two  hundred  and  sixty-four 
elephants  were  captured  in  the  province 
of  Assam.  The  profit  of  this  work 
amounted  to  three  thousand  six  hundred 
pounds  sterling.  It  is  a  government 
monopoly.  In  1873-74  Mr.  Sanderson, 
one  of  the  officers  of  the  government  in 
Mysore,  studied  the  habit  of  the  elephant, 
and  devised  a  plan  by  which  he  captured 
fifty-three  animals  in  a  single  hunt. 
The  former  method  of  taking  the  crea- 
ture was  by  driving  him  into  a  pit.  In 
this  he  was  generally  made  to  fall  upon 
a  sharpened  stake,  which  worked  its 
way  into  his  vitals.  The  prevailing 
method  is  to  find  a  company  of  elephants 
in  the  forest,  to  rouse  them  and  drive 
them  into  a  strong  stockade,  where  they 
are  shut  up  and  reduced,  by  starvation 
and  by  the  agency  of  tame  elephants,  to 
submission  and  docility.  When  tamed, 
the  animals  are  used  in  the  government 
transportation  of  timber  and  for  other 
heavy  draught  and  powerful  exertions. 
They  are  also  taught  to  fight,  and  their 
combats  are  perhaps  the  most  spectacular 
and  exciting  contests  to  be  witnessed  in 
the  world.  Among  the  natives  the 
princes  and  nabobs  are,  as  they  have 
always  been,  ambitious  of  the  distinction 
of  going  about  gorgeously  mounted  on 
tame  elephants. 

It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  a  good 
deal  of  the  timidity  and  fearfulness  dis- 
Race  timidity  plavcd  bv  the  people  of  In- 
ooblast':  In!'"  dia'  is  attributable  to  the 
reptiles.  dangers  to  which  they  are 

exposed  on  account  of  poisonous  reptiles 
and  other  lurking  foes.  The  methods 
which  they  have  adopted  to  defend  them- 
selves against  such  enemies  are  multi- 


Physical  setting 
like     India      there    of  India;  the  na. 
tive  land  of  rice. 


farious.  In  some  districts  where  ven- 
omous serpents  abound  a  plan  of  build- 
ing is  common  which  is  determined  in 
its  main  feature  by  the  consideration  of 
safety  from  reptiles.  The  houses  are 
put  on  piles  or  large  stakes  at  consider- 
able elevation  above  the  surface.  By 
this  means  a  space  is  left  between  the 
domicile  and  the  earth,  over  which  it  is 
difficult  for  the  fanged  enemies  of  man  to 
make  their  way.  The  edifice  considered 
apart  from  its  situation  is  perhaps  almost 
identical  in  structure  with  the  prehistoric 
lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland. 

The  maintenance  of  a  food-supply 
is  the  prime  consideration  with  every 
people  of  the  world.  In  a 
country 

must  needs  be  vast  natural 
resources.  The  whole  peninsula  may 
be  said  to  be  inclined  toward  the  sun. 
On  the  north  the  great  wall  of  the 
Himalayas  rises,  and  from  the  spurs  of 
this  immovable  buttress  the  land  slopes 
to  the  sea.  In  these  majestic  mountains 
are  the  treasures  of  the  snow.  Here 
scores  of  rivers  take  their  rise,  and  south- 
ward tending  combine  their  waters  in 
the  great  streams  which  are  one  of  the 
fundamental  physical  features  of  India. 

The  Indian  valleys  are  as  rich  as  any 
on  the  globe.  Great,  however,  is  the 
difference  between  them  and  the  low- 
lying  alluvium  of  the  Nile  and  the  Lower 
Euphrates.  The  river  banks  in  India 
are  marsh  and  jungle.  Nature  is  rank 
in  the  last  degree.  Among  the  sappy 
and  dense-growing  products  of  the 
valleys  many  grains  and  fruits  grow 
wild,  which  under  the  improving  direc- 
tion of  man  have  become  the  great 
cereals  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  As 
far  back  as  the  days  of  Pliny  and  the 
oldest  naturalists  of  the  Graeco-Italic 
peoples  the  grain  known  by  the  Greek 
name  of  oryza,   the  modern  rice,  sprang 


700 


GREAT  RACr.S   OF  MAXK7XD. 


plentifully  and  wild  in  the  lowlands  of 
Southern  India.  Tlius  it  grows  to  the 
present  day ;  now  the  old  native  grain 
of  the  marshes  is  preferred  by  the  na- 
tive nabobs  and  princes  to  any  of  the 
cultivated  varieties. 

India  has  been   regarded   as  par   ex- 
cellence   the  native  land  of  rice.     The 
belief  is  not  warranted  by 

Extent  of  the  . 

rice  crop  in  dif-     the   facts.     True,  the  rice 

ferent  districts.     ^^^,^^^p^      „£      gj-itish      Bur- 

mah  are  among  the  most  fruitful  in  the 
•world.      In    Rangpur   eighty-eight   per 


the  average  crop  is  as  high  as  two  thou, 
sand  five  hundred  pounds  per  acre.  In 
1878  the  exports  of  this  cereal  from 
Calcutta  amounted  to  one  billion  six 
hundred  million  pounds. 

The  rival  grain  of  rice  in  India  is 
wheat.  Where  the  one  prevails  the 
other  does  not  thrive.  The  center  of 
the  wheat-producing  region  ^ 

^  .        .       Extent  and 

is    the    Punjab,    and    it    is  character  of  the 

,.,     1  ii      i       1  wheat  product. 

not     unlikely     that     here 

this  principal  food-grain  of  the  human 

famiU"    \\,is    first     brought    out     ef    the 


I\     I  IIK   IMH  \\  VALLEYS.— Vii.i.AKE  01    I'l  Kia;.Mli,iKKK.s.-l  > 


cent  of  the  cultivable  land  is  sown  in 
this  single  crop.  In  Orissa  also — as  is 
indicated  by  the  name  of  the  province — 
and  in  the  deltas  of  the  Godavery, 
Kistna,  and  Kaveri,  as  well  as  in  the 
lowlands  of  Malabar  and  Kanara,  rice 
culture  is  the  one  predominant  industry 
and  means  of  support.  In  the  Northwest 
provinces  the  grain  is  grown  success- 
fully, but  only  in  damp  localities.  But 
if  we  look  at  India  as  a  whole,  rice  is  not 
the  prevailing  crop.  In  the  regions 
adapted  to  its  cultivation,  however,  the 
yield   is  immense.     In  British  Btirmah 


native  state  by  cultivation  to  the  per- 
fected form  which  it  has  had  for  more 
than  three  thousand  years.  The  quality 
of  Indian  wheat  is  satisfactory  in  the 
best  markets  of  the  world.  It  is  accept- 
ed in  the  great  mills  of  England  as  the 
peer  of  the  wheat  imported  from  the 
Danubian  provinces  and  other  favorite 
localities.  The  yield,  as  far  as  the  .same 
has  been  determined  by  census  reports, 
is  fairly  good,  averaging  about  thirteen 
bushels  per  acre  for  the  whole  area  sown 
in  India,  as  against  fifteen  and  a  half 
bushels  for  the  whole  of  France. 


THE  INDIC A NS.— RESOURCES. 


701 


Millet  is  next  among  the  field  crops  of 

India.     Viewed  as  a  food  of  the  people, 

it  is  more  employed  than 

Millet  the  re-  .  ,     "^  . 

source  of  the  either  rice  or  wheat.  It  is 
common  peep  e.  ^^^aimed  that  millet  is  the 
most  fruitful  grain  in  the  world  as  to 
abundance,  and  on  the  whole  the  best 
adapted  to  tropical  climates.  It  is  the 
most  widely  disseminated  of  any  grain 
grown  in  the  peninsula.  Millet  flourishes 
from  Madras  in  the  south,  as  far  north 
as  Rajputana.  There  are  several  varie- 
ties adapted  to  the  different  districts,  but 
nearly  all  are  known  as  "  dry  crops,"  or 
such  as  are  dependent  only  on  the 
natural  rainfall,  while  rice  and  many 
other  products  depend  upon  irrigation. 

B}'  one  of   the    strange  mutations  of 
history    and   of   language,   that    fruitful 
maize  called  Indian  corn  has  become  In- 
dian in  reality.     It  is  culti- 

Indian"  corn, 

barley,  and  oth-    vated  in  nearly  all  parts  of 

er  cereals.  ii  ^  i 

the  country,  and   grows  to 

perfection.  Along  the  Upper  Ganges 
barley  is  a  standard  crop.  In  the  Hima- 
layan valleys  and  in  the  Punjab  oats  are 
grown,  but  as  yet  the  cultivation  of  this 
grain  is  experimental  in  the  hands  of 
Europeans.  Throughout  all  India  the 
oil  seeds  are  raised  in  abundance.  The 
demand  for  vegetable  oil  in  India  is  very 
great.  It  is  used  for  anointing  the  per- 
son, for  illumination,  and  for  food.  The 
discarding  of  animal  fats  by  the  people 
has  increased  the  consumption  of  the 
oils  produced  from  seeds.  In  recent 
years  an  export  trade  with  Europe  has 
sprung  up,  and  since  the  oil  .seeds  can 
be  produced  as  an  after  crop,  when  rice 
and  other  grains  have  been  cut  aw-ay, 
the  production  of  the  oils  has  become 
a  source  of  great  profit.  There  are  four 
principal  seeds  from  which  oil  is  pro- 
duced: the  rape  seed,  linseed,  sesamum, 
and  the  castor  bean.  The  regions  in 
which  these  products  are  most  abundant 


are  the  Northwest  provinces,  Bengal, 
and  for  sesamum  the  presidency  of  Ma- 
dras. 

No  cunsory  description  could  do  jus- 
tice to  the  vast  variety  of  vegetable 
products  springing  native  Extent  and  va- 
or  under  cultivation  in  ^^t^^/p^.^L^c^'s* 
the  different  districts  of  In-  of  India, 
dia ;  and  the  .same  may  be  said  of  the 
fruits.  Among  the  latter  may  be  enu- 
merated the  mango,  the  pineapple,  the 
guava,  the  tamarind,  the  custard  apple, 
the  papaw%  the  shaddock,  and  an  end- 
less variety  of  figs,  melons,  oranges, 
limes,  and  citrons.  In  nearly  all  of 
these  fruits  traces  of  the  original  native 
saps  maybe  discovered  by  the  cultivated 
palate,  and  they  are  doubtless  not  com- 
parable for  delicacy  of  flavor  with  the 
corresponding  varieties  produced  by  the 
skillful  grafting  and  cultivation  in  vogue 
among  the  Western  nations. 

Already,  when  the  traveler  enters  In- 
dia, he  finds  himself  in  the  land  of 
spices.       True,   the   air   is 

Abundance  and 

not  yet  burdened,  as  in  distribution  of 
Ceylon  and  the  Celebes,  ^^Pi<=®s- 
with  the  almost  oppressive  odors  which 
spring  from  the  groves  and  native  woods 
of  the  tropical  islands ;  but  the  Indian 
spices  are  abundant  and  fragrant.  The 
principal  of  these  products  are  the  chili, 
or  cayenne  pepper,  the  turmeric,  ginger, 
coriander,  aniseed,  and  black  cumin. 
Pepper  is  mostly  produced  along  the 
western  shores  of  Southern  India,  in  the 
region  known  as  the  Malabar  Coast. 
The  spice  called  cardamon  belongs  to 
the  same  locality,  but  is  also  produced 
in  Nepal.  Betel  nuts  are  grown  in  the 
deltas  of  Lower  Bengal  and  in  other 
parts  of  Southern  India. 

In  all  the  more  tropical  parts  of  the 
countr}'  the  palm  flourishes.  Dates  have 
been  plentiful  from  time  immemorial. 
Three  varieties  are  found  :  the  true  date. 


702 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


the  palmyra,  and  the  bastard.  From  the 
last  named  is  manufactured  the  Jagjjery 
sugar  of  commerce;  also  an  intoxicating 


COOLIES   AT   THE   COTTON   MARKET    IN    BOMBAY. 


liquor,  which  is  doubtless  identical  with 

Varieties  of  that  described  by  Xenophon 
in  the  Annbnsis.  The  true 
date    flourishes    in     vSindh 

and  the  lower  districts  of  the   Punjab. 

Along   the   western    coast  of   India  the 


dates ;  sugar 
and  the  sugar 
manufacture. 


cocoanut  is  not  only  plentiful,  but  abun- 
dant,  ranking  as  a  product  next  in  value 
to   rice.       Sugar   is    produced    not  only 

from  the  bastard 
date  palm,  but 
also  from  sugar 
cane,  which  flour- 
is  lies  in  the 
Northwest  prov- 
inces. It  requires 
irrigation,  how- 
ever, and  is  other- 
wise expensive  in 
production.  The 
manufacture  of 
sugar  h  a  s  r  e - 
mained  in  the  un- 
skillful hands  of 
the  natives  until 
in  recent  times, 
when  facilities  for 
making  it  have 
been  produced  in 
the  Madras  presi- 
dency and  in  My- 
sore. 

The  cotton 
plant  is  also  a  na- 
tive of  India.  It 
has  been  found 
from  the  earliest 
t  i  ni  e  s  ,  a  n  d  the 
product  has  sup- 
plied  the  local 
wants  of  the  coun- 
try within  the  his- 
torical era.  Until 
the  last  century 
cotton  was  not  ex- 
ported as  a  prod- 
Here  we  touch  upon 

circum-    The  Indian cot- 


uct   from   India. 

that    remarkable 

stance  in   the 

history  of   modern    times,   ests. 

balancing   and  unbalancing    the   cotton 

trade  of  the  world  during  the  American 


commproifll    to"  crop  and 
commercial    -western  inter- 


THE   IK  Die.  1 XS.  —RE  SO  URGES. 


r03 


Civil  War.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
in  Lancashire,  England,  seat  of  the  great 
cotton  factories  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
a  crisis  was  reached  in  1 86 1  by  the  clos- 
ing of  the  ports  of  the  confederated 
Southern  States.  The  American  market 
was   thus   hermetically  sealed,    and  the 


portation  of  cotton  had  been  less  than 
three  million  of  pounds  a  year,  but  the 
cotton  industry  suddenly  sprang  up  un- 
der the  tremendous  stimulus,  until  1866, 
when  the  exportation  amounted  to  thirty- 
seven  million.  With  this  year,  how- 
ever,  the    stress  was    removed  b}-  the 


^ssp' 


,^v 


INDlr.O  FACTORV  AT  ALLAHABAD.— Drawn  hy  E.  Therond. 


English  factories  suddenly  stopped  for 
want  of  raw  material. 

At  this  juncture  Great  Britain  turned 
eagerly  to  the  cotton  fields  of  India. 
Cotton  produc-    With  an  open  market,  the 

b'th^A^'en^au    ^^^^^'^^Y  "^   ^^'^'""1^    produced 

Civil  War.  j^  the  East  was  not  equal 

to  tlie  American  product,  and  could  not 
be,  but  in  this  time  of  extreme  strin- 
gency it  sufficed  to  supply  the  demand. 
Prior  to    iS6o  the   average    Indian    ex- 


opening  of  the  American  market,  and 
the  Indian  exportation  immediately  fell 
off  to  eight  million  a  year.  Perhaps  no 
other  world  market  of  a  great  product, 
balancing  at  its  two  poles  eight  thou- 
sand miles  apart,  has  e\-er  exhibited  so 
remarkable  a  fluctuation. 

Next  after  cotton  may  be  ranked  the 
jute  of  India.  It  is  virtually  a  hemp, 
though  the  fiber  is  .somewhat  coarser. 
The  region  of  its  production  is  confined 


704 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


to  Bengal,  on  the  north  and  east.     The 

cliicf  seat  of  the  product  is  in  the  valley 

of  the  Brahmaputra,  where 

The  jute  Indus-  „  .   , 

try:  extent  of  the  jute  flourishes  in  the 
epro  uc  .  highest  degree.  It  is 
believed  that  no  other  product  which 
has  reached  to  the  rank  of  an  important 
e.xport  has  done  so  much  in  a  reactionary 
way  for  the  comfort  of  the  producers  as 
jute.     It  is  one  of  those  peculiar  prod- 


Of  the  purely  European  products 
which  have  been  introduced  into  In- 
dia, indigo  is  entitled  to  the 

°  .  Large  place  df 

first  rank  ;   but  the  interest  indigo  in  Indian 

..     ,  11-        1     ■        ii        commerce. 

in  It  has  declined  in  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century.  In  North 
Behar  the  industry  is  as  important  as 
ever,  and  from  this  single  district  about 
half  the  product  of  the  entire  country  is 
derived.      The  exports  of  the  dye  from 


OPIUM  MANUh  AC  rORY.— Drawn  by  A.  Sirouy,  from  a  photograph  by  Madame  Dieulafoy. 


ucts  which  does  not  perish  when  placed 
in  depot  from  season  to  .season,  and  the 
supply,  therefore,  may  be  regulated  by 
the  producer  according  to  the  demands 
of  the  market.  In  1872  a  million  a(?fes 
were  planted  in  jute,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  the  area  of  country  in  which  it  may 
be  profitably  produced  extends  to  over 
twenty  million  of  acres.  The  export 
from  Calcutta  has  amounted  in  a  single 
year  to  more  than  four  million  pounds 
sterling. 


all  India  amounted  in  the  years  1878-79 
to  nearly  three  million  pounds  sterling. 

But  the  most  profitable  of  the  East 
Indian  industries,  so  far  as  exportation 
is  concerned,  is  that  of  opium.  The 
valley  of  the  Ganges  and  the  table-land  of 
Central  India  are  as  much  Extent,  impor- 
a  native  place  of  the  opium-  Tolllt^^r" 
producing  poppy  as  is  Per-  duction. 
sia  herself.  The  production  of  opium  in 
India  is  under  the  control  of  the  govern- 
ment.     In  some  districts  the  growth  of 


THE   IXDICAXS.— RESOURCES. 


705 


the  drug  is  free,  and  the  opium  is  sub- 
jected to  a  duty  in  passing  through 
Bombay  for  exportation.  In  the  valley 
of  the  Ganges  the  product  is  under  su- 
pervision of  government  agencies  estab- 
lished at  Ghazeepur  and  Patna,  and  at 
these  two  places  the  opium  is  manufac- 
tured for  exportation.    In  Rajputana  and 


had  risen  to  a  value  of  nearly  thirteen 
million  pounds,  and  from  this  a  net  rev- 
enue was  derived  by  the  government 
of  .seven  million  seven  hundred  pounds 
sterling. 

The  tobacco  plant  grows  everywhere 
in  India.  It  may  be  said  to  ilourish ;  all 
the  natural  conditions  for    the   product 


TEA  PLAN'T.\TIO.\  IN  THK  VALLEY  OF  K  AX(  ;RA.— Drawn  by  Paul  Langlois,  from  a  photograph. 


the  Punjab  the  drug  is  al.so  produced, 
but  only  for  local  consumption.  In  the 
other  provinces  under  the  dominion  of 
Great  Britain  the  production  of  opium  is 
prohibited.  The  census  of  1872  showed 
an  area  of  five  hundred  and  sixty  thou- 
sand acres  in  poppy  cultivation.  The 
revenue  derived  by  the  government  in 
this  year  was  over  four  million  pounds 
sterling.      In    1878-79   the   exportation 


Indian  tobacco ; 

the     markets     of     the  inferiority  of 


are   favorable ;   but     the   quality  of   the 
leaf  has  never  found  favor 
in 

world.  Indian  tobacco  is  ^^'^° 
unable  to  compete  with  the  richly  fla- 
I  vored  growth  of  the  West  Indies  and  the 
United  States.  Tobacco  is  grown,  how- 
ever, in  all  parts  of  the  country  for  native 
consumption.  In  the  Coimbatore  and 
Aladur?  districts  in  iladras  the  variety 


706 


GREAT  RACES   OE  JMAXKEXD. 


of  the  plant  from  which  7 rn/iiiio/^o/i  clu- 
root  is  manufactured,  flourishes,  and  this 
is  the  only  tobacco  product  which  com- 
petes with  that  of  the  West  in  the  mar- 
kets of  Europe.  There  is,  however,  an 
exportation  of  tobacco  from  Bengal  into 
British  Burmah,  where  the  plant  does 
not  flourish.  Notwithstanding  the  wide 
distribution  of  the  growth  of  tobacco  in 
India,  the  importation  at  Calcutta  has 
amounted  to  forty  million  pounds  in  a 
single  year. 

Neither  coffee  nor  tea  may  be  regard- 
ed  as   native   products  of   India.     The 
former  has  been   introduced  within  the 
historical  period  bv  the  na- 

Coffee  and  tea 

not  properly  na-    tivcs,  and  thelatter  at  a  time 

tive  to  India.  , . , ,  i.      i         t7 

still  more  recent,  by  Eu- 
ropeans. The  cultivation  of  coffee  is 
limited  to  a  portion  of  the  Western  Ghats 
and  to  certain  districts  in  Mysore  and 
Madras.  The  export  of  coffee  in  1 878-79 
was  valued  at  a  million  and  a  half  pounds 
sterling.  The  reports  of  early  explorers 
that  the  tea  plant  grew  wild  in  the  south- 
ern valleys  of  the  Himalayas  were  with- 
out foundation  in  fact.  It  is  only  in 
As.sam  that  the  true  Tlica  viridis  will 
flourish  without  cultivation.  In  this  re- 
gion it  attains  the  proportions  of  a  real 
tree,  and  it  is  believed  by  botanists  that 
here  is  the  native  place  of  the  plant,  and 
that  it  was  carried  hence  in  early  times 
into  China. 

Many  other  products  of  great  impor- 
tance might  be  enumerated  as  belonging 
peculiarly  to  India,  but  the 
above  are  sufficient  to  in- 
dicate the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  grain  and  other  animal  and 
vegetable  resources  of  the  countrv.  In 
general,  everything  is  rank.  The  high 
heat  and  abundant  moisture  in  the  val- 
leys stimulate  vegetation,  and  bring  all 
manner  of  fruits  and  grains  to  early  ma- 
turity.    Three   crops  annually  are    not 


Indian  vegeta- 
tion favored  by 
stimulating  con- 
ditions. 


unusual  on  the  same  fields.  In  the  great- 
er part  of  the  country  the  winter  is  not 
sufficiently  rigorous  seriously  to  impede 
the  work  in  fields  and  gardens. 

The  rainfall  ranges  from  twenty-four 
inches  in  the  drier  districts  to  nearly 
one  hundred  and  twenty-three  inches  in 
the  rice  regions  of  the  south.  The  rains 
are  periodic,  being  the  re-  precipitation 
suit  of  the  monsoon,  or  sea  totwei?h°"' 
wind,  wliich  blows  steadily  rate, 
at  certain  .seasons,  bringing  on  and  main- 
taining a  steady  and  copious  rainfall.  It 
is  from  the  occasional,  though  rare,  fail- 
ure of  this  monsoon  that  famine  has  at 
intervals  possessed  the  land.  In  the 
years  1876-78  nearh-  the  whole  of  In- 
dia was  afflicted  by  the  partial  or  total 
failure  of  crops.  In  1877  the  death 
rate  rose,  on  account  of  the  famine, 
from  six  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
to  a  million  five  hundred  thousand. 
The  most  strenuous  efforts  of  the  gov- 
ernment were  not  sufficient  to  prevent 
widespread  and  dreadful  starvation.  For 
two  years  the  monsoons  failed  to  return 
at  the  appointed  season,  and  the  country 
was  helpless  in  the  grip  of  drought. 

We  are  now  able,  from  a  wide  view 
of  the  re.sources  of  India,  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  race  predominant  therein,  of 

the    effects    which    climatic    Physical  degen- 
eration result- 

and    other  johysical   condi-  ant  from  condi- 

.,  ...  tions  present  in 

tions  naturally  entail  on  india. 
man,  and  of  the  contact  and  intermix- 
ture of  diff'erent  races,  to  estimate, 
though  imperfectly,  the  nature  and  di- 
rection of  the  human  evolution,  and  of 
]  the  aspects  which  mankind  would  be 
likely  to  assume  under  such  conditions 
and  environment.  On  the  whole,  we 
should  expect  a  certain  degree  of  phys- 
ical degeneration.  That  the  climate  of 
India  is  effeminating  in  its  effects  on 
man  has  been  plainly  demonstrated  by 
actual  observation  in  modern  times.     It 


THE   IXDICAXS.— RESOURCES. 


707 


Is  a  general  law  that  the  subsidence  into 
agricultural  life  from  the  nomadic  pur- 
suit, with  its  accompanying  excitements 
of  the  chase  and  tribal  warfare,  exercises 
a  deleterious  effect  on  the  physical  con- 
stitution of  man.  It  is  a  change  from  a 
wider  and  freer  and  less  toilsome  mode 
of  activity,  from  a  life  of  hazard  and 
wild  excitements,  to  the  more  localized 
and  mure  laborious  methods  of  the  hus- 


tending    the    activity     of    human    life. 
What  may  be  called  the  science  of  diet 
is  still  in  its  infancy.     To  importance  of 
no  class  of  students  is  the  ^XtA'i''tofi.'l 

relation  to  race 

subject  of  greater  inter-  character, 
est  than  to  those  who  are  curious  in  his- 
torical and  ethnic  inquiry.  What  is  the 
law  of  the  maintenance  of  life  by  food? 
What  shall  be  eaten  as  most  conducive 
t(j  strength,  to  longevity,  to  the  support 


ASPECIS  OF  INDIAN   LIFE.— Repose  at  NoONDAV.-Drann  bv  F.  Reg.imey,  from  i 


bandman.  It  is  not  meant  that  the  ag- 
ricultural life  is  without  great  value  in 
maintaining  the  physical  vigor  of  those 
who  follow  it,  but  the  toil  and  tameness 
which  are  inseparable  therefrom  are  not 
favorable  to  the  highest  development 
and  greatest  vigor  of  the  human  frame. 
We  are  here  again  on  the  ver}-  border 
of  that  world-wide  problem  of  the  rela- 
tive effect  and  value  of  the  different 
foods    in   su.staining  the  vigor  an-^  «x- 


of  all  the  virile  energies  of  man  ?  What 
may  be  known  scientifically  on  this  sub- 
ject over  and  above  that  simple  folklore 
which  the  untutored  experience  and  tra- 
dition of  human  kind  has  transmitted  to 
our  age? 

Foods  have  been  subjected  to  a  .scien- 
tific classification.  They  are  divided  by 
physiologists  into  liydrocarboiis,  carbohy- 
drates, and  iiitrogcuous  foods ;  and  it  .is 
novv  well  ascertained  that  each  of  these 


708 


GREAT  RACES   OF  J/A.V/k/.VD. 


classes    of  aliments    has   its   particular 
value  and  relation  to  the  physical  consti- 
tution of  man.      The  char- 

Classification  of  .      . 

foods ;  the hy-  actcHstic  of  the  hvurocar- 
drocarbonates.     ,^^^^^    .^   ^^^^  presence  and 

excess  of  oil.  This  generally  exists  in 
the  form  of  animal  fats,  though  oil  is 
also  a  large  product  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  But  the  most  concentrated 
and  characteristic  development  of  this 
food  substance  is  in  the  fatty  tissue  of 
animals.  From  the  earliest  ages  men 
have  used  this  substance  for  the  support 
of  life.  It  is,  however,  in  the  more  rig- 
orous climates  that  the  appetency  of  the 
human  being  for  animal  food  of  this  de- 
scription is  most  intense.  There  is  a 
law  of  natural  selection  which  indicates 
a  diminishing  quantity  of  the  hydrocar- 
bons as  the  human  race  spreads  toward 
the  tropics.  There  is  little  or  no  nat- 
ural appetite  for  animal  oils  in  the 
warmer  climates. 

The  second  class  of  foods  are  the  car- 
bohydrates. In  these  there  is  an  ex- 
The  carbohy-  ccss  of  starch  or  sugar, 
foodsc'o>7stf.*  J"st  as  in  the  hydrocarbons 
tute  this  class,  there  is  an  excess  of  oil. 
The  cereals  and  certain  ground  products, 
such  as  the  potato,  may  be  taken  as  the 
standard^examples  of  the  carbohydrate 
foods.  Rice  is  of  this  kind  par  excel- 
lence. It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that 
the  great  products  of  the  earth  gener- 
ally yield  a  high  per  cent  of  starch,  and 
in  so  far  as  the  productive  regions  of 
the  globe  lie  within  the  temperate  zones 
and  become  more  intense  in  productive 
energy  in  the  tropics,  to  that  extent  the 
starch-bearing  foods  are  prevalent  in  the 
same  regions.  In  general,  the  line  be- 
tween the  hj^drocarbon  and  the  carbo- 
hydrate aliments,  upon  which  for  the 
most  part  all  animated  forms  of  ex- 
istence are  .sustained  on  tlie  earth,  is 
practically  coincident  with  the  line  which 


divides  the  animal  from  the  vegetable 
kingdom ;  that  is,  the  fat-bearing  ani- 
mals from  the  field  products  and  ground 
crops,  which  are  starch-bearing. 

The  third  variety  includes  the  ni- 
trogenous foods.  All  highly  organized 
tissue,  whether  animal  or  The  nitrogenous 
vegetable,  contains  a  per-  f:::^^^'Xos. 
centage  of  nitrogen.  This  phates. 
is  generally  the  fourth  element  in  the 
quadruple  compounds  which  constitute 
so  large  a  part  of  the  organic  substances 
of  the  material  world.  Nitrogen  occurs 
in  all  leguminous  plants  and  grains,  and 
particularly  in  the  muscular  fibers  of  all 
animals.  It  is  a  principal  constituent  of 
"  lean  meat,"  its  presence  being  as  con- 
stant and  conspicuous  in  such  fiber  as  is 
carbon  in  the  fats  and  oils.  Among  veg- 
etable products  all  pulse  grains,  siich  as 
peas  and  beans,  are  rich  in  the  same 
element. 

Besides  the  three  general  classes  of 
foods  here  enumerated,  there  is  a  fourth 
class,  though  scarcelv  distinct  from  the 
others,  in  which  certain  valuable  salts 
are  the  meritorious  element.  These 
are  principally  the  phosphates  of  lime, 
of  potash,  of  soda,  and  of  iron,  without 
which  as  constituents  of  human  food 
the  rrervous  energy  of  the  body  can  not 
be  long  sustained.  These  salts  are  dis- 
tributed in  both  the  animal  and  the  veg- 
etable kingdoms,  perhaps  more  plenti- 
fully in  the  latter  (?),  and  it  is  now  a 
well-known  fact  that  the  nervous  vigor  of 
animals  turns  largely  upon  the  percent- 
age of  the  phosphates  in  the  substances 
upon  which  they  feed. 

Now  it  is  the  adjustment  of  the  human 
race  to  these  different  classes  of  foods, 

as    well  as   to   the    different    Race  character 

climates  of  the  earth,  that  ^HCTt^e 
determines  the  race  tend-  kind  of  food, 
ency  of  every  people.      This  is  said,  first 
of  all,  of  the  physical  constitution  which 


^m^r.y^^ 


iii 

■fc 


Vf",  ' 


710 


GREAT  RACES   OE  .UA.VAYXP. 


will  be  developed  in  a  given  environ- 
ment, and  afterwards  of  the  modes  of 
activity  and  mental  dispcfsitions  which 
the  given  people  will  display.  In  a 
country  where  muscular  exertion  is  es- 
sential to  life  and  welfare,  and t where 
man  must  brace  himself  stoutly  against 
the  opposition  of  the  elements — must  face 
angry  vicissitudes  of  climate  and  season, 
the  hardships  of  sterility,  the  obstacles 
of  heavy  forests  and  oozy  rivers  with  un- 
determined channels — there  must  needs 
be  a  perpetual  feeding  upon  those  ele- 
ments of  nature  which  furnish  the  es- 
sentials of  human  energy  under  such 
conditions.  Here  it  is  that  man  mu.st 
fill  himself  with  an  abundance  of  solid 
food.  Under  the  action  of  an  untutored 
instinct  at  first  and  the  discipline  of 
right  reason  afterwards,  he  slays  the 
living  creatures  and  eats  their  tissiies 
and  the  fat. 

It  is  in  the  nature  of  the  hydrocarbon 
foods  to  supply  him  with  heat.  That  is 
The  office  of  the  physiological  office  of 
S^ra'dn.-  all  the  Oil-producing  sub- 
trogenous  foods,  stances  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  and  particularly  of  the  fat  of 
animals.  By  this  means  the  superior 
races  feed  the  fires  of  life  amid  the 
rigors  of  northern  climates.  There  is 
an  aspect  in  which  man  may  be  viewed 
as  a  living  furnace.  His  stomach  is  a 
firebox;  and  nothing  that  he  can  cast 
therein  flames  like  oil.  Thus  he  warms 
himself,  and  goes  abroad  unharmed 
amid  the  terrors  of  the  high  latitudes, 
where  all  forms  of  life  not  supported 
like  his  own  must  inevitably  perish. 
But  he  not  only  feeds  himself  with  oil. 
If  he  is  in  a  region  where  active  exertion 
is  demanded,  where  the  excitements  of 
the  chase,  the  adventures  of  the  Avide 
campaign,  the  struggle  with  the  obdu- 
racy of  physical  nature,  and  particularly 
the  flaming  excitements  of  war  call  out 


his  energies,  he  must  support  his  mus- 
cular system  with  an  abundant  supply 
of  nitrogenous  foods.  Hence  he  falls 
upon  and  devours  the  dry  meats  and  the 
fresh  tissues  of  slain  animals,  and  from 
this  source  builds  up  anew  the  broken 
structure  of  his  own  muscles,  exhausted 
by  toil  and  strain. 

The  kind  of  activity  contemplated 
imder  the  stimulus  of  foods  like  those 
we  have  here  described  is  in -what  relation 
not  the  activity  of  mere  f;j::'::^ll,. 
indu.stry.  There  may  be  "'•^"y  ^^sed. 
long  continued  assiduity  of  application 
to  industrial  pursuits  without  that  kind 
of  muscular  destruction,  without  that 
combustion  of  the  hydrocarbons,  which 
is  here  delineated.  The  agricultural 
life  in  its  milder  aspects  does  not  demand 
the  high  feeding  that  is  an  essential  in 
heroic  endeavor.  It  requires  rather  a 
i  certain  steady  force,  such  as  is  gener- 
I  ated  from  the  carbohydrate  elements. 
All  agricultural  countries  fall  to  the  use 
of  grains  and  vegetables,  and  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  abandon  animal  food.  In 
proportion  as  the  country  lies  well  to  the 
south,  the  relinquishment  of  the  hydro- 
carbons  will  be  more  complete,  and  food 
will  be  almost  exclusively  drawn  from 
the  field,  the  orchard,  and  the  garden. 

These  carboliAxlrates  ai^e  the  producers 
of  force.  The  starch  foods  taken  inta 
the  human  constitution  Effects  of  such 
pass  by  metamorphosis  in-  ^^^^eonsmu"^" 
to  sugar  and  from  sugar  ^^°^- 
into  oil.  In  the  last  named  form  they 
are  consumed.  He  who  demands  simple 
working  energy  without  regard  to  the 
waste  of  his  muscular  tissue  will  turn 
instinctively  to  the  cereals  and  fruits. 
Ultimately  this  tendency  lands  on  rice 
and  potatoes.  In  countries  where  nature 
brings  forth  abundantly  of  the  cereals, 
where  all  ground  crops  are  plentiful  and 
fruits  abundant,  there  will  be  afi  i/ievi- 


712 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXA'EVD. 


table  shrinkage  of  tlic  muscular  parts  of 
ail  anitiials.  Man  subsisting  on  such  a 
food  will  become  assiduous  in  his  ap- 
plication, even  persistent  in  his  pursuits. 
He  may  be  lithe  and  active,  supple- 
jointed  and  quick  in  movement,  but  he 
will  be  essentially  weak  in  his  skeleton 
and  muscular  structure. 

Here  we  have  the  fundamental  condi- 
tions which  have  divided  the  Aryan  race 
The  Hindu  body  iu  India  from  the  Iranians 
and  from  the  great  races 
of  the  West.  The  Hindu 
body  is  the  result  of  a  long  discipline  in 


the  result  of  the 
long  discipline 
ot  nature. 


HINDU  JEWELER   AT   WORK. 
Drawn  by  A.  de  Xeuville. 

the  hands  of  nature.  It  has  been  con- 
stituted under  the  enervating  infliiences 
of  a  semitropical  or  wholly  tropical  cli- 
mate, combined  with  the  resttlts  of  the 
substitution  of  the  carbohydrates  for  the 
hydrocarbons  and  nitrogenous  foods  of 
the  great  northern  peoples. 

As  the  man  is  individually,  so  is  his 
^  ,j    tribe,  his  nation,  his  race. 

Same  laws  hold 

of  the  race  as  of  India  is  not  wanting  in  the 
the  mstn.  i  •      i  f        ,  •  ■, 

display  of  active  and  per- 
sistent industry,  but  the  industry  it- 
self is  as  feeble  as  it  is  persistent.     The 


tremendous  energies  displayed  by  Some 
of  the  Western  nations  in  their  mas- 
terful struggle  with  an  adverse  envi- 
ronment in  subordinating  the  forces  of 
nature,  in  organizing  the  astounding  ap- 
paratus of  commerce,  in  planting  political 
dominion  even  at  the  distance  of  thou- 
sands of  miles  from  its  central  source, 
are  set  in  vivid  and  exalted  contrast 
with  the  timid>  and  effeminate  exer- 
tions peculiar  to  the  same  stock  of 
men  as  they  have  grown  into  mere 
suppleness  under  the  influences  of  the 
Indian  sun  and  the  enfeebling  tenden- 
cy of  the  starch- 
bearing  foods. 
•  .■.' .'.  "  One  must  needs 

.'    '  •  •"  ..-V.  /  travel  through  the 

Indian  kingdoms 
to  be  properly  im- 
pressed with  the 
physical  character 
of  the  people.  The 
high-caste  Brah- 
mans,  especially 
in  the  north,  have 
preserved  to  some 
extent  the  fine 
stature  and  man- 
ly bearing  of  their 
A  r  }•  a  n  f  o  r  e  - 
fathers  ;  but  as  a 
rule,  the  j)eople 
are  not  onl}-  low,  but  slender.  They  are 
weak-muscled,  and  have  weakness  of  the 
nothing  left  of  that  ag-  grs^sTenincf 
gressive  physical  force  andciim.ate. 
which  the  old  stock  possessed  in  its  an- 
cestral home  and  Avhich  has  been  so 
strongly  developed  in  the  Indo-Euro- 
peans  of  the  West.  It  is  claimed  that 
Hindu  laborers  are  as  industrious  as  any 
in  the  world.  Their  assiduity  can  not 
be  denied,  but  assiduity  is  not  strength. 
The  race  is  weak.  It  lacks  in  courage 
and    audacity.      It    has    fallen    into    a 


THE   IXDICA XS.  —RESOURCES. 


713 


Ethnic  life  the 
Joint  product  of 
subjective  and 
objective  condi- 
tions. 


passive  condition  which  has  in  it  neither  i 
power  nor  progress. 

It  is  held  by  a  certain  class  of  think- 
ers that  no  people  can  ever  be  pow-  | 
erful  and  progressive  ' 
whose  principal  subsist- 
ence is  on  rice  and  other 
starch-bearing  products.  This  is  look-  ' 
ing  at  the  problem  of  life  as  merely  a 
physical  phenomenon.  It  does  not  take 
into  consideration  those  other  elements 
which  we  have  previously  discussed.  It 
is  sufficient  to  repeat  that  a  race  of  men 
as  it  presents  itself  in  modern  times  is  the 
joint  product  of  two  principal  forces,  one 
of  which  is  .subjective  or  instinctive  in 
the  race  itself,  and  the  other  an  objective, 
or  reactionary  physical  force,  including 
the  elements  of  climate,  food,  and  shel- 
ter. The  Hindus  have  been  thus  evolved 
from  the  old  prehistoric  condition  in 
which  we  beheld  them  in  their  Iranian 
homestead  and  in  their  migrations  to 
the  East.  They  have  been  carried  for- 
ward on  the  line  of  race  development  by 
the  force  of  instincts  which  have  deter- 
mined in  large  measure  their  mental 
and  moral  characteristics,  and  by  phys- 
ical agencies  which  have  given  to  the 
race  its  visible  aspect  and  character. 

Among  the  other  physical  conditions 

that  have  modified  the  race  constitution 

of  the  Hindus  mav  be  men- 

Precious  stones        .  ' .  . 

in  relation  to        tioncd    the    peculiar    min- 

race  character.  ,  /•     ji  ,  t 

erals  of  the  countr}-.  In 
ancient  times,  and  to  a  limited  extent  at 
the  present  day,  India  is  the  country  of 
precious  stones.  Besides  the  usual  de- 
posits of  the  metals  which  provoked  at  a 
very  early  day  a  considerable  degree  of 
skill  in  metallurgy,  the  diamond  mines 
and  other  deposits  of  tho.se  rare  stones 
which  have  been  classified  as  precious 
have  attracted  the'  cupidity  and  excited 
the  pride  of  the  Hindu  race.  Without 
diamonds  and  other  gems  of  great  value 

M  — Vol.  1—46 


such  a  thing  as  Oriental  magnificence 
could  hardly  exist.  Barbaric  state,  .such 
as  Eastern  monarchs  in  the  iliddle  Ages 
and  even  in  modern  times  are  wont  to 
maintain  and  which  constitutes  so  large 
an  element  in  personal  despotism,  could 
hardly  continue  without  the  blaze  of 
precious  stones.  Indeed,  no  civilized 
society  in  the  world  has  as  j-et  freed  it- 
self from  the  illusion  of  diamonds.  The 
name  of  Golconda,  the  old  capital  of  the 
Deccan,  has  passed  into  the  literature  of 
all  nations  as  a  synonym  for  that  kind 
of  splendor  which  blazes  from  precious 
stones. 

True  it  is  that  recent  investiga- 
tions have  destroyed  a  part  of  the  tra- 
ditional gloiy  possessed  bv   Golcondathe 

this  city  as  the  native  place  ^:^L°ringTn°d"'' 
of  diamonds,  but  it  was  stone-cutting, 
nevertheless  the  greatest  seat  of  gem- 
cutting  and  precious  stone  Avork  known 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  perhaps  in  the 
history  of  the  human  race.  Xot  without 
its  effect  upon  the  character  of  the  Hin- 
dus as  a  people  was  the  gathering,  the 
wearing,  the  exhibition,  and  the  com. 
merce  in  precious  stones.  All  this  im- 
parted much  of  the  Oriental  character  to 
Indian  civilization.  The  nabob  of  to- 
day has  many  traits  which  depend,  if 
not  for  their  existence,  at  least  for  their 
manifestation,  on  the  presence  in  his 
country  of  precious  mines,  with  the 
trea.sures  of  which  he  maintains  his 
grandeur  and  pride.  It  was  this  form 
of  barbaiic  magnificence  which  contrib- 
uted to  Milton's  pictured  page  one  of  his 


"  High  on  a  thione  of  royal  state  whicli  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind." 

The  attention  of  the  reader  has  been 
called  to  the  fact  that  iron  is  the  last  of 
the  ofreat  metals  now  in  use  to  be  discov- 
ered    and    extracted    from    the    matrix. 


714 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JlfANKlXD. 


The  forbidding  and  refractory  character 
of  the  ore  impeded  the  manufacture  of 
iron    until    Ion'"-   after   the    other   tnetals 


the  most  useful  of  the  metals.  Iron 
mines  abound  in  all  parts  of  India. 
There  is  scarcely  a  district  between  the 


DIAMOND  .\UNE  OF  PUNNAH 

that  exist  in  the  native  state  had  been 
brought  out  and  employed 


-Drawn  Ijy  Kniilu   B;i)aid. 


The  working  of 

iron  originated     in  the  arts.     It  was  in  this 

in  India.  .        ,        .    _      , .        , 

land  of  India  that  the  Ar- 
yan race  first  succeeded  in  mastering  the 
difficulties  in  the  way  and  brought  forth 


mountains  of  Assam  and  the  soutiiern 
parts  of  Madras  in  which  mines  arc  not 
abundant.  The  ore  is  purer  than  that 
of  almost  any  other  region  in  the  eai-th. 
It  is  this  circumstance,  together  with  the 
antiquity  and  ingenuity  of  the  race,  that 


THE   INDICANS.— RESOURCES. 


715 


Method  of 
smelting  and 
excellence  of 
product. 


has  made  India  the  first  cotmtry  of  the 
world  in  which  iron  has  been  manufac- 
tured. 

The  indigenous  method  of  smelting 
the  ore  is  still  preserved.  The  very 
same  processes  which  were 
employed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  historical  era  are 
still  in  vogue.  The  great  drawback 
upon  the  success  of  the  method  employed 
is  the  wasteful  consumption  of 
charcoal.  Where  iron  is  smelted 
in  the  open  air  there  must  be  high 
heat,  long  preserved,  with  the 
consequent  large  consump- 
tion of  fuel.  From  time  im- 
memorial the  native  races  of 


appear  that  this  metal  was  in  use  before 
this  time.  From  India  the  knowledge 
of  the  processes  of  smelting  the  ore,  and 
the  superiority  of  the  metal  thus  ob- 
tained over  every  other  employed  in  the 
arts,  was  in  course  of  time  recognized 
even  to  the  extreme  limits  of  Europe. 

Copper  mines  are  also  frequent  in  In- 
dia. The  best  of  all  are  found  in  the 
skirts  of  the  Himalayas,  in  the  hill-coun- 
try lying  eastward  of 
Kumaon.  The  manu- 
facture of  copper  has 
remained  to  the  pres- 
ent day  in  the  hands 
of  the  natives.  The 
region  where  the  ore 
is  abundant  is  almost 


COPPER  VESSELS  OF  HINDU  WORKMANSHIP.-Drawn  by  Schmidt,  from  the  originals. 


India  have  succeeded  in  producing  one 
of  the  purest  and  best  articles  of 
wrought  iron  known  to  men.  Since 
the  creation  of  the  East  Indian  em- 
pire, much  foreign  capital  has  been 
expended  in  establishing  works  and  col- 
lieries in  the  country;  and  modern  sci- 
ence applied  to  the  problem  of  extracting 
the  ore  has  greatly  increased  the  quan- 
tity, but  not  the  quality,  of  the  metal. 
It  was  after  the  incoming  of  the  Aryan 
population  into  India  that  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron  was  discovered.    It  does  not 


inaccessible,  and  the  capital  of  the  West 
has  not  \-et  made  its  way 

Mining  of  cop- 
mtO      the       country.  The    per  and  method 

I  ..  ,11         of  manufacture. 

deposits  are  worked  b}- 
the  miners  of  Nepal,  according  to 
the  methods  which  have  become  tra- 
ditional through  lapse  of  time.  In 
many  districts  old  abandoned  copper 
mines  are  found,  indicating  the  antiquity 
of  the  knowledge  of  copper  in  India. 
The  process  of  working  is  primitive  and 
simple.  Holes  are  carried  into  the  earthy 
following  the  vagaries  of   the  deposit^ 


716 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


until  the  region  is  burrowed  as  if  gigan- 
tic conies  or  rabbits  had  selected  the  place 
for  their  cities.  When  the  ore  is  taken 
out  it  is  pounded  up  with  an  iron  sledge 
and  smelted  on  the  spot  of  its  delivery. 

It  is  not  needed  that  the  lead  mines  of 

the  Himalayas  and  the    Punjab  should 

be  described.     Tin  is  found 

The  Indian  lead      .      ^  ,  ,  ^^ 

mines;  antimony  m  Burmali,  where  the  ore 
an  petro  eum.     j.yjjg    ,^g    ^jgh    as    Seventy 

per  cent  of  pure  metal.  The  mines  are 
worked  by  the  Chinese,  with  whom  all 
improvement  is  innovation.  Antimony  is 
found  in  the  hill-countries  of  the  Punjab, 
and  also  in  Mysore.  In  Burmah  rich 
deposits  of  petroleum  have  been  discov- 
ered, and  the  annual  yield  in  the  hands 
of  European  enterprise  has  risen  to  eleven 
thousand  tons.  In  the  Punjab  the  petro- 
leum wells  are  managed  as  a  branch  of 
the  public  works. 

The  river  beds  of  India  are  generally 
laid  with  a  nodular  form  of  limestone. 
Distribution  of  This  rock  has  subserved 
snit"ab\lfor"°'  the  usual  purposes  from 
pottery.  the  earliest  ages.     At  the 

present  time  it  is  taken  up  and  em- 
ployed in  large  quantities  in  macadamiz- 
.  ing  roadbeds.  In  the  Khasia  hills  in 
Assam  there  are  limestone  quarries  from 
which  building  material  has  been  im- 
memorially   taken.      In    Bankura,  also, 


there  are  valuable  ledges  of  the  same 
stone.  The  lower  valley  of  the  Ganges 
has  suffered  the  same  inconvenience  as 
did  that  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
after  their  descent  to  the  alluvial  plain. 
In  the  Ganges  valley  there  is  no  lime- 
stone, nor  indeed  any  adequate  building 
materials.  The  soil,  moreover,  is  not 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  either 
bricks  or  pottery.  Since  the  domination 
of  Great  Britain  was  establisiied  in 
India,  pottery  works  have  been  built  in 
Bardwan,  but  these  are  devoted  only  to 
the  manufacture  of  drainage  pipes  and 
the  coarser  form  of  stoneware. 

In  all  the  vast  upland  region  between 
the  two  principal  rivers  of  India,  build- 
ing stone  is  abundant.  In  Rajputana 
that  pink  marble  out  of  which  the  old 
temple  and  palace  of  Agra  were  reared 
is    found.       In    Godaverv 

'      Quarries  of  mar- 
aud    JN'arbada      sandstone  bie, slate,  and 

abounds,  and  Southern  In-  ™''^^' 

dia  is  i-ich  in  granite.   vSince  the  incoming 

of  European  caj^ital  the  slate   quarries 

have  been  opened,  also  mines  of  mica 

and    talc.      Finally,    the    hills  of  Oris.sa 

and  Chuta-Nagpur  abound  in  a  variety 

of   indurated    potstone,    out    of    which 

vessels  of  utility  and  others  of  ornament 

are    manufactured    with    that    skill    for 

which  the  art  of  India  is  famous. 


CHAPTER  XLI.— Ethnic  Characteristics. 


HEN  a  race  of  men 
has  long  occupied  a 
land  so  varied  in  its 
resources  and  physical 
character  as  India,  it 
\  is  natural,  inevitable, 
that  there  shall  be  a 
diverse  ethnic  development.  The  peo- 
ple of  one  part  of  the  country  will  be 


formed  upon  conditions  different  from 
those  in  another.      In   the  Diverse  develop. 

ment  follows 

case  of  a  stock  .so  conserva-  long  occupancy 

i.'  ii      i        1   •    1  11    in -wide  coun- 

tive  as  that  which  peopled  tries. 
India,  tlie  diversit}'  of  social  forms  and 
of  ethnic  character  would  be  strongly 
marked.  After  the  settled  estate  had 
once  prevailed  among  the  tribes,  each 
would  develop  on  its  own  lines  and  reach 


THE  IN  Die  A  NS. —E  THNIC   CHA  RA  C  TERIS  TICS. 


717 


Sanskrit  the 
original  of  the 
Hindu  lan- 


a  different  result.  The  absorption  of 
the  aboriginal  population  would  greatly 
contribute   also   to   the  divergent  tend- 

R:^a1  ^T(  ^Ttrs^  afs  flTa  fsii '  ^=1^=^,  c^  ^■^\^ 

5tJ3I?  Si5T  ft^  ^  '^^.''R^  ^t^  ITS  I 

SPECIMEN    OF   SANSKKli'. 

ency.  In  a  preliterarj'  age  dialectic 
tendencies  would  shoot  out  over  the  sur- 
face like  growing  vines,  and  in  course  of 
time  the  inhabitants  of  one  district 
would  no  longer  understand  the  vernac- 
ular of  another. 

In  India  these  dialectic  departures 
w^ere  all  made  from  the  common  linguis- 
tic form  called  Sanskrit. 
It  was  that  sacred  primitive 
guages.  language    which    grew    to 

maturity  of  grammatical  form  and  into 
a  fixed  vocabulary  on  the  tongues  of  the 
Vedic  poets.  The  speech  once  established 
in  structure  and  phraseology  in  the 
sacred  hymns  would  no  longer  suffer 
inflection,  no  longer  present  the  phe- 
nomena of  growth.  The  Old  Aryan 
tongue  became  crystalized  in  the  Vedas. 
It  was  Sans  kr at  a,  the  "  perfect  speech." 
And  to  speak  the  truth,  among  languages 
developed  into  literary  form  by  the 
genius  of  man,  only  the  Greek  is  able  to 
compete  in  the  perfection  of  its  structure 
and  methods  with  the  old  Sanskrit  as  it 
was  uttered  two  thousand  years  before 
our  era  by  the  Vedic  bards. 

This  old  Sanskrit  literature  has  dis- 
seminated through  all  the  Aryan  tongues 
of  India  a  common  element  to  which  we 
may  give  the  name  of  Hindi,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Hindus.  This 
Hindic  element  in  the 
tongues  of  Hindustan  is 
much  like  the  Latin  element  in  the  Ro- 
mance languages  of  Western  Europe 
and    South    America.       As   the  scholar 


Hindi  corre- 
sponds to  the 
Latin  stage  in 
Western  devel- 
opment. 


wanders  through  France  and  Italy, 
through  Spain  and  Portugal,  through 
Wallachia  and  Brazil,  he  sees  and  hears 
evermore  the  movement  and  rhythm  of 
the  old  Latin  tongue  out  of  which  the 
vernaculars  of  ail  these  people  have 
grown  into  literary  forms,  diverse  among 
themselves,  but  common  in  a  single  ori- 
gin. So  also  with  the  Hindic  element  in 
the  languages  of  India. 

As  are  the  languages,  so  are  the  peo- 
ples. Perhaps  the  first  and  most  dis- 
tinct etlmic  division   of  the   Cashmerians 

Indie  race  is  the  Cashmeri-  ^teX'^in-"* 
ans.  They  are  the  best  dicans. 
representatives  of  the  early  Indicans,  and 
through  them  the  clearest  retrospective 
glance  may  be  had  at  the  race  character 
of  the  original  Aryans  who  peopled  the 
Punjab.  Only  in  one  respect  do  the 
Cashmerians  fail  best  of  all  to  represent 
and  reflect  the  ancient  and  essential 
character  of  the  Indie  branch  of  the  Ar- 
yan  family  of    men.      In    religion   they 


SACKED    INSCRlrnON    FROM   THE   VEDA. 

have  largely  apostatized  from  Brahman- 
ism  and  accepted  the  faith  of  the  Arabian 
prophet.      They  have   thus  become  in- 


718 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


fected  on  the  religious  and  linguistic 
side  of  their  development  by  foreign  in- 
fluences deduced  from  the  Arabian  des- 
ert, from  Islam,  from  Shem. 

The  Cashmerians  are  the  most  north- 
erly division  of  the  Hindu  race,  being 
above  the  inhabitants  of  the  Punjab. 
They  have  developed  their  own  tongues, 
their  own  manners,  their  own  institu- 
tions, having,  of  course,  a  common  basis 
with   the   other  Hindu  races.      Many  of 

'^^qrf^  i^^^  IFTcT^T  ^^T  -^X  f^ilT 

|m  xn;^  ^^^  '^ft'^^  "^^  '        • 


VARIANT   FORMS    OK   SANSKRIT. 
I.  Hindi ;  2.  Punjabi. 

them  have  retained  the  old  faith  of  the 
Brahmans. 

Perhaps  the  climate  of  Cashmere  has 
Climate  and  en-  been  more  favorable  to  the 
^lt:^:tltr  maintenance  of  the  original 
race  integrity,  character  of  the  race  than 
in  any  other  district  of  India.  The  range 
of  the  thermometer  does  not  reach  above 
eighty-five  degrees  F,  at  noon  in  sum- 
mer time.  The  heat,  however,  is  op- 
pressive, owing  to  the  stillness  of  the 
summer  air.  In  winter  the  temperature 
sinks  miich  below  the  freezing  point,  and 
snow  is  abundant.  The  conditions  are 
such  as  to  favor  physical  perfection.  The 
Cashmerians  are  not  only  the  handsom- 
est of  the  Indian  races,  but  are  fairly 
esteemed  among  the  peoples  of  the  West. 
The  men  are  tall,  sinewy,  and  robust. 
It  is  conceded  that  the  complexion  of  the 
women  is  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  fair- 


est, in  the  world,  and  the  female  features 
possess  many  other  elements  of  beauty. 
The  people  of  Cashmere  are  noted  for 
their  gayety  of   demeanor.      They  are 
fond  of  pleasures.     Music 

Intellectual  and 

and  dancing  are  the  preva-  sociaiufe  of  the 

1        .  i      1      i  1-i  Cashmerians. 

lent  amusements,  but  liter- 
ature, especially  in  the  form  of  poetry, 
is  cultivated.  The  Cashmerians  have 
obtained,  and  perhaps  retained,  one  of 
the  worst  reputations  as  it  respects  mor- 
al character  that  any  modern  people  of 
like  development  has  possessed  withal. 
Not  that  they  are  sunk  in  debasing  vices. 
Quite  on  the  contrary,  their  manners 
and  social  criteria  are  so  high  as  to  be 
accepted  even  in  the  civilized  countries 
of  the  West.  In  respect  to  manners,  the 
Cashmerians  may  be  properly  styled  the 
French  of  India;  but  they  are  the  most 
cunning,  and  perhaps  the  most  avari- 
cious of  modern  peoples,  and  their  fame 
for  lying  is  infamous.  Cashmere  has 
suffered  to  an  unusual  degree  within  the 
present  century  by  natural  disasters  and 
the  half-natural  visitations  of  pestilence 
and  famine.  The  country  is  visited  with 
earthquakes;  and  it  has  been  estimated 
that  since  the  establishment  of  the  Brit- 
ish East  Indian  empire  the  population 
of  certain  districts  has  been  reduced  to 
one  fourth  of  the  original  number. 

The  people  of  the  Punjab  lie  in  eth- 
nic character  close  to  those  of  Cashmere. 
Indeed,   there   is   no    nat-  points  of  di- 
ural   line   of    demarkation  JlX^.^^i^L 
between  the  two  countries  and  Punjabese. 
either  in  geography  or  ethnic  develop, 
ment.     Mohammedanism,  however,  has 
not  gained  the  ascendency  in  the  one  coun- 
try as  it  has  in  the  other,  and  the  dialec- 
tical difference  between  the  language  of 
the  Punjab  and  that  of  the  Cashmerians 
is  sufficient  to  classify  the  peoples  as  dis- 
tinct.    The  population  numbers  nearly 
twenty  million.     The   country   is  suffi- 


THE   IXDICAXS.— ETHNIC   CHARACTERISTICS. 


719 


ciently  irregular  in  outline  to  have  pre- 
served, as  in  Cashmere,  many  of  the 
ori«-inal  features  of  the  Arvan  race.  In 
both  language  and  religion  they  lie 
nearer  to  the  primitive  type  than  do  the 
Cashmerians.  Not  only  have  they  re- 
sisted the  propagandism  of  Islam,  but 
they  have  a  strong  antipathy  for  the  fol- 


Next  in  order  of  the  Indian  popula- 
tions may  be  mentioned   the  great  race 
of  the    Mahrattas.     They  are  so  called 
from    the    Sanskrit    name 
Maharashtra,    the    ancient  S^^^^'St^a^f 
designation  for  the  "Great 
Kingdom,"  or  region.     The  country  in- 
habited  by  them  extends  from  the  Ara- 


VIEW  IX  CASHMERE. — \'ALi  ev  of  the  Tirtan.  — nr3\\n  by  G.  \'iiil!ier,  from  a  photograph  by  Bourne. 


lowers  of  the  Prophet,  whom  they  despise 
as  aliens  in  faith  and  nationality.  As  the 
original  seat  of  the  earliest  Aryan  in- 
stitutions, the  Punjab  -will  ever  remain 
a  field  of  interest  for  the  ethnologist  and 
historian.  It  is,  geographically  speak- 
ing, to  the  Aryan  nations  what  Italy  is 
to  Southern  Europe — the  ancient  seat 
whence  conquest  spread  and  institution- 
al forms  were  exported  to  foreign  parts. 


bian  sea  on  the  west  to  the  Satpura  moun- 
tains in  the  north.  It  includes  the 
larger  part  of  Western  and  Central 
India.  By  this  designation  are  covered 
the  provinces  of  Comean,  Kandashesh, 
Berar,  the  Briti.sh  Deccan,  half  of  the 
Nizam's  Deccan,  and  a  part  of  Nagpur. 
Within  the  limits  here  defined,  the 
Mahratta  population  numbers  about 
twelve  million.     Considered  as  an  eth- 


ASPECTS  OF  CASHMERIAN  LIFE.-  Uavcinc  Gi«l  of  Serinagur.— Drawn  bv  EmUt  Bayard. 


THE   INDiCA  NS.—E  THXIC   CHA  RA  C  TliRlS  TIL  S. 


721 


ratta  popula- 
tion ;  the  lan- 
guage. 


nic  term,  Mahratta  is  not  definitive. 
Neither  is  it  the  name  for  a  particular 
Extent  of  Mah-  social  caste  or  a  given  re- 
ligion. It  is  rather  one  of 
those  wide  terms  which 
history  demands  in  the  definition  of  a 
race  somewhat  composite  in  ethnic  ele- 
ments, and  even  diverse  in  religious  and 
social  qualities.  vStill  the  diversity  is  not 
sufficient  to  warrant  a  division  into 
separate  tribes.  The  common  tie  which 
binds  the  several  peoples  living  within 
the  regions  defined  above  is  language. 
They  speak  the  }ilahratti,  one  of  the 
most  widespread  of  the  modern  Indian 
tongues.  In  common  with  the  other 
Indie  languages,  it  is  a  dialectical  form 
of  Hindi,  difiiering  only  from  Hindu- 
stani as  French  differs  from  Italian. 
Though  the  tribes  of  ]Mahrattas  are 
somewhat  distinct  in  the  different  prov- 
inces, they  are  all  true  Indicans.  We 
have  Mahratta  Brahmans,  Mahratta 
Rajputs,  and  Mahratta  Kumbis  for  the 
names  of  the  several  castes,  all  Mah- 
rattas,  but  having  nonintercourse  with 
each  other,  from  the  same  prejudices 
which  prevail  in  other  parts  of  India. 

In   so  far  as  the  ^Mahratta    race    has 
fallen  under  the  dominion  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, as   in   the   Deccan,  it 

Variation  in 

character  from     has  preserved  to  a  consider- 

foreign  impact.       ^^^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^^  features    of 

the  original  stock  from  which  it  is 
descended;  but  in  the  Nizam's  Deccan 
the  people  have  yielded  to  the  ]\Ioham- 
medan  pressure,  and  to  that  extent  have 
taken  the  character  of  the  Islamites.  In 
other  districts  the  race  is  comparatively 
pure.  Of  these,  Kolhpur,  in  the  vSouth- 
ern  Deccan,  is  perhaps  the  best  e.xample. 
The  states  of  Sinde,  Indore,  and  a 
part  of  Gujerat  are  nominally  native, 
but  have  been  considerably  subjected  to 
foreign  influences.  The  native  Mahratta 
princes  and  the  attaches  of  their  barbaric 


T       mans  the  high- 
est type  of 


courts  are  ^lahrattas,  but  a  large  part 
of  the  people  arc  Hindus  from  other 
regions. 

The  Mahratta  Brahmans  may  be  named 
as  the  best  exemplars  of  the  qualities  and 
character  of  the  Brahmanic  Mahratta  Brah- 
caste  in  all  India. 
physical,  intellectual,  and  Hindus, 
moral  development  they  are  Brahmans  at 
the  best  estate.  The  traveler  can  but  be 
impressed  with  the  serene  countenance, 
the  majestic  walk,  the  lithe,  straight 
figure,  the  high  forehead,  and  features 
regular — almost  Gi'ecian  in  outlines — of 
these  leading  representatives  of  the  an- 

^TRTT^'  '^  ^  %^t  ^"Ri:  f^'^m 
?f^  ^^T  ^"ST  ft^  vjir,  cK  ^T^ 

Sl'ECIMli.N    U1-'   M.-\HKATT1. 

cient  priestly  order.  The  Briti.sh  gov- 
ernment has  found  them  the  most  able 
and  energetic  of  all  the  natives  of  the 
empire ;  and  he  who  visits  India  curious 
for  instruction  relative  to  the  language, 
literature,  and  tradition  preserved  in  the 
Sanskrit  books,  will  find  the  ]\Iahratta 
Brahmans  to  be  the  best  of  all  his  sources 
of  information. 

All  of  the  castes  are  represented  among 
the  ]\Iahrattas.  The  Kshatriyas,  or  the 
Rajputs,   are    not    numer- 

■'>■  '  The  lowest 

ous,  and  seem  to  maintain  a  classes  of  lu- 
,  .  .   ,  dican  society. 

rather  precarious  existence 
between  the  two  preponderating  castes 
of  Brahmans  and  Sudras.  The  latter, 
lowest  of  the  four  great  strata  in  which 
Indian  society  is  divided — lowest  with 
the  exception  only  of  the  Pariahs,  or  serf 
caste,  whose  business  it  is  to  handle  the 
dead — have  preserved  so  man}'  features 
of  the  aborigines  and  of  the  Scythians, 
who  on  several  occasions  have   invaded 


r9-T! 


GREAT  RACES    OF  JLLVAV.VP. 


the  country,  as  to  constitute  them  ahnost 
a  distinct  race.  Indeed,  an  ethnic  analy- 
sis would  show  them  to  possess  a  com- 
paratively slight  admixture  of  Ar\an 
blood.  Hut  the  .Sudras  of  the  Mahratta 
region,  as  in  other  parts  of  India,  have 
conformed  .so  much  to  the  structure  of 
the   dominant   ca.stes  as  to  be  classified 


are  said  to  be  exceedingly  boorish 
in  manners,  and  to  have  the  looks  of 
clowns.  As  comjiared  with  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Punjab  and  the  Cashmeri- 
ans,  the  Sudra  class  of  ]\Iahrattas  are 
physically  weak  and  mentally  inferior. 
They  have  vigor  and  tenacity  without 
strength.     They  are  essentially  a  race  of 


GROUP  OF  WAHRATTAS— TYPES. 


with  them  as  a  branch  of  the  common 
family. 

The  contrast  in  features  and  per.son 
between  the  Sudras  and  the  Mahratta 
Contrasts  and       Brahmaus     is     sufficiently 

comparisons  of         *„;i   •„  mi       r>      i 

Sudras  and  strikmg.     The  vSudra  couu- 

Mahrattas.  tenance  is  wanting  in  all 

those  features  of  elevation  which  are 
posses.sed  by  the  superior  caste.  The}' 
are  small  in  person,  though  in  common 
with  most  Indian  races  they  are  lithe, 
active,  wiry,  and  able  to  endure.     They 


movmtaineers,  and  have  in  common  with 
that  cla.ss  of  people  in  every  country  of 
the  world  the  qualities  of  courage  and 
independence.  They  have  but  a  slight 
social  or  political  organization  in  their 
native  places ;  but  they  have  submitted 
to  the  discipline  of  the  empire,  and  under 
the  command  of  English  officers  have 
become  an  excellent  .soldiery.  In  the 
pursuits  of  life  they  are  herdsmen,  cattle 
raisers,  drivers  of  stock  and  vehicles, 
rather  than  husbandmen  or  tillers  of  the 


THE   IX Die  A  XS. —E  THXIC   CHA  RA  C  TERIS  TICS. 


723 


soil.  They  have  some  skill  as  weavers 
and  manufacturers  of  armor,  but  have 
not  otherwise  distinguished  themselves 
in  the  practical  arts. 
Geographically 
speaking,  India  and 
Hindustan  are  coex- 
tensive, identical. 
In  a  certain  popular 
sense  Hindus  and 
Indians  are  convert- 
ible terms;  but  if  the 
meaning  of  Hindus 
be  determined  by 
linguistic  evidence, 
we  shall  find  that 
not  all  Indians  are 
Hindus.  Hindu- 
stani, or  Urdu,  is  a 
dialect  of  that  me- 
diaeval Hindi  which 
is  the  term  for  the 
second  origin  of  all 
the  Indie  languages, 
as  Sanskrit  was  the 
original  root.  Hindi 
is  to  Hindustani  as 
the  old  Langue  d'Oil 
is  to  French .  Again ,. 
Hindustani  is  only 
one  of  the  seven 
Aryan  languages 
spoken  in  Northern 
India.  The  other 
six  are  the  Punjabi, 
the  Sindhi,  the  Gu- 
jarati,  the  Mahratti, 
the  Bangali,  and  the 
Oriya.  So  if  we  reck- 
on as   Hindus   only 

those  whose  vernacular  is  Hindustani,  we 
Ethnic  and  lin-     shall  find  them  occupying  a 


and  from  the  Himalayas  to  the  Vindhya 


range. 
It  will 


alreadv  have  become  clear  to 


guistic  relations 
of  the  Hindu 
peoples. 


territory  of  about  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand 
square  miles,  reaching  from  the  Gandak 
on  the  east  to  the  Sutlcj  on  the  west, 


PEASANTS   OF   THE    DOAB — TYPES. 
Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard,  from  a  photograph. 


the  mind  of  the  reader  that  generaliza 
tions  with  regard  to  peo- 
ples   so   widely    dispersed 
and  so  differently  developed  popuiati 
as  those  of  India  are  wellnigh  impossible. 
Beginning   with   differences   of   person 


Difficulty  of  gen- 
eralizing ethnic 
traits  of  great 
ions. 


GREAT  RACES   OF  JEIXK/XD. 


and  running  through  the  whole  gamut 
of  human  attributes,  there  is  so  great 
diversity  that  only  a  few  geneial  out- 
lines of  the  Hindu  eharacter  can  be  pre- 
sented with  anything  like  accuracy.     In 


•%IT  •^{■r\  ^\U  ^T?:^   -^TT  flfi^t  ^  ^^  -^TT  ^T 

^^^  vr  ^<j?i  n^^  31T  ^w  ^5^^  %r  ^'^.  ^ ^^ tttt 

^  o 

H7T  im,  ^X%  ^  %  tft   %T-%  ^"1^  -g^  ftfi^^ 
^TTTTT  ^TT  ^5T  TO  1  Ti:  f^^q  ^T^T  1%  ^^  f^^ 


who  followed  the  army  of  Alexander,  or 
rather  constituted  a  jiart  of  it,  in  the 
great  campaign  into  the  valley  of  the 
Indus,  were  as  shrewd  in  their  kind  and 
hardly  less  fertile  in  descriptive  ability 
than  were  the  savants  who  ac- 
companied Napoleon  on  his 
invasion  of  Egypt. 

The  results  were  similar  in 
both  instances.  Macedonia  in 
the  one  case  and  France  in  the 
other      was      en- 


Brahmans  and 
Sudras  repre- 
riched        with         a   sent  extremes 
of  Hindu  devel- 


great  store  of  in- 


opment. 


SPECIMEN   PAGE   OF   HINDI   BOOK. 

mere  physical  characteristics  the  gener- 
alization is  especially  difficult.  Personal 
descriptions  of  the  Hindus  are  as  old  as 
the  first  contact  of  the  Greek  race  with 
that  remote  region  of  the  world.  The 
astute    observers — such   as    Nearchus 


formation  drawn  from  the  old 
and  abandoned  mines  of  the 
East.  The  Hindus  of  to-day 
are  the  same  in  personal  ap- 
pearance as  they  were  in  the 
days  when  they  were  described 
by  the  invading  Greeks.  This 
view  is  more  true  of  the  Brah- 
mans  than  of  the  lower  castes. 
The  representations  in  the  old 
Indian  sculpture  preserve  the 
identical  figure,  the  form,  the 
features,  and  much  of  the  ap- 
parel of  the  modern  descend- 
ant of  the  Old  Aryans.  The 
Hindus,  then,  are  of  middle 
size.  From  this  stature  the 
Brahmans  depart  in  one  direc- 
tion and  the  Sudras  in  an- 
other. That  is,  the  Brahmans 
are  fully  up  to  or  beyond  the 
average  height,  while  the  .Su- 
dras and  other  lower  caste  peo- 
ples are  below  that  standard — 
much  below  it.  Ethnogra- 
phers have  estimated  the  aver- 
age height  of  the  Hindus,  considered  as 
a  race,  at  one  hundred  and  sixty-three 
centimeters,  or  sixty-four  inches  in 
English  measure.  This,  perhaps,  is  a 
little  above  the  average  of  the  Japa- 
nese. 


726 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


The  bodily  organs  of  the  Hindu  are 
symmetrical,  but  light.  The  limbs  are 
Bodily  charac-  often  delicate,  so  slender 
nYndusHhe^^  indeed  as  to  suggest  weak- 
coior.  ness  according  to  the  stal- 

wart Western  criterion.  As  the  traveler 
passes  from  the  plains  into  the  hill- 
countries,  however,  he  comes  upon  more 
vigorous  tribes.  In  Rajputana,  and  other 
districts  similarly  situated,  the  average 
height  is  greater  and  the  bodily  weight 
and  strength  are  augmented.  The  com- 
plexion varies  from  almost  white, 
through  dark  yellow,  to  bronze,  or  even 
to  a  .sooty  black.  The  last-named  color 
is  always  indicative  of  foreign  admix- 
ture, the  absorption  of  that  Old  Dravid- 
ian  stock  which  contributed  the  abo- 
rigines. There  is  a  general  intensifica- 
tion of  the  skin  pigment  as  we  proceed 
from  the  north  to  the  .south,  from  the 
mountain  spurs  to  the  burning  coasts  of 
Southern  India.  To  the  latter  influence, 
that  of  climate,  some  ethnologists  have 
been  di.spo.sed  to  attribute  the  whole 
variation  of  color.  It  is  true  that  among 
the  Dravidians  them.selves,  that  is,  the 
old  population,  so  far  as  it  is  preserved 
in  anything  like  ethnic  purity,  consider- 
able diversities  of  color  appear.  Some 
Dravidian  women  are  said  to  be  almost 
white,   but   on   the    whole    the    race   is 


dark-hued,  so  much  so  as  to  have  fur- 
nished the  larger  part  of  the  intenser 
color  to  the  southern  divisions  of  the 
Aryan  population. 

The  Hindus  have  preserved  the 
straight  or  wavy  and  glossy  black  hair 
which     the     Old      Ar\-ans 

Special  features 

brought     down     from    the  of  head  and 

I.-    -11         ^  /x>i  1         J        i    countenance. 

highlands.  1  he  abundant 
beard  is  also  well  preserved  in  the 
de.scendants  of  the  ancient  .stock.  The 
habit  of  the  country  is  to  shave,  except 
as  to  the  upper  lip,  and  tonsure  of  the 
head  is  common  with  the  men,  only  a 
few  curls  being  preserved  at  the  poll 
and  on  the  temples.  Classified  by  the 
shape  of  the  skull,  the  Hindus  are  me.so- 
cephalic ;  that  is,  the  head  is  medium 
between  the  long-skull  and  the  short- 
skull  type  of  cranial  development.  The 
face  is  oval.  The  forehead  is  open,  and 
indicative  of  good  perceptions.  It  is 
rare  to  see  in  India  a  contracted  and 
corrugated  brow.  Hindu  eyes  are  large, 
dark  colored,  brown,  or  black.  The 
eyebrows  are  curved  into  two  arches. 
The  nose  is  rather  after  the  pattern 
called  Roman,  having  not  infrequently 
the  aquiline  contour  which  gives  an  im- 
perious expression  to  the  countenance. 
But  this  haughty  feature  is  developed 
principally  among  the  Brahmans. 


Chapter 


XLII.— Architecture, 

ERNIVIENT. 


TvlANNERS,    GOVa 


iF  we  look  at  the  objec- 
tive forms  which  are 
the  expression  of  the 
ideal  life  of  the  Hin- 
dus, we  shall  find  much 
of  interest  —  .some 
things  to  admire. 
Doubtless  the  most  conspicuous  fact  in 
which  the  ideal  life  of  man  is  expressed 


1 

i 

is  architecture.  It  stands,  as  we  have 
seen,  in  the  triple  category  of  necessities, 
the  other  two  being  food  and  clothing; 
but  inasmuch  as  man  is  more  than  an 
animal,  his  shelter  is  more  than  a  house. 
From  the  mere  physical  fact  of  shelter, 
the  abode  of  the  human  race  rises  rap- 
idly into  higher  forms ;  and  elegance  is 
added  to  necessary  structure. 


THE   INDICANS.—ARCHITECTURE. 


727 


The  Hindus  have  been  immemorially 
noted  for  the  extreme  elaboration  and  ex- 
travagant taste  exhibited  in  their  build- 


India.  The  style  in  general  is  Oriental. 
Flat  roofs  are  the  prevailing  form,  with 
projecting  balconies  and  verandas.     The 


IXUIA.X   ARLHrlECTUKE— 1  1    W   1 


ings ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  their  plastic 
arts.  The  traveler  must  needs  feel  him- 
self in  the  western  twilight  of  the  Orient 
as  he  begins  to  scan  the  architecture  of 


name  of  the  latter  is  from  the  Hindu 
vocabulary,  and  both  the  fact  and  the 
word  have  been  carried  into  all  Western 
nations.     In  connection  with  the  Hindu 


728 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXk'LXn. 


residence  is  nearly  always  found  a  gar- 
den, and  in  this  is  displayed  the  same  kind 

Extreme  eiabo-    oi    elaborate    taste    which 
ration  of  the  ^   j  j     ^^^   permanent 

Hindu  architec-  '^ 

ture.  architecture  of    the   coun- 

try.    The  arbor,  the  trellis,  the  curious 


Lightness  of 
structure  relat- 
ed to  climate  and 
outdoor  life. 


>N    ARCHITECTURE — EI.ABORA  lU.N    uK   okNAMKM- 
Drawn  by  F.  Regamey,  from  the  original. 


grotto,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  gar- 
dener's art  are  only  the  details  of  the 
larger  architectural  art  which  has  been 
developed  by  the  Indian  builders. 

It  is  in  the  nature  of  warm  climates  to 


put  the  people  much  out  of  doors.     The 

same  fact  ofives  licjhtness  to  all  classes 

of  structure  ;  but  in  a  coun 

try      subject      to     storms 

strength  as   well  as  light 

ness  must  be  consulted.    Of  the  common 

and  low  -  caste 
Hindus,  the 
houses  are  plain 
and  siinple  in 
design.  In  these 
the  idea  of  shel- 
ter is  predom- 
inant over  what 
in  the  higher 
grades  of  soci- 
ety becomes  or- 
na  mentation 
and  elegance.  It 
should  be  said, 
howe\-er,  that 
the  style  of  liv- 
ing among  the 
rich,  even  Brah- 
mans  of  the 
highest  rank,  is 
more  simple 
than  among 
Western  peoples 
of  like  wealth 
and  magnificent 
tastes. 

The  ancient 
architecture  and 
sculpture  of  In- 
dia may  almost 
take  rank  with 
that  of  Eg}-pt, 
if  not  for  abun- 
dance, at  least 
for  majesty.^  It 
oive    an   extended 


{  is    not    the    place  to   ^ 
account  of  the  old  temples 

'■  The  isle  and 

of   the  countr}-,  but  an  il-  cavemof 

\  1       ,       ,•  -,  1  Elephanta. 

lustration   may  be  drawn, 
!  once   for  all,  from  the   famous  isle  and 


THE   INDICANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 


729 


cavern  of  Elephanta.  This  island  is 
situated  about  seven  miles  from  Bom- 
bay. AVithin  it  are  found  the  remains 
of  those  celebrated  Hindu  sculptures 
and  excavations  which  have  preserved 
to  us  the  best  notion  of  the  ancient 
art  of  the  race.  Near  the  shore  stands 
a  colossal  statue  of  the  elephant  from 
which    the    name  Elephanta   was  given 


Unfortunately,  many  of  the  effigies  of 
Elephanta  have  been  mutilated  or  de- 
stroyed by  the  Portuguese  vandals  and 
the  Mohammedan  zealots  of  later  times. 
Some  of  the  statues,  however,  have  been 
tolerably    well    pre.served. 

■'  ,  Effigies  of  the 

In  the  center  of  the  cavern  Hindu  gods  m 
is  the  colossal  bust  of  the      ecavem. 
Trimurti,  or   Hindu   Trinity:   Brahma, 


11*11111  !!iii..i.;>>---       ^,..,.^   A  ---^    iiiliiij- 

MARRIAGE  OF  SIVA  AND  PARVATI. -From  the  cave  of  Elephanta. 


to  the  island  by  the  Portuguese  navi- 
gators. A  short  distance  from  the  huge 
effigy  is  the  entrance  to  the  cavern. 
The  same  is  about  sixty  feet  in  width 
and  eighteen  feet  high.  The  pillars  of 
support  are  cut  out  of  the  native  rock. 
In  the  sides  of  the  cavern  are  hewn 
many  compartments  which  were  dedi- 
cated as  shrines  to  the  old  Hindu  gods. 
M. — Vol.  I — 47 


Vi-shnu,  and  Siva.  Some  .scholars,  how- 
ever, have  in  recent  times  decided  that 
the  triune  figure  is  not  intended  for 
Brahma  and  Vishnu  at  all,  but  only  to 
express  the  threefold  aspect  of  Siva,  the 
' '  Destroyer."  The  heads  of  the  effigA-are 
six  feet  in  height,  and  the  features  have 
much  of  the  majesty  and  repose  peculiar 
to  the  sphinxes  of  Egypt.     Critics,  how- 


Il I 

In'   I 


THE   INDICANS.— ARCHITECTURE. 


731 


ever,  have  noted  an  unpleasing  expres- 
sion of  the  underlip,  which  seems  to  be 
too  animal  or  faun-like  for  the  deity. 
Egyptian  analogies  are  also  discoverable 
in  the  headdresses,  which  are  ornament- 
ed. In  the  hand  of  one  of  the  gods  is  a 
cobra  de  capello,  and  on  the  cap  are  set 
a  human  skull  and  an  infant.  Doubt- 
less here  we  have  an  allegory  of  life  and 
death  in  the  infant  and  the  skull  and  of 
the  destroying  agent  by  which  the  one 
becomes  the  other,  in  the  serpent.  Siva 
was  the  destroyer.  Perhaps  the  cobra 
was  his  principal  abettor. 

On  either  side  of  the  Trimurti  stands 
the  figure  of  a  man  leaning  on  a  dwarf. 
To  the  right  is  a  cavity  hollowed  in  the 
wall,  in  which  are  a  great  number  of 
mythological  figures,  the  principal  one 
being  a  double  image  of  Siva  and  Par- 
vati,  an  effigy  half  male  and  half  female. 
To  the  right  also  is  the  four-faced  statue 
of  Brahma  reclining  on  a  lotus.  It  is 
one  of  the  rare  images  of  the  supreme 
Hindu  deity  now  preserved  in  India. 
Perhaps  there  is  no  space  of  like  dimen- 
sions in  the  vaults,  grottoes,  or  caverns 
of  the  world  of  so  great  interest  to  the 
antiquary  as  is  the  cave  of  Elephanta. 

As  a  field  for  the  study  of  Indian  archi- 
tecture in  general,  the  district  and  city 
Agra  the  best  of  Agra,  in  the  Northwest 
orindTanlfchi-  PTOvinccs  are,  perhaps, 
teoture.  the  best  of  all  in  the  coun- 

try. The  remains  of  old-time  splendor, 
however,  are  not  so  ancient  as  the  sculp- 
tures just  referred  to.  The  city  of  Agra 
is  on  the  Jumna  river,  in  latitude 
27°  11'  north.  It  was  the  old  native 
capital  of  the  province.  Until  1803  it 
Avas  held  by  the  Mahrattas,  but  at  that 
time  was  taken  by  the  British  army,  un- 
der Lord  Lake. 

Three  structures  within  the  city  of 
Agra  are  known  for  their  architectural 
beauty  and  grandeur.    The  first  of  these 


is  the  old  palace  of  the  native  princes. 
It  has  a  great  court  within,  five  hundred 
feet  by  three  hundred  and 

.       - .  .  The  old  palace 

seventy  feet  m  dimensions,  of  the  native 
The  approaches  to  the  ^"°'^'- 
court  are  by  arcades  and  gateways  of  the 
greatest  beauty  and  Oriental  splendor. 
The  hall  of  the  palace  is  two  hundred 
and  eight  feet  by  seventy-six  feet  in  di- 
mensions, and  to  this  are  adjoined  two 
smaller  courts,  one  of  which  was  former- 
ly the  private  audience  chamber  of  the 
nabob  and  the  other  his  harem.  In  Agra 
also  is  the  celebrated  pearl  mosque,  the 
most  elegant  specimen  of  Mohammedan 
architecture  in  all  India.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  ground  plan  are  two  hundred 
and  thirty-five  by  one  hundred  and  nine- 
ty feet.  The  court  is  a  rectangle  one 
hundred  and  fifty-five  feet  square.  The 
courtyard  is  the  center  of  interest.  It  is 
wholly  of  white  marble,  from  the  pave- 
ment to  the  dome.  In  design  the  pearl 
mosque  is  similar  to  the  mosque  of  Dehli. 
The  structure  is  noted  for  the  absence  of 
elaboration.  A  single  inscription  from 
the  Koran,  inlaid  with  black  marble  as  a 
frieze,  is  the  principal  piece  of  sculpture 
in  connection  with  the  edifice. 

But  the  most  remarkable  example  of 
the  building  skill  of  India  is  the  great 
Taj  built  in  Agra  by  the  character  of  the 
Emperor  Shah  Jehan  in  ^aredTe^aj 
honor  of  his  beautiful  wife,  Mahal. 
JMumtaza  Mahal.  Here  the  empress  and 
himself  are  buried.  The  building  is, 
like  the  mosque,  of  white  marble.  It  is 
surmounted  by  four  tall  minarets.  The 
ground  plan  is  a  terrace,  also  of  marble. 
The  whole  parallelogram,  including  the 
gardens  and  court,  are  eighteen  hundred 
and  sixty  feet  by  one  thousand  feet  in  di- 
mensions. The  approaches  are  hx  arcades 
and  magnificent  gateways,  the  principal 
of  which  measures  one  hundred  and  ten 
feet  in  width  by  one  hundred  and  forty 


732 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


feet  in  height.  Through  this  the  trav- 
eler passes  from  the  court  to  the  garden. 
The  tomb  proper  stands  on  an  elevated 
platform  eighteen  feet  in  height.  It  is 
faced  in  every  part  with  white  marble, 
and  is  three  hundred  and  thirteen  feet 
square.  At  each  comer  stands  a  mina- 
ret one  hundred  and  thirty-three  feet  in 
height.     The  mausoleum  is  in  the  cen- 


DRESS   OF  THE    HINDUS — PRINCESS   OF    AGRA. 

ter  on  a  marble  platform.  It  is  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty-six  feet  square,  but  the 
corners  are  cut  off  by  sections  thirty- 
three  feet  in  extent.  Ch'er  the  mausoleum 
rises  a  dome  fifty-eight  feet  in  diameter 
and  eighty  feet  in  height.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  any  other  emperor  and  empress 
who  have  ruled  barbaric  millions  liave 
had  a  more  splendid  tomb. 

The  dress  and  personal  ornaments  of 
the  Hindus  are  now  well  known  to  West- 
ern peoples.       Story  and    pictorial    art 


have  conspired  to  make  familiar  the 
bodily  vesture  and  decoration  of  the  In- 
dian races.    The   materials  _ 

Dress  ana  per- 
of    fabrication    for    apparel    sonal  ornaments 
,,      ..  ,,  of  the  Hindus. 

are  generally  linen,  cotton, 
silk.  The  style  of  garment  is  Oriental. 
The  costume  of  the  men  and  the  women 
differs  in  degree  rather  than  in  kind. 
The  High  Brahmans  wear  drapery  rather 
than  clothes.  The  Kshatriyas  gather 
their  garments  about  them  with  a  belt. 
Everything  is  loosely  worn.  The  Su- 
dras,  especially  in  the  south,  are  but 
slightly  clad,  a  large  part  of  the  person 
being  exposed.  In  the  schools  and  other 
assemblies  the  upper  part  of  the  body 
of  the  pupil  is  naked ;  and  in  the  house- 
hold and  on  the  streets  there  is  much 
exposure,  but  without  vulgarit}'. 

The  dyeing  of  the  hair  and  the  beard 
is  a  common  adjunct  to  effect  in  dress. 
It  is  customary  to  color  red  the  nails 
of  the  fingers  and  toes.  The  eyelashes 
and  eyebrows  are  dyed  black  with  anti- 
mony. The  fan  is  much  used  by  both 
men  and  women,  but  not  so  universally 
as  in  Japan.  Ornaments  are  profuse. 
Necklaces,  bracelets,  and  earrings  are 
iiniversal.  Flowers  and  pearls  are  worn 
in  the  hair.  The  ears  and  the  septum  of 
the  nostrils  are  pierced  to  receive  jewels 
and  other  pendant  ornaments.  Tattoo- 
ing is  but  slightly  practiced,  but  the 
features  are  frequently  painted  with 
marks  and  stripes  across  the  brows, 
between  the  eyes,  and  on  the  neck. 
These  marks  constitute  a  kind  of  totem, 
disting-uishinar  one  caste  from  another. 

In  India  there  is  great  diversit)^  in  the 
manner  of  marriage.     Each  religion  or 

superstition    gives    its    own    ceremonies  of 

inflection  to  the  ceremony. 

In    one   respect   the   usage 

is  common,  and  that  is  the  early  age  at 

which  the  woman  is  marriageable.     At 

twelve  or  thirteen  she  is  regfarded  as  fit  for 


marriage  and 
estimate  of  the 
■womaji. 


-^^C^^^'^' 


MANNERS  or  THE  HINDUS.— Kiii.EiiiuN  ax  the  Court  of  the  Begum.— Drawn  by  A.  de  NeuvUle. 


734 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


the  wedded  relation  and  for  maternity. 
The  oldest  ceremonial  required  that  the 
man  take  the  woman  by  the  hand  and 
walk  around  an  altar  with  her.  Perhaps 
this  still  remains  the  fundamental  idea 
in  the  nuptial  union.  The  woman  after 
marriage  remains  as  she  was  before,  a 
dependent  of  man.  There  is  here  a  con- 
flict between  the  Old  Aryan  recognition 
of  the  nobility,  if  not  the  equality,  of 
woman  and  the  Oriental  view  which 
holds  her  as  a  slave,  a  chattel.  The 
Hindu  woman  has  much  more  respect 
and  honor  than  she  of  China,  but  is  by 
no  means  the  equal  of  the  man .  She  is 
not  wholly  secluded  in  the  house,  but 
may  go  forth  after  marriage.  In  gen- 
eral, she  is  treated  with  respect.  The 
almost  universal  aboriginal  usage  of 
giving  presents  to  the  bride's  parents  by 
the  husband,  as  in  purchase  of  her,  is 
still  maintained.  It  is  in  evidence  that 
polyandry  was  much  in  vogue  in  ancient 
times,  and  polygamy  is  now  frequent, 
particularly  in  those  provinces  where 
Islam  is  in  the  ascendant.  The  entrance 
of  strangers  into  acquaintance  and  com- 
pany with  Indian  women  is  strictly  in- 
hibited, and  it  has  been  with  great 
difficulty  that  a  knowledge  of  the  manner 
of  life  of  the  Hindu  household  has  been 
obtained  by  any  alien. 

The  reader  will  have  already  perceived 
the  general  di.stribution  of  the  Hindus 
^  ,  over    the    larger    part    of 

Extent  of  race  .  .      . 

interfusion  in       India  and  their  interfusion 

Hindustan.  .  ,  , 

With  other  peoples.  The 
race  has  extended  north,  south,  east,  and 
we.st,  to  the  limits  of  the  mountains  and 
the  sea.  In  Nepal,  in  the  very  .shadow 
of  the  Himalayas,  they  are  found  associ- 
ated with  the  Gurungs,  the  Magars,  the 
Murmis,  and  many  other  races.  In 
this  region,  however,  it  is  the  low-caste 
Hindus  rather  than  the  Brahmans  that 
are  mixed  among  the  Nepalese.  Further 


on  in  Assam  the  census  shows  nearly 
two  million  of  Hindus,  but  they  are,  as 
in  Nepal,  of  the  lower  order.  It  appears 
that  Hinduism  in  this  region  made  its 
way  first  among  the  kings  and  nobility. 
That  is,  the  higher  Assamese  cultivated 
Hinduism  as  a  faith,  but  the  great  mass 
of  Hindus  in  Assam  have  been  imported 
as  laborers,  to  work  in  the  tea  gardens 
and  in  other  pursuits  of  serfdom. 

This  peasant  class  has,  nevertheless, 
attained  to  a  fair  degree  of  home  life 
and  competency.  The  Hindu  popula- 
tion  has    improved   under 

'-  Particular  fea- 

British  rule,  and  the  char-  tures  of  certain 
acter  of  the  people  has  been 
greatly  elevated  since  the  last  century. 
The  Assamese  are  not  very  much  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Bengalese  and 
Hindus  in  appearance.  The  person  of 
the  former  is  shorter  and  more  robust, 
but  the  native  is  not  so  lithe  and  active 
as  the  Hindu.  As  already  remarked, 
the  Chinese  type,  that  is  the  Thibeto- 
Chinese,  has  infected  all  the  races  of 
farther  India,  and  the  fiat  face,  high 
cheek  bones,  and  general  physiognomy 
of  the  Assamese  tells  unmistakably  the 
story  of  an  influence  from  beyond  the 
Himalayas. 

ALso  into  Burmah  the  Hindus  have 
made  their  way,  but  not  in  so  great 
numbers  as  in  Assarr^.  Here  the  lan- 
guage and  the  general  character  of  the 
people  is  properly  Indo-  Grading  oir  of 
Chinese;  and  the  race  der-  ^^j: f j.^.'J^Lr 
ivation  from  beyond  still  nesetype. 
more  strongly  than  in  Assam  discrimi- 
nates the  ethnic  type  from  that  of  Be_ngal. 
The  census  of  1872  gives  a  population 
for  the  whole  of  Burmah  of  two  million 
seven  hundred  and  forty  thousand,  or  an 
average  of  thirty-one  to  the  square  mile. 
Of  these,  the  vast  preponderance  are 
Buddhists.  The  Mohammedans  num- 
ber about  a  hundred  thousand,  and  the 


THE  INDICA  NS.—S  UPERS  TITIONS. 


735 


Hindus  only  thirty-six  thousand.  Of 
the  whole  number,  one  hundred  and  ten 
thousand  are  still  classified  as  aborigines. 
It  is  probable  that  India  jDresents  a 
greater  variety  of  superstitions  in  an  in- 
tenser  form  than  any  other  country  of 
Extent  and  va-  the  world.  Except  in  the 
lower  districts  of  heathen- 
ism, such  as  South  Africa 
furnishes,  the  general  fact  called  super- 
stition has   relaxed   its   hold  somewhat 


Tiety  of  the 
Hindu  snpeP' 
stitions. 


declining,  losing  its  dominion  and  power 
over  the  mind  of  man.  To  this  general 
fact  India  is  somewhat  exceptional.  The 
peculiar  tendencies  of  the  Indian  mind 
under  the  influence  and  discipline  of 
Brahmanism  have  been  unfavorable  to 
the  reception  and  dissemination  of  sci- 
entific knowledge.  The  Indian  mind 
furnishes  an  example  of  a  comparatively 
high  development  in  abstract  thought, 
in  the  ability  to  generalize  and  deduce 
conclusions  from  established  concepts 
and  premises.  The  inferential  power 
of  the  human  intellect  as  it  is  displayed 
in  these  countries  is  not  to  be  despised, 
but  the  inductive  method  of  inquiry  has 
never  found  footing  among  them.  The 
disposition  to  scrutinize  and  question 
the  processes  of  the  material  world  and 
to  find  out  the  laws  which  govern  nature 
has  not  appeared,  and  the  old  supersti- 
tions of  paganism  continue  to  prevail. 

These  are  manifest  in  almost  every 
department  of  life.  There  are  a  thou- 
sand    superstitious     beliefs   Amulets  and 

^  charms;  super- 

respecting  food.     Amulets  stitious beliefs 

,      ,  1   ,    ,  •  respecting  the 

and  charms  and  talismans  dead. 

are  worn  to  protect  the  person  and  life 

from   harm.     The  image  of   an  ances- 


SUPERSTITIONS  OF  THE  HINDUS, -Amilets  Taken  from  the  Body  of  Tupit  Said. 


upon  the  human  mind.  It  is  now  clearly 
perceived  that  superstitious  beliefs  and 
practices  can  not  coexist  with  scientific 
knowledge.  We  have  already  seen  that 
the  peculiarity  of  the  recent  ages  is  the 
rapid  extension  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
laws  by  which  the  phenomena  of  the 
material  world  are  governed.  This  is 
equivalent  to  saying  that  superstition  is 


tor  is  swung  about  the  neck  in  confi- 
dent trust  that  the  paternal  spirit  will 
follow  his  image  and  guard  his  descend- 
ant who  wears  it.  One  of  the  most  strik- 
ing superstitions  relates  to  the  dead. 
There  is  an  abhorrent  fear  of  all  places 
where  dead  bodies  have  been  brought  or 
deposited.  Even  where  cremation  is 
employed,  the  spot  on  which  the  cere- 


736 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


mony  is  performed  becomes  a  terror  to 
all  who  approach  it ;  and  the  small  build- 
iug-s  in  which  the  ashes  are  stored  are 
avoided  as  children  w'ould  avoid  an  old 
ruin   haunted    by   evil    spirits.      A   like 


MINDL-    FAKIR,    CARRYING   CIRCLEIS   OF   IRON    ABOUT 

HIS   NECK. 

Drawn  by  Emile  Uayard,  from  a  photograph. 

fear  possesses  the  Indian  mind  with  re- 
spect to  darkness.  The  night  is  dreaded. 
They  who  are  willing-  to  expose  them- 
selves like  good  soldiers  in  the  hazards 
of  battle,  and  who  stand  up  against  the 
enemy  with  a  fair  degree  of  courage, 


tremble  with  the  coming  of  night. 
Doubtless  it  is  the  association  in  their 
mind  of  the  facts  of  darkness  and  death 
that  have  made  both  appalling. 

In  common  with  the  Oriental  nations, 
the  Hindus  have  a  veneration  tor  the 
dead.  If  the}-  do  not  positively  worship 
their  ancestors  in  the  man- 

Shrines  and  ef- 

ner  of  the  Egyptians,  they  figies  to  the  de- 
at  least  erect  small  tem-  ^^^  ^ 
pies  to  the  fathers,  and  within  these  are 
placed  pieces  of  wood  on  which  are  drawn 
images  of  the  departed.  The  masses  of 
the  people  have  perhaps  never  been  able 
to  grasp  the  idea  of  the  universal  Brah- 
ma as  the  supreme  God  of  the  world, 
and  as  a  result,  the)'  have  fallen  through 
the  intermediate  stages  of  polytheism 
into  idolatry. 

The  superstitions  of  India,  in  part 
religious  and  in  part  merely  mytholog- 
ical, are  strikingly  mani-  superstition  the 
fested  in  all  ranks  of  so-  "^^^^ 
ciety.  Beliefs  and^a'^'^'s- 
practices,  having  their  origin  in  super- 
stition have  prevailed  to  the  extent  of 
creating  whole  classes  of  the  Hindus 
sufficiently  numerous  to  populate  a  king- 
dom. Thus,  for  example,  the  Moham- 
medan mendicants,  widely  distributed 
through  all  the  Islamite  countries,  and 
known  as  Fakirs,  have  been  recnaited 
not  on  the  basis  of  race,  but  on  the  lines 
of  their  peculiar  and  degrading  super- 
stitions. Of  this  great  order  of  devotee 
vagabonds  there  are  more  than  a  mil- 
lion in  India.  They  wander  from  place 
to  place  about  the  towns,  villages,  and 
countr}-side,  constituting  a  pauper  class, 
everywhere  present  and  everywhere  il- 
lustrating in  their  beggary  and  usages 
the  combined  results  of  race  deteriora- 
tion and  superstitious  fanaticism. 

In  some  respects,  however,  the  beliefs 
and  practices  of  the  Hindus  are  merito- 
rious.    They  believe  in  cleanliness,  in 


THE  INDICANS.—RISE    OF  ROYALTY. 


737 


washings  of  the  body,  in  what  may  be 
called  personal  purity.  The  Brahmans 
Hinduism  re-  enjoin  the  conquest  of  sen- 
soTe'^b^eLT^^d  sualityas  a  part  of  that  vir- 
practices.  tue  by  which  the  soul  may 

find  eternal  rest.  The  devotee  is  en- 
couraged to  master  earthly  thoughts  and 
mere  human  affections  as  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  his  perfection.  All  of  this  tends 
of  course  to  asceticism,  with  its  accompa- 
nying follies  and  vices ;  but  it  is  probably 
true  that  the  sages  of  India  have  reached 
as  high  a  degree  of  self-masterj'  as  any 
other  devotees  to  the  dogma  of  the  mor- 
tification of  the  body  as  a  means  of  eter- 
nal happiness. 

Chieftainship  was  a  part  of  the  original 
structure  of  the  Arj'an  race.  It  may  not 
be  known  whether  this  fact  in  the  or- 
oid  Indian  ganization  of  the  primitive 

b^'omtmn^dn  people  was  developed  in 
petty  royalty.  the  old  household  of  the 
race,  or  whether  it  came  forth  as  a 
concomitant  circumstance  of  migration. 
Certain  it  is  that  migrating  tribes  must 
have  their  chiefs,  their  headmen,  who 
lead  and  direct  and  take  the  responsibil- 
ity. This  chieftainship  would  inevitably 
take  on  the  character  of  a  military  cap- 
tainc)'.  The  migration  would  traverse 
hostile  grounds.  There  would  be  the 
clash  of  moving  people  with  the  aborig- 
ines and  the  conflict  with  other  tribes  in 
motion.  He  who  could  best  control  the 
action  of  barbaric  battle  would  have  great 
reputation.  He  would  be  a  hero  while 
the  migration  continued,  and  a  prince  as 
soon  as  the  tribe  had  settled  into  per- 
manent abodes.  Such  is  the  genesis  of 
the  half-militarj^  and  half-royal  petty 
kinglets  whose  figures  are  seen  rising 
above  the  confusion  and  strife  of  the  his- 
torical dawn. 

We  have  already  seen  that  in  the  coun- 
tries possessed  by  the  Indian  races  the 
Vedic  bard,  in  the  first  place,  and  the 


Sjrmpathy  of  the 
Brahmans  and 
the  military 
caste. 


Brahman  priest  afterwards,  accompanied 
the  chieftain  who  led  the  tribe,  and 
invoked  the  deities  to  his 
aid  in  battle  and  conquest. 
The  spectacle  in  the  In- 
dian valleys,  as  we  discover  it  in  the  far 
twilight  of  history,  is  somewhat  similar 
to  that  which  reappeared  in  the  feudal 
ages  in  Western  Europe,  when  the 
priest  of  Rome  kept  himself  at  the  side 
of  the  barbarian  chieftain  until  the  latter 
was  transformed  into  a  feudal  baron. 
So  in  India ;  with  this  difference,  how- 
ever, that  the  Brahman  and  the  military 
chief  were  in  that  country  of  the  same 
race  and  kindred.  The  union,  therefore, 
of  religious  dogma  with  barbarian  state- 
craft would  be  more  intimate  and  friend- 
ly in  India  than  in  the  West.  The  as- 
cendency of  the  priest  would  also  be 
more  fatal  to  the  natural  evolution  of 
political  power  and  the  establishment  of 
secular  forms  of  government  in  a  coun- 
try where  the  chieftain  sj-mpathized  by 
kinship  with  the  priest,  than  in  lands 
where  they  two  were  in  antagonism. 
This  was  one  of  the  leading  causes  of 
the  miserable  condition  into  which  the 
political  institutions  of  India  fell  at  an 
early  age,  and  in  which  they  have  ever 
since  continued. 

After  the  militar}'  chieftain  in  a  bar- 
barous age,  leader  and  defender  of  a 
wandering  tribe,  has  passed,  by  the  set- 
tled residence  of  his  people.    Primogeniture 

into  a  prince,  having  a  court  ^'JS^^eS^r' 
and  a  retinue  and  even  tainship. 
the  beginnings  of  an  administrative  sys- 
tem, he  must  provide  for  the  continu- 
ance of  his  rank,  his  reputation,  his 
government.  This  is  most  easily  and 
naturally  done  by  transmitting  it  to 
his  son.  The  priest  would  encourage 
this  tendency ;  for  the  counselor  of  the 
father  would  have  a  favorable  situation 
for  influence  with  the  descendant.     He- 


•.SDIAN  PRIXCE— TYPE— The  Maharajah  of  Gwalior.— Drawn  by  A.  de  NeuviUe. 


THE  INDICANS.—GO VERNMENT. 


739 


redity  would  thus  become  a  natural  ele- 
ment in  the  system,  and  primogeniture 
■would  follow  as  a  secondary  suggestion. 
All  of  these  facts  have  appeared  in  the 
political  structure  of  India,  and  in  the 
order  named. 

The  government  of  the  Indian  princes 
has  been  an  absolutism  from  the  earliest 
ages.  Everything  has  conspired  to  make 
Absolutism  of  the  native  prince  a  des- 
^f tL°rdrn"'  pot,  and  to  perpetuate  the 
princes.  dcspotism   in    his    family. 

The  right  of  the  Indian  nabob  to  tax  his 
subjects  for  the  support  of  the  govern- 
ment and  to  supply  the  means  of  war 
rests  with  himself.  Any  part  of  the 
private  property  of  the  people,  from  one 
twelfth  to  one  fourth  of  the  same  he 
may  take  as  a  revenue,  without  responsi- 
bility. In  the  same  way  he  may  enlist 
his  subjects  into  the  army.  Custom  has 
prescribed  that  those  who  serve  in  war 
shall  be  recompensed  by  a  gift  of  land. 
In  former  times  only  the  K.shatriyas 
were  summoned  for  military  duty.  The 
other  castes  were  permitted  to  pursue 
the  vocations  of  peace  without  disturb- 
ance. 

As  to  the  methods  of  warfare,  they 
were  rude  and  traditional.  The  Indian 
Rude  methods  Weaponry  was  the  same  as 
ofwareie'-'"''  that  employed  by  all  half- 
phants.  barbarous  peoples.     Until 

modern  times  bows  and  arrows,  clubs, 
discuses,  spears,  swords,  shields,  and 
war  chariots  were  the  armor,  offensive 
and  defensive,  of  the  native  soldiery. 
These  were  never  entirely  supplanted 
until  the  establishment  of  the  British 
East  Indian  empire.  From  time  im- 
memorial the  elephant  has  been  used  in 
war.  It  may  be  frankly  confessed  that 
until  the  artillery  of  modern  times  was 
leveled  against  him  he  was  one  of  the 
most  formidable  engines  ever  seen  on  a 
battlefield.     From  the  days  of  Porus  to 


the  days  of  Nana  Sahib  the  enemy  had 
cause  to  look  with  dread  on  the  huge 
monster  as  he  raged  in  the  conflict,  bear- 
ing, as  in  a  tower,  his  company  of  sol- 
diers, and  bringing  down  his  tremen- 
dous trunk,  like  the  fall  of  a  Norway 
pine,  upon  half  a  legion  at  a  blow. 

All  the  conditions,  social,  civil,  and  re- 
ligious, in  the  Indian  countries  have  con- 
spired   to  engender  a    su-  superstitious 

perStitioUS    veneration     for   reverence  for 
^  princes  ana 

princes  and  rulers.  As  rulers, 
among  other  ancient  Oriental  peoples, 
the  king,  the  nabob,  is  regarded  as  half- 
divine.  He  is  the  representative  of  the 
unseen  powers,  and  is  responsible  to 
them  for  his  conduct.  He  is  their  equal 
and  companion,  and  his  right  to  rule  is 
■from  on  high.  Against  a  prince  thus 
hedged  about  with  that  divinity  which 
accompanies  kings,  insurrection  is  re- 
garded as  most  wicked  and  dangerous, 
and  the  puni-shment  of  disloyalty  is  al- 
ways to  the  uttermost. 

It  were  exceedingly  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  present  a  satisfactory  ex- 
hibit of  the  distribution  of  the  various 
races  in  India.  We  have  now  given  a 
sketch  of  some  of  the  leading  elements 
of  the  political,  social,  and  religious 
structure  of  the  country ;  but  much 
would  remain  if  an  accurate  delineation 
should  be  attempted  of  the  relations  and 
tendencies  of  the  various  parts  of  Indian 
society. 

The  Hindus,  to  whom  the  foregoing 
pages  have  been  devoted,  constitute  the 
leading  element,  the  most 

"  .  General  view  of 

widely   distributed    popula-    race  conditions 

tion  of  India.  Perhaps  a  '"  ^"^^ ' 
sketch  of  the  condition  of  affairs  in  Ben- 
gal may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the 
status  existing  in  all  the  provinces  and 
governments.  Within  this  country  there 
is  an  aggregation  of  peoples  of  diverse 
ethnic    origin,   speaking    different    Ian- 


-TYPES.— Diawn  by  Emlle  bayard. 


THE   IXDICAXS.—GO VERNMENT. 


741 


Aggregate  of 
subjects  under 
the  provincial 
government. 


guages.  They  represent  eras  of  devel- 
opment as  far  apart  as  the  earliest  ages 
of  history  and  the  present  day.  These 
diversities  exist  in  religious  thought  and 
practices,  in  political  ideas,  in  race  pro- 
clivities, and  in 
every  aspect  of  na- 
tionality. 

According  to  the 
census  of  1872  Ben- 
gal, which  then  in- 
cluded the  province 

of  As- 

s  a  m  , 

had  a 
population  of  sixty- 
six  million  eight 
hundred  and  fif- 
ty-six thousand 
eight  hundred  and 
fifty-nine,  being 
fully  equal  to  that 
of  the  entire  United 
States  at  the  present 
time.  We  thus  have 
the  remarkable  spec- 
tacle of  a  lieutenant 
governor  sent  out 
from  London,  a  dis- 
tance of  six  thou- 
sand miles,  to  pre- 
side over  a  conge- 
ries of  nations  far 
exceeding  the  entire 
population  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and 
Ireland !  The  ele- 
ments under  this  government — and  Ben- 
gal was  only  one  of  many  provinces  un- 
der British  dominion — were  so  diversified 
and  contradictory  as  to  make  a  govern- 
mental problem  which  no  nation  other 
than  England  would  have  had  the  polit- 
ical courage  to  undertake  or  the  skill  to 
solve. 


The  people  thus  aggregated  presented 
every  type  of  the  human  evolution,  from 
sheer  barbarism  and  the  grossest  forms 
of  supeTstition  to  a  high  degree  of  human 
enlightenment.     Educated  native  noble- 


GROUP   OF   HINDU    WEAPONS   OF   WAK. 


men  from  Bengal,  full  of  the  skeptical 
spirit  of  modern  times,  have  The  Hindus  pre- 
come  to  London  as  dip-  ^tLT^f^''"' 
lomats,  have  sat  in  the  evolution, 
clubs  of  that  metropolis,  and  delivered 
speeches  at  public  dinners  among  law- 
yers, bishops,  and  statesmen  as  skillful 
at  fence,  as  witty,  and  almost  as  schol- 


I 


THE  INDICANS.— ISOLATED   RACES. 


743 


ariy  as  they,  while  at  the  same  time 
barbarous  chieftains  of  their  own  race, 
in  their  own  country,  were  sacrificing 
idiots  and  paupers  on  hilltops  in  order 
to  make  sure  of  the  political  advantages 
which  the  noblemen  had  gone  to  Lon- 
don to  plead  for !  So  great  is  the  diversity 
of  development  among  the  Hindus. 

These  people,  viewed  as  a  whole,  are 
most  largely  descended  from  the  Aryan 
Linguistic  affin-  stock.  Their  languages 
flaturf/i^Sfe  ^rc  classical,  and,  strange 
British  rule.  to  Say,  are  more  nearly  in 
analogy  with  the  current  English  tongue 
than  are  the  Highland  dialects  of  Scot-- 
land  or  the  broken  speech  of  Wales! 
Of  the  sixty-.six  million  of  Bengalese, 
forty-two  and  a  half  million  are  classi- 


fied as  Hindus ;  and  of  the  remainder, 
about  twenty  and  a  half  million  are 
Alohammedans.  The  British  lieuten- 
ant governor  has  thus  under  his  sway 
in  the  single  province  of  Bengal  a  larger 
Mohammedan  population  than  that  ruled 
by  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  I  Besides  the 
two  great  peoples,  the  Hindus  and  the 
Islamites,  a  small  percentage  of  other 
Indian  races  is  diffused  throughout  the 
country,  and  to  this  must  be  added  the 
Europeans,  notably  the  English,  who 
have  sat  down  at  Calcutta  under  a  May 
and  June  temperature  of  one  hundred 
and  ten  degrees  F.  to  control  and 
direct  a  mass  of  nations  numerically  in 
excess  of  all  the  other  subjects  of  the 
queen. 


Chapter 


XLIII.— Isolated 
Aspects. 


Races— General 


T  remains  to  notice 
briefly  one  or  two  addi- 
tional Indian  families 
less  widely  known  than 
the  great  races  alreadj' 
described.  In  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  country, 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Hindu-Kush,'are 
the  Daradas,  or  Dards,  and  further  to 
the  west  another  people  called  the  Sijah- 
Posh.  The  latter  word  signifies  "  black 
coats,"  because  the  men  are  mostly  clad, 
as  to  their  outer  garments,  in  black 
hides.  To  these  people  the  Moham- 
medans give  the  name  of  Kaffirs,  or  In- 
fidels. It  is  believed  that  they  migrated 
into  India  from  Kandahar  in  Afghan- 
istan. 

We  have  among  these  extreme  races 
the  same  dialectical  differences,  the  same 
peculiarities,  which  belong  to  the  other 
branches  of  the    Indie   familv.      These 


m.ountaineers  are  larger  in  person  and 

of   finer   iDuild   than   are   the  people  of 

the  Punjab,    or  even  their 

Distributionaad 
old  kinsfolk  the    Afghans,  character  of 

rr^-i  1  1  •    1  .  1  •         the  Kaffirs. 

ihey  have  light  skm, 
blue  eyes,  and  blonde  hair.  They  are 
more  warlike  than  the  people  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges. 
They  have  an  extreme  aversion  to  the 
Mohammedans ;  and  it  is  one  of  the 
tests  of  good  citizenship  to  have  slain 
one  of  the  followers  of  the  Prophet, 
Whenever  this  feat  has  been  accom- 
plished the  slayer  henceforth  wears  a 
feather  in  commemoration  of  his  deed, 
and  allows  his  hair  to  grow  long. 

In  other  respects  the  Kaffirs  are  like 
the  Hindus.  They  offer  sacrifices  of 
cows  and  goats,  and  have  ceremonies 
and  feasts  in  honor  of  the  gods,  who  are 
both  male  and  female,  according  to  the 
Indian  theory.     Like  the  greater  races. 


\ 


744 


GREAT  RACES   OE  MANKIND. 


they  venerate  the  souls  of  their  ances- 
tors. Amiisements  are  popular,  and 
music  and  dancing  are  cultivated  to  a 
high  degree. 

Perhaps  after  dispersed  Israel,  the 
Gypsies  are  the  most  remarkable  people 
Anomalous  in  the  World  in  their  dis- 

TnThVetw^'^^  tribution  into  foreign  lands, 
scheme.  Their     name      has     been 

given    to  them   by  other  peoples,    who 


habit  of  life  has  carried  them  into  all 
quarters  of  the  globe.  Their  dispersion 
among  the  Western  nations  began  with 
the  fourteenth  century,  and  has  extended 
to  the  present  time. 

It  is  believed  that  the  Gypsies  were 
originally  of  the  Pariah,  or  Sudra,  caste , 
that  is,  the  lowest  order  of  Indian  soci- 
ety. Their  dialects  have  certainly  been 
derived  from  Hindustani,  but  each  tribe 


AGRICULTURAL  LIFK  IN  INDIA.— Ghaddis  Cl-ltivators.— Drawn  by  E.  Zier,  from  a  photograph  by  E.  Bo 


have  supposed  them  to  be  of  Egvptian 
origin.  They  do  not  call  themselves 
Gypsies,  but  Rovi,  or  Romany.  The  ver- 
nacular Siutc  is  always  employed  by 
them  as  their  own  ethnic  epithet,  and 
in  this  it  is  easy  to  perceive  the  word 
Sindh.  Doubtless  the  original  seat  of 
the  Gypsies  was  in  the  valley  of  the 
Lower  Indus,  whence   their   migratory 


of  Gypsies  has  adopted  parts  of  the  vo- 
cabulary and  even  of  the  grammatical 
structure  of  the  languages  The  race  orig- 
spoken  in  the  countries  of  ^"^^it'oVsudra, 
their  sojourn.  Perhaps  no  class  of  Hindus. 
people  in  the  world  have  to  a  like  degree 
incorporated  into  their  own  speech  so 
much  of  other  languages ;  and  the  incor- 
porated parts  remain  without  assimila- 


THE  INDICANS.— ISOLATED   RACES. 


745 


tion.  Leland,  in  his  work  on  the  Eng- 
lish Gypsies  and  Their  Language,  has 
given  examples  of  the  mongrel  speech 
employed  by  these  wanderers.  The 
following  two  proverbs  will  suffice  to 
illustrate  the  gross  deterioration  of  the 
Gypsy  tongue : 

"  A   cloudy  sala  often    purabens  to  a    fi)io 

"  A    cloudy  morning  often    changes     to  a    fine 

dhnncs." 
day." 

"  It's  sim  lo  a  choomer,  kiishti  for  kek  till 

"It's    like        a  kiss,  good     for   nothing  until 

it's    pordired atwt't'ji    diti." 
it  is  divided     between  two." 

By  some  Gypsy  tribes  their  own  lan- 
guage has  been  better   preserved,  and 
few  traces  of  the  speech  of  the  country 
in    which    they  chance    to 

Features  of  the  _  .  ■^ 

Gypsy  language  be  sojourning  can  be  found 
illustrated.  •         ^i      • 

m  their  current  expres- 
sions. The  following  paragraph  from  a 
Welsh  Gypsy  story  will  illustrate  the 
character  of  the  speech  when  free  from 
English  admixture : 

'•  Yeker  a  doi  ses       bearengaro   ta     vaver  store 
"  Once     there  were    (a)  sailor       and  other    four 

mors/i  ;  yek  ses    peltanengaro,  ta    ow  vm'er    ses 
men;      one  was  (a)  blacksmith, and  the  other     was 

kora»iangaro,  ta     sivamangaro,  to     pallano  ses 
(a)  soldier,         and  (a)  tailor,  and  the  last    was 

kirchimackaro.       Ow     bearengaro     potchedas  e 
(an)  innkeeper.       The   sailor  asked  the 

peltanengaro  te  vel  apra  ow  doreav.  Ow  pelta- 
blacksmith      to  come  on      the  sea.  The  black- 

7iengaro  pendas, '  Nan  shorn  ie  fa  te  kerra  boottee.' 
smith      said,       '  No  (I)  am     to  go  to  do        work.' 

'  So       se  tero  boottee  ?'      '  Te  tasarra    sastarn' 

'  What  is    thy    work  ? '         '  To  heat  iron,' 

chotchy  ow  peltanengaro,  '  ta  te  kerravles  utidra 
quoth     the  blacksmith,       'and  to  make  it      into 

chichaw   grengey.'  " 
shoes         for  horses.' " 

The  ethnic  classification  of  the  Gypsies 
was  long  a  puzzling  question.  The  most 
skillful  scholars  were  at  fault  in  attempt- 

M.— Vol.  1—48 


ing  to  fix  their  place.  Here  again,  how- 
ever, language  furnishes  the  clue.  The 
course  of  the  Gypsies  on  Language  far- 
their  way  to  Europe  and  t^Z^^l^lT 
the  West  can  be  accurately  ^'o^i- 
traced  b)'  the  admixture  of  foreign  words 
which  they  have  brought  along  with 
them.  The  oldest  element  thus  incor- 
porated with  the  Gypsy  language  is  Per- 
sian ;  after  that,  Armenian,  and  so  on  to 
the  West.  Doubtless  a  few  bands  of  this 
vagrant  people  have  come  into  Europe 
from  Egypt,  but  their  sojourn  in  that 
country  must  have  been  brief,  for  no 
tribe  has  been  found  speaking  a  language 
in  which  there  were  traces  of  Arabic,  as 
would  have  been  the  case  if  they  had 
tarried  long  in  Egypt  or  other  parts  of 
Xorthern  Africa. 

Much  investigation  has  been  given  to 
the  Gypsies  as  a  people.  Traces  of  them 
have  been  found  west  of  the  Bosphorus 
as  early  as  the  ninth  cen-  Apparition  of 
tury,  but  their  presence  in  S^/llTr '" 
Europe  is  uncertain  until  America, 
the  year  1346,  when  Catharine  of  Valois 
granted  to  the  chiefs  of  Corfu  the  right 
to  reduce  to  serfdom  certain  Homines 
Vageniti,  or  vagrants,  who  liad  come  into 
the  country.  This  same  people  pitched 
its  tents  along  the  Danube  as  early  as 
1417.  In  1422  it  was  estimated  that  four- 
teen thousand  of  them  had  reached  Italy. 
In  August,  1427,  a  band  numbering  a 
hundred  and  twenty  came  to  Paris, 
representing  themselves  as  fugitives 
from  the  Saracens  in  Eg}'pt.  It  is 
doubtless  from  this  circumstance  that 
the  name  Gypsy  has  been  applied  to  the 
race.  In  1530  they  had  become  so  numer- 
ous in  England  that  Henry  VIII  issued  a 
proclamation  against  them.  In  nearly 
every  country  of  Western  Europe  stat- 
utes were  enacted  to  prevent  the  incom- 
ing of  Gypsies  and  to  expel  those  who 
already  arrived. 


740 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIXD. 


At  the  present  time  it  is  estimated 
that  Europe  contains  about  seven  hun- 
Deveiopment  of   dred  thousand  of  this  race. 

Eufope'and"'"    '^^'"^V  ^^''^^'6  m^de  their  way 
America.  into    the    two     Americas, 

into  the  islands  of  the  sea,  into  Au.stra- 
Ha.     Everywhere  their  character  is  the 


thie'v'iiig  char- 
acter of  the 
race. 


Hindu.  The  complexion  is  tawny; 
eyes  black,  glancing  quickly  to  right  and 
left,  black  hair,  cheek  bones  high  and 
prominent,  lower  jaw  slightly  project- 
ing, mouth  small,  and  teeth  white  and 
even.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  among 
Gypsy  women  and  girls  figures  and  fea- 
tures that  would  be  consid- 
ered beautiful  by  the  most 
critical  judgment  of  West- 
ern peoples. 

.The     character    of     the 
Gypsy   race   is  bad    in  the 

last        degree.    Mendicant  and 

Both     men 
and      women 

are  usually  degraded.  It 
is  not,  however,  charged 
that  they  have  licentious 
habits.  They  are  addicted 
to  every  sharp  practice  by 
which  rogues  and  thieves 
obtain  property  that  is  not 
their  own.  They  are  con- 
scienceless, and  are  un- 
acquainted with  religious 
obligation.  It  has  been  de- 
clared by  some  scholars  in 
language  that  there  is  no 
Gypsy  word  for  soul  or  im- 
mortality or  God.  They 
pretend  to  the  fortune  tell- 
er's lore  and  to  skill  in 
palmistry,  and  to  every 
other  species  of 
from  card-playing 
black    art    of    the 


magic, 
to  the 
Middle 


BENJARI    GYPSIES — TYPES. 
Drawn  by  A.  de  Neuville,  from  a  photograph. 

same.  The  form,  the  features,  the  man- 
ner of  life  and  character  of  the  Gypsies 
are  repeated  in  all  places  where  their 
tents  or  huts  are  found.  The  physiog- 
nomy is  plainly  Asiatic.  The  Gypsy 
face  is  the  best  representation  to  be  seen 
west  of  the  Atlantic  of  the  face  of  the 


Ages. 


Fixedness  is  the  great  cen- 
tral fact  in  the  constitution  of  India.  All 
of  the  races  inhabiting  that  vast  country 
or  emanating  therefrom  be- 

,.-,..  ,    Fixedness  the 

tray  in    their   beliefs    and  central  fact  in 

,.  ,1  ,.  T  Hindu  life. 

practices  the  unaltered  con- 
ditions of  a  former  life.  While  the  West- 
ern Aryans,   as  we  shall  see  hereafter, 


748 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


have  been  almost  infinitely  inflected  in 
their  development,  the  Indie  branch  of 
the  race  fell  at  an  early  age  into  estab- 
lished forms,  to  amend  or  alter  which 
has  been  regarded  as  innovation  and 
sacrilege. 

In  this  respect  India  may  be  ranked 
with  the  Egypt  that  was  and  the  China 
that  is.  Doubtless  the  Hamites  in  an- 
Comparisons        cicnt  Egyptian  society  were 

with  the  Ham-  ^j,.^j    -^^    ^    given   SO- 

Ites  and  the  * 

Chinese.  eiul  Structure,  less  subject 

to  fluctuation  and  evolution  into  new 
forms,  than  are  the  Indie  races  of  to-day. 
The  Chinese  also,  who  change  not  at  all 
from  generation  to  generation,  who  re- 
gard all  movement  or  progress  from  the 
old  and  approved  constitution  of  things 
as  a  iiseless  and  dangerous  departure 
from  the  best  attainable  standard,  are 
doubtless  an  intenscr  form  of  social  com- 
pleteness and  conservatism  than  are  the 
Hindus.  But  as  compared  with  the 
flexibility  and  progressive  tendencies  of 
all  the  Western  peoples  the  nations  of 
India  are  in  the  strongest  contrast. 

It  is  impossible  now  to  tell  for  how 
long  a  time  even  the  details  of  every- 
Preservation  day  life,  the  circumstances 
dress'andrT-*  ^^  manners  and  dress,  the 
eaiia.  rules    of     caste,    and    the 

laws  of  social  propriety  have  remained 
unaltered.  The  styles  of  personal  adorn- 
ment described  in  the  oldest  records  of 
the  race  are  still  patterned  and  repeated 
by  the  Indian  jewelers.  The  ornament 
has  been  immemorially  regulated  by 
rank.  Even  wealth  and  profusion  have 
not  been  able  to  pass  the  prescribed  lim- 
its of  form.  The  law  books  of  Manu 
fixed  the  limits  and  the  details  of  caste 
and  determined  the  paraphernalia  of 
each.  All  descendants  of  Ar^'ans  should 
wear  the  sacred  cord  around  the  person. 
The  cord  must  pass  over  the  left  and 
under  the  right  shoulder,  and  be  placed 


there  when  the  wearer  was  initiated  into 
his  caste.  The  cord  of  the  Brahman 
should  be  composed  of  three  cotton 
threads.  The  Kshatriyas,  or  warrior 
caste,  had  also  a  threefold  cord,  but  the 
strands  were  of  hemp ;  and  that  of  the 
Vaisyas  was  made  of  triple  strands  of 
wool . 

Custom  having  once  determned  the 
symbol,  it  must  remain  unaltered  age 
after  age.     The  Brahman's 

.  Usage  of  f  he 

belt  must  be  made  of  sugar  belt;  clothing 

H,  , .,        of  the  Sudras. 

e  must  wear  the 

.skin  of  the  gazelle.  His  staff  must  be 
of  bamboo  and  reach  to  the  top  of  his- 
head  from  the  ground.  The  .soldier's 
belt  must  be  made  of  bowstrings.  His 
garment  must  be  a  deenskin,  and  his 
bamboo  staff  must  reach  no  higher  than 
the  forehead.  The  belt  of  the  \'ais}-a 
must  be  made  of  hemp.  His  garment 
mu.st  be  a  sheepskin,  and  his  fig-tree 
staff,  cut  from  an  unpeeled  branch,  must 
reach  only  to  his  nose.  Let  none  violate 
these  things,  for  they  are  a  part  of  the 
usage  and  the  law  of  the  land.  Opin- 
ions must  not  change,  neither  must  the 
outer  forms  of  society.  True  enough, 
the  Sudras  may  clothe  themselves  as 
they  will,  for  they  are  no  true  caste,  but 
only  a  residuum,  a  melange,  left  on  the 
soil  after  the  three  major  castes  have 
been  determined  and  defined.  These 
things  are  necessary  that  the  purity  of 
the  dominant  races  may  be  preserved. 
Change  will  lead  to  confusion,  corrup- 
tion of  blood,  deterioration  of  manners, 
destruction  of  race  character,  national 
shame. 

Life   is  growth.     It  is  as  truly  .so  of 
the  tribe  as  it  is  of  the  individual ;   of 
the  nation  as  of  the  tribe  ;   Race  life,  once 
of  the  race  as  of  the  nation.  %7„","j  '"^^ 
The    part  of    the    human  atrophy. 
body  which  is  not  used,  which  does  not 
expand  and  grow  by  the  addition  of  new 


THE  IND/CANS.— GENERAL   ASPECTS. 


749 


elements,  the  substitution  of  living  tis- 
sue for  that  which  is  broken  down  and 
expelled,  will  suffer  atrophy.  It  will 
cease  to  act.  It  may  not  possibly  decay. 
It  may  even  retain  a  certain  circulation 
of  the  blood  and  a  sort  of  nervous  vital- 
ity, but  in  other  respects  it  is  dead. 
The  same  is  true  of  national  life,  and 
even  of  the  institutional  forms  of  so- 
ciety. They  must  progress  or  fall  into 
a  shriveled  and  useless  condition,  unfitted 
for  the  altered  relations  under  which  they 
pass  by  lapse  of  time  and  change  of  cir- 
cumstance. 

India  thus  presents  to  the  modern  in- 
quirer a  fixed  surface.      There   is  less 
perspective  in  Indian  society  than  in  al- 
most any  other  of  the  world.     This  is  to 
say  that  the  existing  form 

Lack  of  perspeo- 

tive  in  Hindu  has  the  Same  character  that 
society.  j^  j^^^  ages   ago.     In  any 

Western  state,  if  a  cross  section  be  made 
of  society  as  it  now  exists,  such  section 
will  present  phenomena  wholly  different 
from  what  we  would  have  discovered  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  latter  in 
turn  would  be  equally  distinct  from  the 
aspects  discovered  in  the  sixth  century. 
The  art  of  China  is  said  to  have  no  per- 
spective. The  Chinese  drawings  and 
paintings  are  all  made  as  though  the  ob- 
jects delineated  had  been  viewed  from 
above  instead  of  horizontally.  The  insti- 
tutions of  India  have  this  fixed  expres- 
sion. They  are  as  if  sketched  from 
above,  and  the  forms  of  things  have  no 
converging  lines  behind  them. 

Since    the     beginning    of    European 
ascendency  in  India,   however,  the  im- 
pact of  Western  influence 

Western  influ-  .  . 

ence  begins  to      upou    the    crystalizcd    m- 

pre  vail  In  India.        .-.     .■  jr      ii  ^ 

stitutions  of  the  country 
have  scattered  the  germs  of  change. 
There  is  a  slight  relaxation  even  of 
caste.  The  Brahmans  themselves  have 
separated   somewhat    into    higher    and 


lower  orders,  and  in  some  instances 
have  engaged  in  secular  employments. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  find  a  Brahman  in 
the  military  service  of  the  empire,  and 


THE  I'ARIAH   DJONGAL  OF   SARGUJA — TYPE. 
Drawn  by  Emile  Bayard. 

in  some  parts  of  the  country  what  arc 
known  as  "  plow  Brahmans,"  or  agricul- 
turists, are  found.  Though  engaged  in 
the  pursuits  of  the  field  and  garden, 
these  members  of  the  Brahmanical  order 


750 


GREAT  RACES   OF  MAXKIXD. 


toward  the 
neglect  of  caste 
distinction. 


still  hold  fast  to  their  old  distinctions, 
wear  the  Brahman's  thread,  and  claim 
and  receive  recognition  as  belonging  to 
the  highest  caste. 

The  subsidence  of  the  Kshatriyas,  or 
at  least  the  subsiding  tendency  among 
them  into  industrial  pursuits,  is  .still  more 
Tendency  marked.     It  can  hardly  be 

said  that  the  Pariahs  are 
now  a  caste  separate  from 
the  vSudras.  They  are  rather  a  lower 
class  of  Sudras  than  a  distinct  division. 
These  changes,  noticeable  by  the  close 
observer  in  recent  times,  are  exceedingly 
slow,  and  are  made  against  the  whole 
force  of  the  existing  order;  but  they 
foretoken  an  ultimate  regeneration  of 
the  social  order  and  institutions  of  the 
East. 

We  have  now  completed  the  intended 
sketch  of  the  Eastern  divisions  of  the 
General  view  of  Aryan  racc.  In  a  former 
p^:s?n''s\"ge°of  ^ook  we  followed  the 
the  inquiry.  migrations  of   these  great 

and  pojjulous  nations  from  their  old  seats 
east  of  the  Caspian  into  the  regions  of 
their  subsequent  occupancy  and  devel- 
opment.    In  the  present  book  we  have 


noted  the  past  and  current  aspects 
which  the  various  nations  springing 
from  the  primitive  stock  have  presented 
in  ancient  and  modern  times.  The 
object  has  been  to  give  to  the  reader  an 
accurate  general  notion  of  the  ethnic 
character  of  these  peoples.  Geograph- 
ically, we  have  found  them  distributed 
from  the  Iranian  Ossetes  along  the 
northern  spurs  of  the  Caucasus,  in  lati- 
tude forty-five  degrees  north  and  longi- 
tude forty-five  degrees  east  from  Green- 
wich,  to  the  inhabitants  of  British  Bur 
mah,  in  latitude  ten  degrees  north  and 
longitude  one  hundred  and  two  degrees 
east.  Within  the.se  extremes  are  dis- 
tributed some  of  the  most  populous 
nations  on  the  globe ;  and  if  the  civiliza- 
tions of  these  peoples  do  not  present  to 
the  inquirer  of  to-day  so  promising  and 
inspiring  a  view  as  the  more  vigorous 
and  expanding  developments  in  Western 
nations,  there  is,  nevertheless,  a  per- 
petual fund  of  interest  and  a  limitless 
revenue  of  information  to  be  found 
among  the  races  and  institutions  of  the 
old  Iranian  plateau  and  the  teeming 
valleys  of  India. 


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